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Consumer Concerns about

Foods and Water

•ENVIRONMENTALL

CONTAMINANTS

Environmental Contaminants

• Substance that does not normally occur in food

• Biggest contaminants:

– Heavy metals: accumulate in body (lead, mercury, selenium)

– Industry dumps mercury in water --> fish --> people

– Lead poisoning: lead paint; lead pipes --> H2O

Environmental Contaminants

• Halogenated compounds: organic --> can be

metabolized, but resistant and build up

– PCB (Polychlorinated biphenyl) --> leaked into

rice oil in Japan --> 22 deaths

• How big problem?

– Safety precautions

– Accident --> high risk of toxicity

– Adequate diet, optimal health, variety

• Environmental Contaminants

• Harmfulness of Environmental

Contaminants

Persistent Defined

Existing for a long or longer than usual

time or continuously: as continuing

without change in function or structure

<persistent gills> or effective in the open

for an appreciable time usually through

slow volatilizing <mustard gas is

persistent> or degraded only slowly by

the environment <persistent pesticides>

Merriam-Webster Dictionary

What Persistent Chemical Pollutants?

Toxic to humans and animals

Persist in the environment

Do not break down

Bioaccumulate in animals

becoming part of the food

chain

Tend to be widespread

Persistent Environmental Contaminants

Various names depending on agency

U.S. EPA Persistent

Bioaccumulative and Toxic (PBT)

United Nations Persistent Organic

Pollutant (POP)

Persistent Organic Pollutants

“Persistent Organic Pollutants

(POPs) are chemical substances

that persist in the environment,

bioaccumulate through the food

web, and pose a risk of causing

adverse effects to human health and

the environment.”

UN Environment Program

http://www.chem.unep.ch/pops/

Quote / History

“These (British Columbia, Canada &

Washington, U.S.) killer (Orca) whales can

now be considered among the most

contaminated marine mammals in the

world”

Dr. Peter Ross, Institute of Ocean Studies

From Advertisement for ORTHO Lindane – 1953

“Check These ORTHO Lindane Advantages:

High Safety Factor – Authorities have approved

Lindane for lice and mange control on dairy cattle.

Shows no contamination in milk when properly

applied. …. Even used by dermatologists for human

itch, lice and scabies. Not cumulative and practically

odorless. Any taken in by a warm-blooded animal is

eliminated.”

ORTHO Lindane – 1953

DDT – widely used 1950s and 1960s –

now banned

PCBs – low flammable oil - widely

distributed in environment – now

banned

Historical Events

• Aldrin/Dieldrin

• Benzo(a)pyrene

• Cadmium

• Chlordane

• DDT, DDD, DDE

• Dicofol

• Dioxins (TCDD) &

Furans

• Endrin

• Endosulfan

• Hexachlorobenzene

Persistent Chemicals I

Persistent Chemicals II

• Heptachlor

• alkyl-lead

• Lindane

• Mercury

• Methoxychlor

• Mirex

• Octachlorostyrene

• Polychlorinated biophenyl’s

(PCBs)

Persistent Chemicals III

• Pendimethalin

• Pentabromo diphenyl ether

• Pentachloronitrobenzene

• Polybrominated Hydrocarbons

• Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

(PAHs)

• Tin (organotins)

• Toxaphene

• Trifluralin

• 1,2,4,5-tetrachlorobenzene

Chemical Toxicity I

Aldrin/Dieldrin

Pesticide – Organochlorine – Bioaccumulates –

Used to control mosquitoes and termites

Importation and manufacture prohibited in the

U.S. in 1987.

Chlordane

Pesticide – Organochlorine – Bioaccumulates –

Used to control mosquitoes and termites

Chemical Toxicity II

DDT, DDD, DDE

Pesticide – Organochlorine – Bioaccumulates –

Used to control mosquitoes – Importation and

manufacture prohibited in the U.S. in 1972.

