ROME
From Republic to Empire
A Surprising Beginning
Started as small village; eventually ruled world
Influenced by Greeks
Unprecedented unity, peace, prosperity
1,000 year reign
500 years = the Republic; 500 years = the Empire
A Legendary Beginning
According to legend, Romulus and Remus were twin sons of the war god, Mars. Abandoned at birth, the twins were raised by a she-wolf.
The boys grew up and decided to create a great city, but they arguedover where they should build it. Romulus killed his brother and named the new city, Rome, after himself.
Romulus founded the city of Rome in 753 B.C.
The Earliest Inhabitants
Prehistoric Italy
Culture developed slowly
Warlike invaders arrived about 1,000 B.C.
Spoke language related to “Italic”
Cremated dead; weapons, armor in tombs
High quality bronze-work (weapons, armor, tools)
Resilient People
Tough mountain people
Umbrians
Sabines
Samnites
Latins
Combined with Etruscans, Greeks, Celts
The Etruscans
Most powerful influence on Romans
Arose in Etruria (Tuscany): northern Italy
Origin unknown
Culture seen in tombs and art
Eastern influence? (Asia Minor); religious rituals similar
The Etruscans migrated to Italy and brought their art with them.
Etruscan Government
Self-governing settlements; fortified city-states
12 city-states formed loose, religious confederation
Ruled by kings at first
Agrarian aristocracy replaced king’s authority
Council of nobles elected magistrates annually
Etruscan Domination
Aristocracy skilled with horses, chariots
Military ruling class dominated, exploited Italians:
Farming, mining, infantry in Etruscan armies
Etruscans became wealthy:
Agriculture, industry, piracy, trade with Carthaginians, Greeks
An Etruscan House
Few Etruscan buildings have survived.
Etruscan Religion
Influenced Roman religion
Gloomy view
Gods, spirits: many evil
Relied on rituals, priesthood
Greek influence: gods in human form, temples
Etruscan Views of Women
Tombs mention names
of mother AND father More influential than Greek women
Women appeared in public with husbands
Festivals, banquets
Many were educated
Attended, took part in athletic contests
Etruscan sculpture
Notice the clothing and hair styles.
Etruscan art shows positive images of husbands and wives.
Expansion of Power
In Italy = Latium (included small village: Rome)
South = neighbors to Greeks in Naples
North to Po River Valley
Across sea to Corsica, Elba
Struggle for Control
Etruscan chieftains raided land
Not much unity
Etruscan power peaked before 500 B.C.; rapidly declined
Celtic people from Gaul invaded Po River Valley
Gaul = modern France; Celts drove out Etruscans
Etruscan “Memories”
Etruscan language forgotten
Etruscan culture assimilated into other cultures
Had lasting influence on Romans
Royal Rome
Focus on Rome
Located near Tiber River
Built on one of seven hills
Villages built, joined, made one big town
Prime location for:
Communication and trade
The Tiber River
The Tiber River at SunsetA Spectacular View
Rome was built on seven hills.
Avetino Hill
Aventino is a district in Rome, named after the hill that rises up near the Tiber river, and is one of the legendary seven hills of Rome.
From the top of this hill you'll get an amazing view of the entire city, and can see into three countries: Malta, Rome (Italy) and St. Peter's Basilica (Vatican City).
Palatine Hill
Palatine Hill at the Roman Forum: one of the seven hills of Rome.
According to legend, it was here that Romulus killed Remus so that the great city of Rome could be built .
Government
Latium
Sixth century B.C. = Rome came under Etruscan control.
Led by Etruscan kings
Roman army equipped, organized like Greek phalanx
The Early Days of Rome
Romulus = first king of Rome
Other kings conquered neighbors, expanded Rome
641-616 B.C. = first bridge across Tiber constructed
600 B.C. = Latin first written in script still used today
509 B.C. = Temple of Jupiter completed
The Temple of JupiterLocated in Rome
Birth of the Republic
Tarquinius founding the Temple of Jupiter
Tarquin kings controlled Rome, abused power
Tarquinius the Proud = last Tarquin king
Tyrant, hated by the people
509 B.C.: Lucius Junius Brutus drove Tarquinius out of Rome
Lucias Junius Brutus established the first republic
Lucius Junius Brutus
Drove out the last of the Tarquin kings
and established a republic in 509 B.C.
The Republican Government
Based on representation, not monarchy
Romans feared, hated idea of a SINGLE ruler
Senate = powerful, wealthy citizens
Senate chose two consuls each year
By 493 B.C., commoners had representatives(tribunes)
Imperium
Romans gave both consuls imperium
The right to issue commands
The right to enforce commands through:
Fines, arrest, punishment, death
Consulship
Two consuls elected each year
Roman Senate = approved candidates
Assembly of people =granted imperium
Consul’s Responsibilities
Commander of the army
Chief priest
Supreme judge
Consul’s Imperium
Make decisions in foreign affairs
Call out army
Lead army in battle
Impose discipline on troops
The Senate: Founded by Romulus
100 leading men; grew to 300
Met only when consul called senate into session
Advised the consuls
Senators served for life
Leaders were experienced, influential
Curiate Assembly: All Roman Citizens
Citizenship limited = Father, mother must be Romans
Divided into 30 groups = voted by group
Met only when summoned by a consul
Consul determined agenda, made proposals, recognized speakers
Assembly listened, gave approval
The Family
The Roman Father
Father = paterfamilias
Family’s chief priest, offers prayers
Authority like king
Type of imperium over his children
Could sell his children into slavery; power of life/death
The Roman Wife
Mother = materfamilias
Could not be sold or killed
Could not be divorced easily
Convicted only by court of male blood relatives
Wifely Duties
Control access to storerooms
Keep family accounts
Supervise slaves
Raise children
Part of family council(advice on family matters)
Women in Early Rome
Women in early Roman Society
Controlled by adult male
Before marriage: father
After marriage: husband
Other male guardian
Needed guardian’s approval to buy/sell land, make contracts
A Married Couple
What does this fresco suggest about this couple?
