Chris Jarvis 1
Motivation,Incentive &Performance
Chris Jarvis 2
Motivation – Some components
Inclination – what I feel I want to do – active/passive, conscious/sub-conscious
Direction – what I am trying to do
Action – what I do do
Effort – how hard I try
Persistence – how long I keep trying
How we construe expectations, needs, drives, efforts and results (actual & 'rationalised'/felt) - self & others
The employment concerns? How to "motivate people to give their all" Effort, performance, retention, loyalty, membership, commitment, trust,
empowerment, participation, work design Extrinsic & intrinsic rewards Expectancy & equity Rhetoric vs. reality of management practice Self-awareness & delusion – "Mirror, mirror on the wall". Motivation & "normal" behaviour vs. the well-motivated criminal.
Chris Jarvis 3
Who wants what from motivation?
The person Health & well-being, safety/order, social affiliation/acceptance,
recognition & rewards (extrinsic/intrinsic, stimulus & incentive. Feelings of self-worth/value, command of destiny, realisation of personal aspirations/expectations. Equity. Power. Affiliation
The employer Trusted, reliable employees who give their all, Ability to construe employee motivation, needs & drives + relate to:
effort, economic efficiency, performance, retention, loyalty & commitment, membership culture, empowerment, obligation-duty, participation & contribution, work design, better teams
Others Interpersonal confidence, liking and rapport, mutual confidence
and collaboration, shared values, not to be let down.
What is the problem?
Chris Jarvis 4
Idiosyncrasies and patterns
Idiosyncracies & perceptions of work, personal position and entitlements
Individual differences - the unique self - my construction
Common patterns of cognition, behaviour, attitude
Group and cultural influences
Me - myself, you ……
"you scheming, conniving, persistent, grabbing, selfish, resentful person ….. you …. and ….. you are a capitalist to boot...... one of 'them' .….. a typical Lilliputian ...... I've read all about you in Cosmopolitan."
Chris Jarvis 5
Pay-offs in the Employer-Employee Relationship (after Mumford 1972)
Task structure Work within firm’s policy, procedure & technical constraints. Job roles, work arrangements & relationships
Knowledge & skill Employer wants know-how, competence, experience. Employee wants to be put to good use & be developed
PsychologicalManagement & co-workers want committed, loyal, motivated staff. Individual wants satisfaction
Efficiency/rewards Employer wants performance & output to a quality standard. Employee wants equitable, felt-fair rewards & opportunity
EthicalValues & ambiguities/inconsistencies in right/wrong behaviour
Chris Jarvis 6
Evaluate the following propositions:
Good pay helps to diminish problems of high absenteeism.
The buzz of high morale & emphasis on teamwork means that there is moral pressure not to let workmates down. This is reinforced by prominently displaying costs of absenteeism discussing reasons for absence with absentees saying how fellow team members are hurt by absenteeism.
There is no direct way motivation can be measured. Indicators can be obtained thru observation, conversation and the stories people tell attitude surveys productivity data absenteeism, retention moans & gripes analysis of performance reviews
Chris Jarvis 7
Role modelling theory – Maier 1959
Role ambiguity may result from uncertainty about How one's work is evaluated Scope for advancement Scope of responsibility Others expectations of one's performance
It can cause Insecurity, lack of confidence,tension, irritation and even anger amongst
members of a role set These will be communicated more often than satisfaction / feelings of being
well motivated. Natural critical/evaluative tendencies, blaming others, disgruntlement
Also consider role underload/overload capacity & stress demands, choices & constraints conflict & ambiguity
Chris Jarvis 8
Examination Question
Evaluate the truth of the following proposition. How well does it point the way to robust, theoretically sound principles that guide our understanding of employee motivation?
Proposition
"The acquisition and development of employee skills through sophisticated and systematic selection, induction, training and appraisal has a positive impact on quality & productivity. It will lead to better motivation within the company"
Chris Jarvis 9
Would I really work for you without reward?
fundamental to employee contract
traditional economic exchange model. Pay-effort determinism
"rate for the job" occupational norms, expectations and choices
expediency - "suitable for my life package at the moment"
Etzioni & organisational membership Systems employers use
Coercive - Remunerative - Normative
Employee responsesAlienated - Instrumental - Moral involvement
Chris Jarvis 10
The person-as-economist expects........