Affects wildlife – found in breast milk and fat

Dioxins (TCDD) & Furans

By product of combustion – Bioaccumulates –

municipal and medical waste incinerators –

human carcinogen

Chemical Toxicity III

Lead

Metal – Widely distributed in environment when

used as a gasoline additive and in paint. Now

banned from use in gasoline and paint. Potent

child neurotoxicant

Mercury

Metal – Persistent – Bioaccumulates –

Contaminates many species of fish. Widely used

in industrial processes. Cause developmental

neurotoxicity – children most susceptible

Chemical Toxicity IV

Mirex

Pesticide – Organochlorine – Bioaccumulates –

Extensively used in U.S. from 1962-1978 to

control fire ants. All use canceled in U.S. in 1978

Pentabromo diphenyl ether (PBDEs)

Widely used as flame retardant in fabric and

plastics – highly persistent – recently found in

women’s breast milk

Chemical Toxicity V

Polychlorinated biophenyl’s (PCBs)

Heat and fire resistant – extensively used from

1929 and 1977 in electrical transformers – all

manufacture banned – extensively regulated –

very widespread global contaminate

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)

Combustion by products – class of 100

chemicals – combustion by products from oil to

tobacco. Some of the first known carcinogens.

Chemical Toxicity VI Tin (organotins)

Organotins are used in a number of consumer

products including paint as a pesticide.

Bioaccumulates and persistent, effects nervous

system

Toxaphene

Pesticide – Organochlorine – Bioaccumulates –

Extensively used on U.S. cotton crops from 1947

to 1980. Manufacture and use prohibited in the

U.S.

Integrated Pest Management

"Integrated Pest Management

(IPM) is a sustainable approach

to managing pests by combining

biological, cultural, physical and

chemical tools in a way that

minimizes economic, health and

environmental risks."

Environmental Contaminants

• Concerns of environmental contamination are many, but hazards are relatively small.

• It is important to be an informed consumer, keep alert to the possibility of contamination, and listen to public health announcements.

• Eating a variety of foods is an effective defensive strategy.

Environmental Contaminants

• Harmfulness of Environmental

Contaminants

– Depends on its persistence

– Each level of the food chain has a greater

concentration then the one below, known as

bioaccumulation.

– Heavy metals and organic halogens can enter

the food supply.

– Methylmercury

• Can result in blindness, deafness, and lack of

coordination, affects the intellect, and can cause

death

• Fish can become contaminated with

methylmercury.

• Infants born to pregnant women who consume

methylmercury can be affected.

Environmental Contaminants

• Harmfulness of Environmental Contaminants

– PBB and PCB

• Polybrominated biphenyl (PBB) was mixed with livestock

feed in Michigan and caused nervous system problems and

liver disorders in those who consumed the meat of the

livestock.

• Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) were found in rice oil in

Taiwan and resulted in fertility problems in men and women

who had children with developmental issues.

Environmental Contaminants

• Guidelines for Consumers

– Hazards appear to be small.

– FDA regulates

– Health agencies provide advisories (mercury).

– The EPA regulates commercial fishing.

– States test and monitor their own lakes and

rivers.

42 Chemicals and 9 found to

contaminate water in USA Acetochlor

Alachlor ESA

Aluminum

Boron

Bromobenzene

Dacthal diacid degradate

Dacthal monoacid degradate

DDE

Diazinon

1,1-Dichloroethane

2,4-Dichlorophenol

1,3-Dichloropropane

2,2-Dichloropropane

1,1-Dichloropropene

1,3-Dichloropropene

2,4-Dinitrophenol

2,4-Dinitrotoluene

2,6-Dinitrotoluene

1,2-Diphenylhydrazine

Disulfoton

Diuron

EPTC

Fonofos

p-Isopropyltoluene

Linuron

Methylbromide

Methyl-butyl ether (MTBE)

2-Methylphenol

Metolachlor

Molinate

Nitrobenzene

Organotins

Perchlorate

Prometon

RDX

Terbacil

Terbufos

1,1,2,2-Tetrachloroethane

Triazines

2,4,6-Trichlorophenol

1,2,4-Trimethylbenzene

Vanadium

Adenoviruses

Aeromonas hydrophila

Caliciviruses

Coxsackieviruses

Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) and toxins

Echoviruses

Helicobacter pylori

Microsporidia

Mycobacterium avium intercellulare

Natural Toxicants in Foods

• Many foods contain natural toxicants.