Manus = “hand”
Father transferred control of daughter to husband
Control could remain with father after marriage
Like “common law” marriage
Enabled daughter to keep inheritance after father died
Divorce
Rare, difficult to obtain
Limited to serious offenses
Wife retained dowry
Clientage
The Client
Entrusted self to person in a position to help
Client provided services in return for protection
The Patron
Usually wealthy land owner
Socially superior
More powerful than client
Client in the fides, or trust, of his patron
Duties of the Client
Fight for his patron
Work his land
Support him politically
Duties of the Patron
Physical, legal protection
Financial help:
Patron could give a land grant
Client worked patron’s land (tenant farmer, laborer)
Patron could give client handouts
Changes in the Patron-Client Relationship
Initially, patrons = rich, powerful ; clients = poor, weak
Changed:
Some rich became clients of powerful men
Client-patron relationship = hereditary
Client-patron families tied to each other
Patricians & Plebeians
Patricians
Aristocrats, wealthy upper class
Most power
Conducted state religious ceremonies
Sat in the Senate, held office
Patricians married patricians
Plebeians
Commoners, lower class
Poor, dependent small farmers
Laborers
Artisans
Clients of the nobility
Changes
Working families grew wealthy
Result: more rich plebeiansand poor patricians
Lack of equality; plebeians wanted equality
Fought for 200 years to gain equality
The Republic
The Roman Constitution
Unwritten laws
Largely based on tradition, custom
Consuls
Two elected consuls
Had to be patricians
Were given imperium
Duties of Consul
Lead the army
Religious duties
Serve as judges
Consuls treated like royalty
Symbols of royalty: purple robe + ivory chair
Had lictors
Minor officials, accompanied the consuls
Carried rods and axe, symbols of authority
Quaestor
Originally two quaestors
Assisted the consuls
Were financial officials
Eventually there were eight of them
Tetradrachm with a quaestor on it
On the front:
Aesillas the Quaestor
On the back:
Hercules club down in center, money chest to left, quaestor's chair to right, Q in right field, all within olive wreath
Consulship
Served for one year
Then became member of Senate
Served on Senate for life
One consul could veto another consul’s proposal
Shared religious powers
The Consul’s Limited Power
Limited imperium
Power of life/death while leading army
NOT SO within city of Rome
Appeal cases involving capital punishment
Went to popular assembly
Consulship during Times of War
One consul sent into battle
Other consul stayed in Rome
Otherwise, consuls alternated sole command
Dictator
Julius Caesar:
Rome’s first dictator
During crisis, consul could appoint someone “dictator”
Needed Senate approval
Consul retired so dictator could lead
Dictator served only for six months
Full imperium inside Rome AND outside boundaries
Proconsulship
Longer wars led to invention of office
Extended consul’s imperium beyond end of term
Continued to command army in the field
Caused problems for the republic later
Praetor
Like the consul
Military generals with judicialduties, had imperium
Term lasted for one year
Eventually, eight praetors
Terms sometimes extended for military commands
Censor
Two censors
Elected by the Senate
Must be former consuls, men of integrity
Served for five years
The Censor’s Duties
Classified citizens according to age, property (census)
Classification fixed taxation, status
Compiled roll of senators
Could strike senators from roll (finances/morality)
Most coveted political office
The Senate
Rome’s real governing force
Prominent patricians
Often leaders of clans
Patrons of many clients
Duties of the Senate
Proposed laws
Controlled imperial finances
Held consuls accountable
Assemblies: pass laws, elect magistrates
Curiate Assembly
Popular assembly; voted by curia
Tribal Assembly
Voted by tribe
Centuriate Assembly
Military assembly; voted by century
Centuriate Assembly
Political representation of Roman army
Basic unit of Roman army = century
80-100 fighting men
Classified according to weapons, armor, equipment
Determined by wealth; each man equipped himself
Duties of the Centuriate Assembly
Elect consuls and other magistrates
Voted on bills
Made decision of war and peace
Court of appeal in cases dealing with citizen’s life, property
The Struggle for Equality
Two Primary Struggles
INTERNAL struggle
Between patricians and plebeians
EXTERNAL struggle
Between Rome and everyone else
Greeks, Carthagenians, Macedonians, Gauls/Celts, barbarians
The Senate: Slow to Change
Originally comprised of wealthy, powerful aristocrats
Political power passed to sons
Marriage between powerful families
Senate gradually changed over time; included:
Members of military, representatives of plebeian class
Plebeian Prohibitions
No public office, priesthood, or judges
Did not know the law (unwritten!)
Could not marry patricians
No choice lands (rewards) after Roman conquest
Plebeians fought 200 years for equality, representation
Struggle of the Orders
Plebeians withdrew from cityto Sacred Mount
Formed plebeian tribal assembly
Elected ten tribunes to represent them
Declared tribune inviolate and sacrosanct
Could veto magistrate’s action or bill in assembly/Senate
Service and Representation
Tribunes served for one year
Plebeian assembly voted by tribe
Vote of plebeian assembly – binding on plebeians
Plebeians gave tribunes full protection, total allegiance
Codified Law
The Twelve Tables
Plebeians appointed commission; created Twelve Tables
Codified Roman law
Basis for ALL written Roman law
Held patricians AND plebeians accountable
Other Changes
Important Social Changes
367 B.C. = plebeians elected to consulship
Eventually, plebeians held other offices:
Quaestor, dictator, censor
300 B.C. = plebeians admitted to most important priesthoods
Withdrawing from Rome Again
287 B.C. = plebeians withdrew from city again
Refused to return unless demands met:
Decisions of plebeian assembly bound ALL Romans, not just plebeians
Decisions did not require approval of Senate
Social Equality
A Movement toward Equality?