ROI - time, effort, commitment
"What's in it for me?" calculation Conscious subconscious (self image and comparisons)
Fairness (equitable socio-economic exchange) interpret rewards/pay-offs of others
judge what is fair/unfair
satisfaction if each party achieves a balance (relative equality)
Psychological extension to neutral, economic model Construing the value & importance of input-output
Social, psychological - individual & group
Validation of personal perceptions & comparisons clear/distorted
internal/external
Chris Jarvis 11
Design Features of Reward Systems
Monetary
Time-based (not directly related to performance)
Performance-linkedOutput, %, PRP, merit pay, commission, skill-basedcollective-output schemes Corporate performance-related bonuses + profit sharing
Monetary-equivalent
Car, phone, holidays, loans, accommodation, fees, vouchers
Deferred (promotion, pension)
Non-monetary / intrinsic benefits - safety, status, recognition, plaques, contribution and empowerment
Negatives pressure, penalties, harassment, side-lining, dismissal
Chris Jarvis 12
Pay by time schemes - Components
simple to administer
defined time – F/T, P/T, mixed-time, casual
no attendance, no pay? Hourly, weekly, monthly
premiums – 1.5T, 2T, nights
Flexi-time schemes
“Door knob syndrome”
job grading/evaluation - evaluate the job not the person doing it
control mechanisms & tools – clocks, supervision, time sheets?
performance assumptions
trust, competence, diligence, fidelity, care, good-will, cooperation
work for Er in Er time ……vs ……...in your time?
supervision & monitoring - “When the cats away”?
Is actual presence necessary? Off-site working.
life increments - pay & career progression, security?
Chris Jarvis 13
PRP, merit pay, skill-based schemes
Requires
targeting, information & measurement
manager appraisal & judgement
problems of "big scheme" rules and controls
Pay linked to
individual merit (behaviours, traits & competencies: flexibility, cooperation, punctuality, effort, skills/abilities).
concrete individual or group targets
Staff appraisal criteria, rating, and exchange/intervention process
Chris Jarvis 14
Performance-Related Pay (PRP)
extensive but partial & sectoral
little research data on effectiveness
pay linked to specific aspect of performance intensity of MbO approach problem of defining the group + outputs what if key results not achieved? how is control and consistency achieved? fairness + validation of "the manager's judgment" merit pay or bonus addition to salary for this appraisal
round only?
The neurosis of "targetitis"
"Fat cat bonuses" – envy + "global market for stars" + formulae + intervention?
Chris Jarvis 15
Defining jobs
how can a manager operate effectively if he/she does not understand & cannot define staff jobs?
shared understanding about what the job is
reliable, factual definition of scope of job & responsibilities
useful for organisational design & analysis of change?
help to clarify role & provide a reference point for induction, recruitment, performance assessment & grading?
a basis for the job advert & recruitment literature?
indicates competence required - generic + job specific
confining, time consuming, out-of-date in a flexible organisation
Contractual?"Job descriptions - - Burn the lot of 'em" Robert Townsend, Up the Organisation"Job descriptions - - Burn the lot of 'em" Robert Townsend, Up the Organisation
Chris Jarvis 16
Job definition elements
Job definition
Title, reporting relationships (up, down, sideways, external)
job summary, responsibilities, duties, scope of authority
MbO/R: key result areas, yardsticks of performance, evaluation data
contractual provisions
Competence specification
levels, range of situations, performance indicators, knowledge/wisdom, experience, skills (psycho-motor, technical, analytical, literary, spoken, numeric, social & emotional)
The competences this organisation values
Role & performance analysis
Personnel specification (person profile)
characteristics of ideal candidate
Essentials - desirables - disqualifiers. Motivators
Psychometric-objective selection - fit person to job
Biodata, interviews, various tests, references
Chris Jarvis 17
MbO Record
Name Job/Role Date
Key Job Area
Objective/Target to be Achieved
Data for
Monitoring
Training/Learning Needs
1.
2.
3.
4.