• It is the quantity consumed and the chemical structure of the contaminate, not the source, that makes it hazardous.

• Poisonous mushrooms

• Goitrogens in some vegetables

• Cyanogens that produce cyanide

• Solanine in potatoes

Natural Toxicants

• Cabbage family:

– Goitrogens

• Potatoes:

– Solanine: inhibits nerve impulses

• Spinach:

– Oxalates: bind Calcium and Iron

• Lima Beans and Fruit Seeds:

– Cyanogens: produce cyanide

Poisonous mushrooms

•PESTICIDES

• Aims of the section:

• Learn about Pesticides and their effects on

the environment.

• Be able to answer exam questions on the

effects.

• Learn about Pesticides and their effects

• Summarise the key points about

pesticides

Definition - EPA

“…a pesticide is any substance or mixture of

substances intended for preventing,

destroying, repelling, or mitigating any pest.”

“…a pest is any harmful, destructive, or

troublesome animal, plant or microorganism.”

US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

Definition - FIFRA

“… any substance or mixture of substances

intended for preventing, destroying, repelling

or mitigating any insects, rodents, nematodes,

fungi, or weeds or any other form of life

declared to be pests. … and any substance or

mixture of substances intended for use as a

plant regulator, defoliant or desiccant.”

Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and

Rodenticide Act (FIFRA – 1947)

Definition - Simple

The function of a

pesticide is to kill or

harm some form of life.

History of Pesticides

Pest-05 Agrochemicals and Security: Homeland Security and Pesticides

1690 – Nicotine - water extracted from

tobacco leaves sprayed on plants as

insecticide

1700’s – Strychnine – extracted from plant

used to kill rodents

1800’s – Arsenic trioxide – weed killer

1800’s – Rotenone – extracted from plants

as insecticide

1800’s – Pyrethrum – extracted from

chrysanthemum as insecticide

1900’s – lead arsenate – orchard insecticide

Historical Awareness

1930’s – “ginger jake paralysis” –

during prohibition, alcoholic Jamaican

ginger

1962 – “Silent Spring” by Rachel

Carson exposed the hazards of DDT

1975 – Works made ill from Kepone

manufacture in Hopewell, Virginia

Historical Events

1690 – Nicotine - water extracted from

tobacco leaves sprayed on plants as

insecticide

1700’s – Strychnine – extracted from plant

used to kill rodents

1800’s – Arsenic trioxide – weed killer

1800’s – Rotenone – extracted from plants

as insecticide

1800’s – Pyrethrum – extracted from

chrysanthemum as insecticide

1900’s – lead arsenate – orchard insecticide

Historical Awareness

1930’s – “ginger jake paralysis” –

during prohibition, alcoholic Jamaican

ginger

1962 – “Silent Spring” by Rachel

Carson exposed the hazards of DDT

1975 – Works made ill from Kepone

manufacture in Hopewell, Virginia

Historical Events

Right-to-Know

Pesticides must be labeled. The “label” includes

the actual label on the container and literature that

comes with the pesticide.

Employees have a legal right to know what

chemicals they may be exposed to and to review

the “label” or Material Safety Data Sheets for

those chemicals.

A pesticide label is a legal document.