445 B.C. = plebeians-patricians could marry each other
Two groups combined, formed nobiles
Patricians + wealthy plebeians
Distinction now between nobiles and everyone else
Nobiles had best jobs, wealth, Senatorial power
East and West
Roman Conquest
Conquest of Latins
Some cities near Rome received full citizenship
Others treated as municipalities
Right to intermarry, trade with Romans, self-government
Conditional Roman citizenship:
Move, follow Rome’s foreign policy, provide soldiers
Latins Allied with Rome
Some married Romans, traded with Rome, local autonomy
Forbidden to intermarry, trade with each other
Land taken from some, but not others
All allies provided soldiers
Obey Roman officers, no Roman taxation
Roman Colonies
Via Appia
Some conquered lands colonized
Settled by soldiers
Colonists benefitted
Roman citizenship, local rule, became Roman garrison
Connected by Roman roads
A Cross-Section of a Roman Road
Roman Control
Harsh punishment of rebels
Presence of colonies, roads = few revolts
Roman colonies improved status
Citizenship (biggest prize), protection, wealth
Most allies were loyal
Defeat of the Samnites
Tough mountain people
Some allies rebelled, joined Etruscans, Gauls
295 B.C. = Romans defeated Italian coalition
By 280 B.C. = Rome controlled central Italy
Pyrrhus
Southern Italy: Romans intervened in Greek quarrel
Faced Pyrrhus, king of Epirus
Good general, disciplined army
Experienced mercenaries; new weapon: 20 war elephants
Defeated Romans twice, but suffered great losses
Pyrrhus
After defeating the Roman army, Pyrrhus worried, “If we win one more battle against the Romans we shall be completely ruined.”
This is called a “Pyrrhic victory.”
Greek Defeat
Greeks forced to submit to Rome
By 265 B.C. = Rome ruled all Italy
Po River to the south of Italy
After defeating Pyrrhus, king of Egypt sent message to Rome:
Congratulations; want friendship; recognize Roman dominance
Rome and Carthage
Carthage
Great naval power
Colony in Northern Africa
Founded by Phoenicians
“Carthage” = “New City”
Location good for trade: grain, fruit, vegetables, sheep
Carthaginian Empire
Later expanded to include:
Spain
Sardinia
Corsica
Malta
Balearic Islands
Western Sicily
Conquered Peoples
Carthage reduced conquered people to servitude
Served in Carthaginian army or navy
Paid tribute
Carthage gained access to Spanish silver mines
Hiero’s Attack on Messana
Hiero = Tyrant of Syracuse
Attacked Sicilian city of Messana (near Rome)
Italian mercenary soldiers controlled Messana
Called Mamertines = “Sons of the war god Mars”
Turning to Rome for Help
Hiero defeated the Mamertines
Some Mamertines asked Carthage to intervene
Carthage = “ok”, sent a garrison
One Mamertine faction feared Carthaginian aggression; asked Rome to help
Implications
Romans called the Carthaginians “Phoenicians”
Latin = Poeni or Puni; evolved into Punic
Roman intervention = aggression against Carthage
Rome: “Carthage must not control Sicily”
Agreed to expel Punic garrison
The First Punic War
The First Punic War (264-241 B.C.)
Stalemate
Roman fleet cut off supplies
Besieged Carthaginian cites in western Sicily
Carthaginian navy came; Romans destroyed fleet
War lasted 23 years
The Treaty: 241 B.C.
Two parts:
Carthage gave up Sicily + islands between Italy/Sicily
Pay war indemnity in ten annual installments
Rome got Sicily
Carthage able to pay indemnity
Sicily
A Beautiful Conquest
The Cost to Rome
Rome lost over 100,000 men and 500 warships in the First Punic War.
Second Punic War began only four years later
RebellionSicily became one Roman province.
Sardinia and Corsica became another Roman province.
Sicilian mercenaries demanded that Carthage pay them
Carthage caught off guard
In the confusion, Rome acted:
Seized Sardinia and Corsica
Demanded that Carthage pay additional indemnity
Roman Control of the Islands
Roman governors often served more than a year
Unchecked by colleagues; had full imperium
Population = neither Roman nor allies
Treated as subjects
Did not serve in the army; paid tribute instead
Roman Rule
No chance for citizenship, no loyalty to Rome
Had to pay taxes
Tax collectors originally locals; later Roman allies
Eventually, Roman citizens (below senatorial rank)
Powerful, wealthy because they “squeezed” provincials
Hamilcar Barca
After First Punic War, Rome distracted by:
War with Gauls
War across Adriatic
Gave Carthage time to regroup
Carthage looked to leader, Hamilcar Barca
Hamilcar Barca
Carthaginian governor of Spain
Built Punic Empire in Spain
Improved ports, commerce; exploited mines
Wooed many of the conquered tribes
Built strong, disciplined army
Hasdrubal
Hamilcar’s successor; more successful
Rome worried about Carthaginian expansion
Romans made Hasdrubal promise not to take armyacross Ebro River
The Ebro River in Spain
“Carthage: Do Not Cross the Ebro!”
The Second Punic War
The Second Punic War(218-202 B.C.)
Hasdrubal was assassinated
Army chose his successor: Hannibal
Hannibal
Hannibal was the son of Hamilcar Barca.
He was 25 years old when he came to power.
As a general, Hannibal consolidated and expanded the Punic Empire.
Saguntum: A Spanish Town
Saguntum asked Rome for alliance
Before Hannibal took charge
Rome said “ok”
Saguntum = about 100 miles south of Ebro
Trouble with Saguntines
A Roman alliance with Saguntum violated
the spirit of the Carthaginian treaty. Hannibal took no action at first
Saguntines provoked tribes allied with Hannibal
Believed Rome would help them
Roman : ”Leave Saguntum alone.”