Progress Review Dates
Notes on Achievements/Progress
Signed: (Post-holder)Signed: (Post-holder) Signed: (Manager)Signed: (Manager)
Chris Jarvis 18
Emotional & social dynamics & expectations
Important for employee belief & commitment
Impact of rules-of the-scheme (formal contract) on individual sensitivity (psychological contract). personal expectations
+ formal/informal exchange Er Ee
my manager as employer (by proxy) as a person I like/dislike, respect?
How I "see" what others are getting - internally & externally
Chris Jarvis 19
Organisational "Culture" Problems
conscious calculation & instrumentality?
Take-it or leave it + "9-5" sub-optimisation
rangible over non-tangible rewards
organisational rationalisation of effort-reward relationship
structural inflexibility of reward packages
constructing & controlling the performance review and PRP system
genuine involvement & participation
delegation, reliance & confidence
Chris Jarvis 20
How well has work-motivation theory dealt with this?
Maslow, Alderfer, McClelland - Herzberg - hygiene & motivators, job redesign
Concern with individual needs/goals
emphasis on what motivates
general, universal
Needs & satisfactions
Content (What it is & its elements)
Maslow, Alderfer, McClelland - Herzberg - hygiene & motivators, job redesign
Concern with individual needs/goals
emphasis on what motivates
general, universal
Needs & satisfactions
Content (What it is & its elements)
Attribution theory
Adams - Equity theory
Vroom, Lawler - Expectancy theory
Hackman & Oldham - job characteristics
McGregor: Theory X and Theory Y
"on managing …. this approach is better"
dynamic, emphasis on process - how it occurs
prescriptive responses
Process
Attribution theory
Adams - Equity theory
Vroom, Lawler - Expectancy theory
Hackman & Oldham - job characteristics
McGregor: Theory X and Theory Y
"on managing …. this approach is better"
dynamic, emphasis on process - how it occurs
prescriptive responses
Process
Behavioural
Focus on behaviour
Responses to stimuli - external
Avoidance learning & punishment
reinforcement & behaviour modification theory (operant conditioning)
Behavioural
Focus on behaviour
Responses to stimuli - external
Avoidance learning & punishment
reinforcement & behaviour modification theory (operant conditioning)
Cognitive
Consciousness/rationality
Goals & behaviour e.g. Locke - goal setting
Known & calculable
e.g. homo economicus
Learning
Cognitive
Consciousness/rationality
Goals & behaviour e.g. Locke - goal setting
Known & calculable
e.g. homo economicus
Learning
Chris Jarvis 21
Abraham Maslow 1954 - Need Satisfaction
Needs
Behaviour/Action
Goals
achievedrive
satisfy
teleologygoal-orientation
Chris Jarvis 22
Abraham Maslow - Hierarchy of Needs
Influential
Content of motivation (needs that motivate) theory - not personality
Classified needs lower needs must be satisfied
before higher needs are activated Chronic need deficiency
(neurosis?) motivations action gratified needs - equilibrium
snakes and ladders or
lower needs mediated by higher order consciousness?
simple descriptive, partial
nb: Alderfer ERG - existence, relatedness, growth)
cognitive & developmental
Chris Jarvis 23
What is Self Actualisation?
difficult to define
uniquely human motive?
a way of life > a goal.
not a need but on-going growth/development process.
Example characteristics accurate perception of reality.
accept selves & others.
spontaneous, open & natural
problem centred > self centred
pacific calm, serene in nasty situations.
don’t take things for granted.
peak experiences.
affection & regard for others
capable of deep satisfying relationships
democratic, ethical
creative, sense of humour.
independent of enculturisation
Example characteristics accurate perception of reality.
accept selves & others.
spontaneous, open & natural
problem centred > self centred
pacific calm, serene in nasty situations.
don’t take things for granted.
peak experiences.
affection & regard for others
capable of deep satisfying relationships
democratic, ethical
creative, sense of humour.
independent of enculturisation
Becoming Self-Actualised?
Be willing to change.
Take responsibility.
Examine your motives.
Experience honestly & directly.
Use positive experiences.
Be prepared to be different.
Becoming Self-Actualised?
Be willing to change.
Take responsibility.
Examine your motives.
Experience honestly & directly.
Use positive experiences.
Be prepared to be different.