Material Safety Data Sheets • MSDS give the user information needed to use the

chemical safely, including:

• Manufacturer contact information

• Components, contaminants, and exposure limits

• Fire and explosion data

• Toxicity data

• Health hazards

• Effects of exposure

• Emergency and first aid

• Appropriate protective equipment

Sample Pesticide Label

Ingredients

Formulation

Child

Warning

Directions

Manufacturer

Registry No.

Storage &

Disposal

Re-entry

Statement

Classes Of Pesticides

Insecticides (kill insects) • Organochlorines

• Organophosphates

• Carbamates

• Synthetic Pyrethroids

Herbicides (kill plants)

Rodenticides (kill rodents)

Fungicides (kill fungus)

Fumigants (kill whatever)

Insecticides

Insecticides (kill insects) • Organochlorines

• Organophosphates

• Carbamates

• Synthetic Pyrethroids

Organochlorines

Examples DDT, methoxychlor, aldrin, dieldrin, endrin,

heptachlor, kepone, lindane, chlordane

Toxicity Acute toxicity variable, CNS – convulsions,

coma

Environmental characteristics Highly persistent in environment, fat soluble,

bioaccumulation, biomagnification

Mostly banned in US and Europe

Organophosphates-1

Examples Malathion, parathion, guthion, diazinon,

TPN, TOCP, nerve gases – tabun, sarin, soman, VX

Toxicity Acute toxicity highly variable –

Parathion, TPN, sarin very toxic, malathion much less

Environmental characteristics Rapidly degrade in outdoor environment

(last longer in doors), do not bioaccumulate

Organophosphates-2

Mechanism of toxicity Inhibition of acetylcholinesterase (AchE) in

nerve tissue

Symptoms Over-stimulation of parasympathetic nervous

system --- salivation, constricted pupils,

diarrhea, sweating, muscle twitching, CNS

disturbances – coma and death

Treatment Reverse AchE inhibition effects – use

Atropine to block Ach receptors or AchE

inhibiton with 2-PAM

Organophosphates-3

Other Toxic Effects

• Delayed peripheral neuropathy (TOCP)

• Not a carcinogen or teratogen

• Possible long term neurological

consequences from repeated

exposures

Carbamates

Examples Sevin (carbaryl), Baygon (propoxur), Temik

(aldicarb)

Toxicity Aldicarb very toxic, others less toxic

Mechanism and signs of toxicity Similar to organophosphates

Environmental characteristics Not persistent in environment

Pyrethroids

Synthetic Pyrethroids Based on naturally occurring pyrethrums –

from chrysanthemum flowers

Discovered by Chinese in 100 AD

First commercial use in 1800’s

First synthetic pyrethroids in 1980

Relatively low animal toxicity

Effects movement of cellular Na+ (sodium)

Use Growing rapidly

Herbicides (Kill Plants)

Silvex, 2,4-D, D,4,5-T Most widely used

Possible carcinogen

Contaminated with TCDD (dioxin)

(older formulations)

Paraquat & diquat Serious toxicity following accumulation

in lungs – production of oxygen “free

radicals” – often fatal once started

Herbicides 2,4-D

Cl

Cl O CH2 C OH

= O

One of the most widely used herbicides

Paraquat Use

http://ca.water.usgs.gov/pnsp/use92/pquat.html

Rodenticides (kill rodents)

Botanicals Red squill – effects heart

Strychnine – blocks glycine receptors in

spinal cord - convulsions

Inorganics Phosphorous – GI track

Thallium – hair loss, nervous system

Zinc phosphide – GI track

Anticoagulants Warfarin – inhibits blood clotting

Vacor – newer blood clot inhibitors

Fungicides (kill fungi/mold)

Early Examples

Sulfur, cooper sulfate

Mercury based compounds

Hexachlorobenzene

Pentachlorophenol

Dithiocarbamates

Mechanism of Action- How

they work Oganochlorines & Pyrethroids

- Enzymes, axonal membranes

(Na+, K+, Ca++, Cl-)