Hannibal ignored warning
Besieged, captured Saguntum
War
Rome demanded surrender of Hannibal.
Carthage refused.
Rome declared war in 218 B.C.
Hannibal’s New Weapon
Hannibal crossed the Alps with 37 war elephants.
Eventually made his way into Italy
Allied himself with Gauls – people who already disliked Romans
Living “Tanks”
Hannibal’s March
Hannibal marched
40,000 troops,
and 37 elephants
over the Alps
into the Roman
homeland.
Hannibal’s Victories
Defeated Romans at TicinusRiver
Defeated joint consular armies at Trebia River
Trapped Roman army at Lake Trasimene
Terrorized Rome for 16 years
Hannibal’s Strategy
Encourage Roman allies to defect
Release Italian prisoners without harm or ransom
Move army south of Rome, encourage rebellion
Roman strategy:
“Fight when army recovers, on favorable ground”
The Battle of Cannae
Hannibal drew Romans into open fight
Romans sent 80,000 men to meet him
30,000 Romans died, many more captured
Worst defeat in Roman history
Roman Losses
Loss of Roman prestige
Allies (southern Italy + Syracuse) joined Hannibal
For 10+ years, Hannibal was victorious
Romans wouldn’t face Hannibal in open field
Hannibal’s Weaknesses
Inadequate troops, supplies to besiege walled cities
No equipment to take the cities by assault
Publius Cornelius Scipio
Roman general; called Africanus
Commanded Roman army in Spain; proconsular imperium
Not yet 25 years old
No high office yet
Almost as talented as Hannibal
Scipio’s Victories
204 B.C. = landed in Africa
Defeated Carthaginians
Forced them to accept peace
Hannibal had to withdraw army from Italy
A Hard Lesson Learned
Hannibal had won every battle,
but lost the war.
Was eventually driven to suicide
Hannibal’s Mistakes
Had not counted on Roman determination
Underestimated allies’ loyalty to Rome
The Battle of Zama: 202 B.C.
Hannibal’s mercenaries
deserted
Rome defeated
Carthage
Carthage became
dependent ally of Rome
Rome ruled seas +
Mediterranean coast
from Italy westward
The Battle of Zama
The Third Punic War
Rome intervened in dispute between Carthage and Roman ally, Numidia
Besieged Carthage for two years, attacked, razed it to the ground in 146 B.C.
Third Punic War
Roman Victory
Territory belonging to Carthage became the new Roman province known as Africa.
The Republic’s Conquest of the Hellenistic World
The East
Rome’s Conquest of the East
Eastern Mediterranean stability challenged when kingdoms expanded:
Philip V of Macedon attacked cities in the:
Aegean, Hellespont, Asia Minor (along the coast)
Antiochus of the Seleucid kingdom attacked:
Syria, Palestine
The Macedonian Wars
Philip V of Macedon
Formed Carthaginian alliance during Second Punic War
Rome saw Philip V as a threat
Alliance provoked conflict with Rome
Result: First Macedonian War
The Outcome
Ended in stalemate
Macedon tried to control parts of Illyria + Greece
Unsuccessful
Second Macedonian War (200 B.C.)
Romans sent Philip an ultimatum:
“Do not attack any Greek city.”
“Pay reparations to Pergamum.”
Tried to provoke Macedon into a fight
Philip refused to obey
Greek Freedom
Flamininus intervened
Talented young Roman general
Ordered Philip to withdraw from Greece
197 B.C. = Defeated Philip in Thessaly
Greek support, ended Second Macedonian War
Flamininus
Freed Greek cities from Philip V
Made cities autonomous
War with Antiochus
Rome withdrew from Greece
Then faced conflict with Antiochus
He was expanding power in Asia
Antiochus
Claimed: “I’m freeing Greeks from Roman domination”
Landed his army on Greek mainland
Roman Victory
Defeated at Thermopylae + Asia Minor ; driven from Greece
Treaty called “Peace of Apamia”
Deprived of elephants, navy; imposed huge indemnity
Romans took no territory
Several Greek cities in Asia became protectorates
Perseus
Perseus: new Macedonian king
Favored democracy in Greek cities
Rome worried about Greek uprisings
Launched Third Macedonian War
Aemilius Paullus
Aemilius Paullus defeated Perseus
Macedon divided into four separate republics
Macedonians forbidden to intermarry
Could not conduct business across boundaries
Leaders of anti-Roman factions punished severely
War to Benefit Rome
Three-day celebration followed
Parade through streets of Rome:
Spoils of war, royal prisoners, wealth
Money relieved Roman tax burden, paid soldiers
War became a means to benefit Rome
Perseus before Aemilius Paullus
The West
Roman Conquest in Iberia
Romans harsh toward “barbarians” in Iberia
Committed atrocities, lied, cheated
Broke treaties to exploit, pacify natives
Became hard to recruit soldiers from there
Numantia
134 B.C. = Scipio Aemilianus took key city: Numantia
Laid siege
Burned Numantia to the ground
Cato the Elder
Roman statesman and orator
Allegedly ended his speeches the same way:
“Besides, I think that
Carthage must be
destroyed.”
Devastating Carthage
146 B.C. = Scipio Aemilianus attacked Carthage
Plowed up its land
Put salt in furrows; symbolized permanent abandonment
Roman Provinces
Carthage became a province of Africa
Now six Roman provinces:
Sicily
Sardinia-Corsica
Macedonia
Hither Spain
Further Spain
Africa
Early Roman Republic
Civilization
Mixed Feelings about the Greeks
Admiration :
Culture + history
Contempt:
Constant squabbling, commercial practices, weakness
Greek Influence
Romans spoke Greek and Latin
Upper classes were bilingual
Romans studied:
Greek law, rhetoric, literature, philosophy
The Odyssey
Livius Andronicus, liberated Greek slave, translated Odyssey into Latin
Young Romans read the epic
Latin made transition: spoken language to literary language
Greek Influences
Religious Beliefs
Greek Influence
Identified Roman gods with Greek gods
Incorporated Greek mythology
Banned Cults
Cybele: 3rd century B.C.