Chris Jarvis 24
Self-actualised? Human… like everyone else…..
displays frailty & failings, ups & downs.
emotional, critical attitudes towards others
urge to decide for themselves
may say "NO" & be unpredictable - own destiny.
wants reasons without always wishing to conform.
accepts need for conformity most of the time to serve their interests
avoids being selfish & ego-centred (denying space to others).
Chris Jarvis 26
Critique of Maslow
simple, plausible, general
useful descriptive value?
fudgey, vague, naïve, nice but untestable concepts
hydraulic assumption : satisfy needs to boost bigger & better "motivated" tendencies
pressures on people to Limit scope for self-actualisation
Be self-actualised (self-development movement)
can’t predict behaviour in given situations.
self actualisation : a positive, attractive, humanist concept
We would all like to see ourselves as self-actualised.
Chris Jarvis 27
Eric Trist - what people want from their jobs
Reasonably demanding work with some variety
Opportunity to learn
Some decision making
Social support and recognition
Significance & meaning
Some desirable future
Job design principles
At the level of the individual
Respect
Contribution to product
Quantity & quality - feedback results quickly
Meaningful whole task
A whole job - plan, do, evaluate
Variety
Optimum cycle times
At the level of the group?
Whole, meaningful task
Set standards, feedback on results
Ways of discussing jobs
Attractive future possibilities
Chris Jarvis 28
Work restructuring
Workgroup
empowerment
job enrichment as enlargement
role of supervisor
rewardsystems
role of servicefunctions?
informationsystems
technology
consultation unionisation?
managementstyle organisation
structure
organisation culture
membershipcommitments
out sourcingplace
matrix
Core - peripheral
Chris Jarvis 29
Job restructuring
TasksAdd new & different tasksIncrease cycle timeAdd ancillary & preparatory tasks
Work organisationJob enrichmentEmpowermentOwn work methodPlanning/organisingProblem-solvingGoal settingFlexible pace and hoursFlexible locationInformation feedback
OpportunitiesFlexible rewardsFurther skills/learningChallengeSelf supervisionNetworking
Work/job attributesWork varietyUse of skills/abilitiesMeaningful/worthwhileContributionAdvancement prospectsAccountability & responsibilityDiscretion & decisionsAutonomy
ImplicationsBenefitsDisadvantagesOutsourcing?Call centres?Virtual teams?Teleworking?Social impact
Chris Jarvis 30
Expectancy theory (the process of motivation)
Motivated to perform because of expectations relating to perceived payoffs from the performance. ______Desirability of payoffs (valence), perception of expectancy + force of expression - intrinsic to the person.______Personal view of what is challenging or interesting, important to self + valuation of extrinsic payoffs - pay & material rewards
•expectancy - If I tried could I do it? Get away with it?
• Instrumentality - if I did it will I attain the outcome?
•valence (subjective valuation) - do I really value what's available?
Expressed as probabilities. Path-goal relationships which “explain” motivation performance.
assoc.. with Vroom & Lawler/Porter
Chris Jarvis 31
Expectancy Theory - Vroom et al
valence
A robust explanatory, predictive model?How the individual construes it all?
Chris Jarvis 32
Adams & Equity - an impossible ideal?
“Felt-fairness” - how I am treated in relation to others
Equity balance sheet & "the last straw” "What you gain on the swings….." Trust/good-will
“No more … that’s it for me!”
Internal & external comparisons (groups & individuals)
Feelings & perceptions - not synonymous with equality
Proposition… better motivated if treated equitably & consistently distributive equity
how I perceive I am treated & rewarded in comparison to others
procedural equityhow I see organisational procedures being applied
Chris Jarvis 33
Equity and Justice
Distributive justicehow rewards are distributed in accordance with “my contribution” & need
what was promised.
Procedural equityhow reward decisions are made & managed adequate consideration of employee’s viewpoint
no personal bias
consistent application of criteria
early feedback on outcome of decisions
adequate explanation of decisions made
Chris Jarvis 34
Organisational initiatives
job design & flexibility - matching people to jobs
MbO - defining expectations and feedback
teams & semi-autonomous groups, empowerment
concern for staff development, competencies and accreditation
effort to refine & deliver “reward packages” that "motivate" - PRP
managerial behaviours
constant organisational vigilance & sensitivity
a rewarding, supportive climate and cultures that foster
confidence & identification (one-ness with the firm)
meaningful, practical commitment?
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