Senate approved public worship of Cybele
“Great Mother goddess”
Fertility cult
Had wild, ecstatic rites (like Bacchants)
Romans outraged; banned cult
Bacchus: 2nd century B.C.
Senate also banned cult of
Dionysus (Bacchus)
Chaldean Astrologers: 2nd century B.C.
Senate tried to ban the Chaldeans
Babylonian astrologers
Did not work
Education
Roman Education: The Basics
Mostly for boys
Fathers taught sons, usually at home
Type of Education:
Conservative (respected tradition), practical
Girls possibly taught to read; limited education
Typical Lessons
Reading: Heroic stories, early Roman history
Writing
Arithmetic
Farming skills
Memorized Twelve Tables
Performed religious rites
Physical training: preparation for service Roman army
Writing Instruments
Four leaves from wooden writing tablet
Students wrote on wooden tablets coated with wax
Stylus pressed letters into wax
Broad, flat end used for erasing
The Goal of Education
Training students to be moral, pious, patriotic, law abiding, respectful of tradition
Greek Influence
Greek teachers introduced study of:
Language, literature, philosophy
“Liberal arts education” = Greek concept
Humanitas: Humanities (history + literature + philosophy)
Educational Goals Changed because of Greek Influence
From practical to broader intellectual training
Included critical thinking, focused on ideas
Development of well-rounded person
The Emergence of Schools
Schools established with Greek influence
Teacher = grammaticus
Taught Greek language + literature
Focused on Greek poets – especially Homer
Elementary Education: Boys (ages 7-12)
Attended school with paedagogus
Greek slave
Helped with physical well-being and manners
Helped boy learn to speak Greek
Wrote with wax tablet and stylus
A Roman Abacus
Students used abacusand pebbles to do simple calculations.
The Next Stage
Next, aristocratic boys studied rhetoric
Art of speaking and writing well
Practical for use in law and politics
“Higher” School: Boys (ages 12-16)
Harsh discipline
“Expanded” education
Grammaticus introduced:
Greek and Latin literature Dialectic Arithmetic Geometry Astronomy Music Sometimes rhetoric
Advanced Studies: Boys (16+)
Instructors usually Greek
Boys studied formal speeches to learn rhetoric
Students wrote, memorized, analyzed speeches
Personalized Instruction
Student might follow famous public speaker
Rich Roman: bring Greek philosopher home
Teach son
Fine-tune Greek language skills
Develop critical thinking skills
Benefits of Education
Eventually, people outside senatorial class received education
Equestrian class, those outside Rome benefitted most
Education for Women
Upper class girls received “boy’s early education”
Probably taught by tutors at home
Did not study with philosophers, rhetoricians
Usually married by that time
A New Life for the Educated Woman
Education helped some women make new life
Some became prose writers; others became poets
This is a fragment of a letter from Claudia Severato Sulpicia Lepidina, inviting her friend to a birthday party.
Slavery
Changes
Originally, few slaves
More common during second century B.C.
Carthage, cities in Spainconquered
250,000 prisoners of war
Became cheaper for Romans to buy slaves
Duties
Domestic servants
Worked in mines in Spain and Sardinia
Artisans
Public clerks
Roman mosaic: 6th century A.D.
Some slaves worked as artisans in small factories and shops
Slaves’ Rights
Could marry, raise families
Some could earn money
Spend as they pleased; purchase freedom (common)
Some descendants of freed slaves became wealthy
Some became Roman citizens
Growing Number of Slaves in Italy
Most Roman landowners employed many slaves
By time of Jesus = 2 to 3 million slaves
About 35-40 percent of total population
Latifundia: Large Plantations
Most slaves worked here
Produced cash crops; owners motivated by money
Hardest work (except mines)
Slaves often worked in chains
Brutal foremen
Lived in underground prisons
Harsh Conditions led to Slave Rebellions
134 B.C. = rebellion in Sicily, lasted for more than 2 years
73 B.C. = rebellion led by Spartacus
• Gladiator, led army of 70,000 slaves
• Repeatedly defeated Romans
• Brutally crushed by Roman general, Crassus
Gladiators
Pictured on a relief from
the first century B.C. The Colchester Vase, made in Roman
Britain, shows gladiators in combat.
Crassus
Roman general who defeated Spartacus and his slave army
Decline in Slavery
Slavery declined but did not disappear
Reasons for decline:
Cost of slaves and general economic decline
More farmers employed coloni (tenant farmers)
Considered “free” but obligated to the land
The Late Republic
Roman Imperialism
Before Punic Wars
Mostly family farms
Grew grain
Relied on clients, tenants, hired workers –not slaves
After Punic Wars
Land devastated
Some farmers/soldiers abandoned farms, moved to Rome
Most worked as tenant farmers
What happened to abandoned farms?
Wealthy landowners often took abandoned land
Created the large latifundia
Grew cash crops (grain, olives, grapes )
Raised cattle
The Rich became Richer
Cheap land
Many slaves available
Small farmers became dependent
More class division
The Gracchi
Social Crisis in Middle of Second Century B.C.
Peasant farmers struggling
Hard to recruit soldiers
Clients fled land; patron’s control diminished
Introduction of secret ballot
Made former clients more independent
Tiberius Gracchus
Tiberius Gracchus: A Powerful Tribune
Land reforms targeted public landacquired, held illegally
Landholders keep up to 300 acres
State reclaims anything over that
Other land redistributed in small lots to poor
Pay rent to state; could not sell the land
Senate’s Reaction
Hostility
Many held vast estates
Others worried about interference with property rights
Some feared Tiberius’ political ambitions
Tiberius’ Fight
Land reform bill submitted for approval
Vetoed by M. Octavius (a tribune)
Tiberius appealed to Senate; opposed him
Submitted bill again; Octavius vetoed it again
A Bold Move
Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus
With public support, Tiberius had Octaviusremoved from office
Violated Roman constitution
Power Shift
Indicated shift of power AWAY from Senate, TO the people
Rome worried that it would become a democracy like Athens.
Tiberius proposes another bill
Harsher than the first
More appealing to the people
Provided for a commission to carry it out
King Attalus’ Will
King Attalus of Pergamum died, left kingdom to Rome
Tiberius wanted estate’s money to finance commission
Challenged Senate’s control of finances, foreign affairs
Death of Tiberius Gracchus
First internal bloodshed
in Roman history Dangerous to leave tribunate;
ran for office second time
Another strike against tradition
Riot broke out at elections
Mob of senators/clients killed
Tiberius + 300 followers
Threw bodies into Tiber River
Prior to Tiberius’ Tribunate
Political struggles mostly about honor, reputation among leading families
After Tiberius’ Tribunate
Senatorial power challenged
People have more power
Could pursue political career –without aristocratic influence
Politicians could appeal to the people for support
Division of Support
Populares = politicians who sought support of the people
Optimates = “best men,” supported traditional role of the Senate
Not political parties
Gaius Gracchus
Gaius Gracchus: Another Powerful Tribune
Brother of Tiberius
His tribunate more dangerous than Tiberius’
Had support of all tribunes
Meant: no veto of his bills
Recent law: “tribunes can be re-elected”
Programs and Reforms
Revived agrarian commission
Wanted to establish new colonies:
Two in Italy, one on site of Carthage
Passed law stabilizing price of grain in Rome
Gaius Gracchus and the Equestrians
Gaius appealed to equestrians for support
Powerful group
Served in Roman cavalry
Not peasants, not
Senators
Visible minority were
businesspeople
Duties of a Roman Equestrian
Supplied goods,
services to Roman state
Collected taxes
Many were rich
Most voted with the
Senate
Some hoped to become
senators
Gaius Gracchus and Pergamum
Made Pergamum Roman province of Asia
Gave equestrians right to collect taxes there
Result:
Equestrians formally
recognized as a class
Political unit, could
be used against
Senate
Gaius’ Reelection?
Easily won reelection as tribune in 122 B.C.
Wanted to give citizenship to Italians
Common people said “no” – Roman citizenship prized
NOT reelected in 121 B.C.
A Violent End
Hostile consul provoked violence against Gaius Gracchus
Gaius hunted down, killed
Senatorial court condemned, killed 3,000 followers – without trial
Marius and Sulla
Marius
Jugurtha, King of Numidia
Massacred Roman + Italian businessmen in his province
Jugurthine War
Senate reluctant to become involved
Equestrians and people forced Senate to declare war: 111 B.C.
The People Act!
Jugurthine War dragged on
People suspected Senate of taking Jugurtha’s bribes
C. Marius elected to consulship
Assembly (not Senate!) sent him to Numidia to fight Jugurtha
Marius: The New Man
Considered novus homo = “new man”
First in history of family to reach consulship
Wealthy equestrian, not Roman aristocrat
Married to Julius Caesar’s aunt (Julia)
Reputation: outstanding soldier, political maverick
The Capture of Jugurtha
Quickly defeated Jugurtha
BUT Jugurtha escaped – war continued
Marius’ subordinate, L. Cornelius
Sulla, trapped Jugurtha,
ended war
Sulla
Sulla
Highly ambitious
From impoverished, but noble, Roman family
Wanted credit for capturing Jugurtha – denied
Bitter rivalry between Marius and Sulla
Marius’ Contributions to Rome
Marius’ Reelection
Elected to second consulship
Dealt with uprisings among barbaric tribes
Served five consecutive terms
Marius’ Changes to the Army
Began using volunteers
Mostly farmers, rural workers who lost land
Enlisted for long term of service
Saw army as a career choice
Marius’ Mules
Client-patron relationship with their general
Soldiers given:
Food
Clothing
Shelter
Spoils of war
Upon retirement, land
Standardization
Standardized armor, weapons
Changed length of pike
Spear tip crumpled when it hit the ground
Standardized training
Shift in Loyalties
Loyalty to general rather than to the state
Now military leaders could gain political power
The War Against the Italian Allies
Italian Discontent and Drusus
Italian veterans denied land upon retirement
Senate worried about revolt
Senate expelled all Italians from Rome in 95 B.C.
91 B.C.: tribune M. Livius Drusus submitted bill to enfranchise (“give rights to”) Italians
Drusus
Assassinated in 90 B.C.
As a result, Italians revolted
Established separate confederation
• Had its own capital + coinage
Roman Peace
Citizenship for Italian cities that remained loyal
Citizenship for rebels who laid down arms
All Italians became citizens, with full rights/ protections
Italians maintained local self-government
Eventually, little distinction between Romans and Italians
Sulla’s Dictatorship
Sulla
Successful in war against Italian allies
Elected consul for 88 B.C.
Given command of war against Mithridates
Mithridates led major rebellion in Asia
Mithridates
Opposed Roman expansion for 20 years
Wore lion’s head to identify with Hercules
Sulla Marches on Rome
Marius now 70 years old
Got assembly to transfer command to him
In response, Sulla marched SIX legions against Rome
One legion = 6,000 men Six legions = 36,000 men
First time Roman general used army against Romans
The Defeat of Marius
Marius + supporters fled; Sulla then fought Mithradates
Marius joined with consul Cinna – took Rome by force
Labeled Sulla “outlaw”; massacred
senatorial opposition
Died soon after election to seventh consulship
Probably insane when he died
Cinna
Became Rome’s chief leader
Supported by Marius’ men
Rome now in the hands of populares
Sulla’s Victories
Defeated Mithridates in major battle
Not a permanent defeat
Mithridates came back later
Pompey finally defeated him
Sulla Seizes Control
Sulla returned, fought civil war (lasted two years)
Sulla’s allies included Pompey and Crassus
Drove out Marius’ supporters
Had himself appointed dictator
Not in traditional sense, but for constitutional reform
Sulla’s Proscriptions
•Ok to kill “outlaws” – without trial
• Killer (and informer) given reward
• Sulla targeted political/personal opponents
•Confiscated land, property from outlaws
• Built solid military support; shared wealth with soldiers
Sulla’s Government
Optimate — traditional; wanted return to senatorial government
Enrolled 300 new members in the Senate
Equestrians + from upper classes of Italian cities
Office of tribune made political “dead end”
Created new courts
Judge AND jurors were Senators; increased senatorial power
Sulla’s Last Days
Retired to life of ease and luxury in 79 B.C.
Compiled his memoirs in twenty-two books
Died shortly afterward
The Fall of the Republic
Pompey, Crassus, Caesar, and Cicero
The Senate Regains Power
Sulla’s constitution attacked soon after his death
Senate violated procedures meant to protect power
Senate gave command of army to Pompey
28 years old, never elected to magistracy before
Senate appointed Pompey proconsul in Spain
Pompey and Crassus
Pompey the Great
Pompey suppressed rebellion in Spain, returned glorious
Senate wanted Crassus to suppress slave rebellion
Crassus: rich, ambitious senator
Eventually commanded almost all of Italy
Pompey and Crassus Unite
Senate feared Pompey, Crassus; demanded special honors
Both elected to consulship for the year 70 B.C.
Pompey legally ineligible, needed Crassus’s support
Crassus needed Pompey’s help
Joined forced but disliked each other
Support
Gained popular support
Promised to restore full powers of tribunes
Gained equestrian support
Promising to restore equestrians to extortion court juries
Won election; repealed most of Sulla’s constitution
Pompey’s Imperium
Special law gave Pompey imperium for three years
Power to raise troops + money: defeat pirates
Given unprecedented power to fight Mithridates again
Pompey’s Unprecedented Power
Had imperium over all Asia
Could make war and peace at will
His imperium superior to any proconsul in the field
Pompey’s Success
Defeated Mithridates
Cleared seas of pirates
Extended Rome’s frontier to the Euphrates
Organized territories of Asia
More power, prestige, popular support
Pompey’s Pillar
One of the only lasting remains from ancient Alexandria
Remains of Pompey’s Theater
Senate Reaction
Senate worried that:
Pompey would emulate Sulla
Establish his own rule
Crassus
Julius Caesar
Rich, influential; no Senate support
No firm political base of his own
No military glory like Pompey
Allied with popular leader: Gaius Julius Caesar
Aeneas’ Flight from Troy
Descended from old, politically obscure, patrician family
Claimed descent from Aeneas – son of Venus
Worrisome family ties:
Uncle: Marius
First Wife: Cornelia (daughter of Cinna)
Julius Caesar, the General
Ambitious politician
Skilled orator
Allied with populares
Wanted military command to build reputation
Competed with Pompey
Cicero
Opposed Crassus for consulship
Novus homo like Marius, but not a popularis
Leading lawyer in Rome
Noted orator
Cicero’s Political Goals
Protect republic from demagogues + ambitious generals
Unite equestrians + Senate
Senate not happy, but preferred Cicero to Cataline
Dangerous + popular politician; allied with Crassus
Lucius Sergius Catilina or Cataline
•Cicero + Antonius elected consuls
•Cicero discovered Cataline’splot:
• Incite rebellions around Italy
• Hoped to take Rome by force
•Cicero acted quickly, defeated Cataline
Formation of theFirst Triumvirate
Brundisium
62 B.C. = Pompey arrived at Brundisium
Before returning to Rome, disbanded army
Illegal to march army into Rome
Celebrated great triumph
Returned to private life
Pompey’s Return to Rome
Wanted Senate to recognize achievements, grant requests:
Approve organization of Eastern provinces
Allot land to his veterans
Senate feared Pompey; refused requests
An Unlikely Alliance
Frustrated
Formed alliance with Crassus + Julius Caesar
Both were his political enemies
They believed Senate blocked their goals
Caesar’s Dilemma in 60 B.C.
Caesar returned to Rome from Spanish governorship
Wanted “triumph”; wanted to run for consul
Law did not allow both; had to choose:
Stay outside city with army OR canvass for votes
Asked for special dispensation; Senate refused
A Political Miracle
Caesar reconciled Crassus with Pompey
Gained support of both for his own ambitions
Resulted in First Triumvirate
Informal agreement
Each man sought his own, private goals
Julius Caesar & His Government of Rome
Caesar and the Pirate Attack
Wanted to polish rhetoric at skills in Rhodes
Captured by pirates, held for 38 days
Pirates wanted 20 talents (ransom); he suggested 50
Wrote poetry, told pirates he would return, crucify them
Ransomed, raised fleet, pursued pirates, fulfilled promise
Caesar’s Rise to Power
Elected to consulship for 59 B.C.
Fellow consul = Cato’s son-in-law (conservative, hostile to Caesar)
Used triumvir to get command like Pompey’s
Became governor of Illyricum and Gaul (five-year term)
Pompey, Crassus & Caesar
Pompey got what he wanted:
Land bill settling veterans + organization of East
Crassus got what he wanted:
Tax contract to benefit equestrians
Caesar given opportunity to subdue Gauls
Caesar’s Success
Progress: excellent troops + experienced officers
Conquered most of Gaul
Asked for extension of command
Crassus + Pompey fighting, weakening their power
Senate ordered Caesar’s recall
Agreements
Caesar met with Crassus, Pompey; renewed coalition
Gave Caesar another five-year command in Gaul
Crassus and Pompey: consuls again n 55 B.C.
Afterward, each would receive army + five-year command
Gaul
Captured Alesia in 51 B.C.
Marked end of Gallic resistance – and Gallic liberty
Brought Caesar wealth, fame, military power
Commanded 13 loyal legions (78,000 men)
Sketch of the double circumvallation at Alesia
Vercingetorix
Leader of the Celts
The Romans defeat the Celts
Crisis
Crassus died
Trying to conquer Parthians in the East
Successors to Persian Empire
Death of Julia ended alliance with Pompey
Caesar’s daughter – and Pompey’s wife
Rioting in Rome leads to Rivalry
Senate appointed Pompey sole consul; jealous of Caesar
Senate wanted Caesar brought back to Rome
“Become private citizen after proconsulship expires”
“Stand trial for illegalities in Gaul, etc.”
Caesar saw trap, asked to stand trial in absentia
The Rubicon River: 49 B.C.
Senate ordered Pompey to defend state
Ordered Caesar to relinquish command; issued deadline
For Caesar, this meant death or exile
Rome and the Rubicon
Caesar ordered legions to cross Rubicon River
Boundary between his province and Rome
Started a civil war
Caesar as Victor
45 B.C. = Caesar defeated Pompey’s sons in Spain
War was over
Caesar was in charge
Innovations
Spent less than a year in Rome
Tried to improve chaotic society:
Julian calendar
Elevated role of Italians
Increased number of senators to 900, including Italians + Gauls
Granted Roman citizenship freely
Caesar’s Treatment of Senate
Senate continued to play role – only in theory:
Caesar increased its size
Seated more of Caesar’s supporters in Senate
Caesar held military monopoly
Was disrespectful to Senate
Caesar’s Leadership
Appointed dictator for ten years
Next year, appointed dictator for life
Held:
Consulship
Immunity of tribune (although a patrician)
Chief priesthood
Prefect of morals (new position)
Appointed magistrates for next few years
Coin features Julius Caesar
as dictator for life
Conspiracy
Enemies quick to point out Caesar’s abuses
Caius Cassius and Marcus Junius Brutus led conspiracy
Included sixty senators in all
The Conspirators
Marcus Brutus Gaius Cassius Longinus
The Ides of March
March 15, 44 B.C.
Caesar entered Senate without bodyguard
Stabbed to death
Conspirators thought of themselves as heroes
No plan of action following Caesar’s death
No Way Back
Republic changed too much to go back
Years of civil war
Led to end of the Republic
The Second Triumvirate and the
Emergence of Octavian
Mark Antony and Octavius
Mark Antony Antony = Caesar’s capable follower
Expected to be named successor
Caesar named Gaius Octavius as heir
18 years old, adopted grandnephew; sickly, inexperienced
Inherited three-quarters of Caesar’s vast wealth
Octavius and the Senate
Caesar Augustus Senate tried to pit Octavian against Antony
Conservatives rejected request for consulship; Octavius rebelled
Took army, marched on Rome
Took adopted name: C. Julius Caesar Octavianus
Historians call him Octavian; he insisted on Caesar
A New Alliance
Lepidus 43 B.C. = Octavian became consul
Labeled conspirators “outlaws”
Needed help to fight Brutus + Cassius’ army
Pact with Mark Antony and Lepidus
Creation of Second Triumvirate
Octavian, Antony, Lepidus took control of Rome
Appointed selves “triumvirs to put the republic in order”
Established Second Triumvirate
Unlike first triumvirate
Legally empowered to rule almost dictatorially
Revenge
Wave of proscriptions started because:
Needed money to pay their troops
Individual greed
Proscriptions worse than Sulla’s
Victory for Second Triumvirate
42 B.C. = Defeated Brutus + Cassius at Philippi
Each of triumvir received a command:
Lepidus = Africa
Antony = the East
Octavian = the West
The Cost of Political Victories
Octavian went to Sicily; defeated Pompey’s son
Confiscated land in Italy to settle 100,000 veterans
Angered many people
Maecenas
Octavian’s advisor, diplomatic agent
Managed relations with Antony, Lepidus
Patron of arts: clients included Horace, Virgil
Praised Octavian’s heritage, traditional Roman values
Octavian associated with Italy, West, order, justice
Antony
Known for reckless living:
Drinking, gambling, scandalous love affairs
Married Octavian’s sister, Octavia (Antony’s fourth wife)
Octavia pregnant; Antony had affair with Cleopatra
Cleopatra VII
Smart, ambitious, beautiful, powerful
Had son with Julius Caesar
She and Mark Antony had three children
Wanted to unite Egyptian wealth and Roman power
Antony’s Ties with Egypt
Antony attacked Parthia (disastrous)
Octavian promised troops, sent none; Antony relied on Egypt
Division arose:
Octavian identified with Italy, Rome, the West
He identified Antony with Egypt, the East
Suggested that Cleopatra controlled Antony
Antony and Cleopatra
Attended public festival in Alexandria
Sat on golden thrones
She was proclaimed “Queen of Kings”
Son by Julius Caesar named “King of Kings”
Parts of Roman Empire promised to her children
Growing Conflict
32 B.C. = Conflict between Octavian, Antony (Lepidus gone)
Antony sought senatorial support
Octavian published the “will of Antony”
Revealed gifts of provinces to Cleopatra’s children
Battle of Actium
31 B.C. = Battle of Actium in western Greece
Octavian won
Antony and Cleopatra fled to Egypt
Both committed suicide
Octavian Reigns
Civil wars ended
Octavian became absolute ruler of Mediterranean
Faced challenges to restore stability, peace, prosperity
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