Organophosphates &

Carbamates

- excess acetylcholine

Problems with pesticides

• Pesticides are a continued public health

concern

• Ideally, they should works on insects then

disappears…. but in

• Reality, water/soil contamination,

accumulate in tissue

Problems with pesticides

• Bioaccumulate – example DDT, PCB

• 35,000 or more commercial

products that use pesticides

• Many pesticides are neurotoxic

(affect the nervous system)

• Many kill desirable insects or plants

• Contaminate streams and lakes

Ingestion

Inhalation (lung)

Skin (dermal)

Absorption

Home Exposure

Accidental ingestion

Lawn and garden use

Insect control

Food supply

Water supply

Occupational Exposure

Farms & Farm worker

Pesticide applicator

Manufacture

Mixing and handling

Landscapers

Many more ……

Other Exposure

Dietary exposure

• Pesticide residues on crops

Community exposure

• Airborne drift from commercial app

Contaminated drinking water • Leaching from soils to ground water

Chlordane “Chlordane America’s leading lawn and

garden insecticide. Used extensively by

pest control operators for termite control,

because of its long lasting effectiveness.”

Velsicol Chemical Corporation –

Advertisement – 1959

U.S. EPA lists chlordane as a persistent

bioaccumulative toxic. In 1978, EPA

cancelled use of chlordane on food crops

and 1988 all use was banned.

What Is This?

Cl C

H

CCl3

DDT

Cl C

H

CCl3

• Organochlorine insecticide

• 1945 control of mosquitoes

• Effective but very persistent

• Very soluble in fat

• Damaged bird eggs

• The next few slides indicate how

pesticides bioaccumulate, and note that

the problems with them stem from their

wide spread use.

• Persistence + Lipid solubility =

Bioaccumulation

Bioaccumulation

waterzooplankton0.04 ppm

small fish0.5 ppmlarge fish2 ppmbirds25 ppm

E.g DDT

Organophosphates Map

Organophosphorus pesticide occurrence and distribution in

surface and ground water of the United States, 1992-97

http://ga.water.usgs.gov/publications/abstracts/ofr00-187.html

Use in the US and Globally

How many pounds of

pesticide are use each year

in the US? In the world?

How many dollars is this?

US Total - 1997

Type

Billions of

Pounds Percent

Conventional Pesticides 0.97 21

Other pesticides chemicals 0.26 6

Subtotal (Agriculture Based) 1.23 27

Wood preservatives 0.66 14

Specialty biocides 0.27 6

Chlorine/hypochlorites 2.46 53

Grand Total 4.63 100

Source: EPA OPP, 1997

Chlorine/hypochlorites: water disinfectants

US & World Use - 1997

Source: EPA OPP, 1997

Volume of Active Ingredient (Billions of Pounds)

Pesticide Class (B lb.) (%) (B lb.) (%)

Herbicides 0.57 46% 2.25 40%

Insecticides 0.13 10% 1.47 26%

Fungicides 0.08 7% 0.54 9%

Other1

0.45 37% 1.42 25%

Total 1.23 100% 5.68 100%

U.S. Market World Market

1Other - Dose not cover industrial wood preservatives, specialty biocides and chlorine/hypochlorites

Agriculture Based Pesticides

US & World Use - 1997 Agriculture Based Pesticides

User Expenditures (Billions of Dollars)

Pesticide Class ($ B) (%) ($ B) (%)

Herbicides $6.85 58% $16.89 46%

Insecticides $3.55 30% $11.59 31%

Fungicides $0.80 7% $6.04 16%

Other1

$0.70 6% $2.53 7%

Total $11.90 100% $37.05 100%

U.S. Market World Market

1Other - Dose not cover industrial wood preservatives, specialty biocides and chlorine/hypochlorites

Source: EPA OPP, 1997

Chapter 19 - Consumer

Concerns about Foods and

Water

Pesticide Hazards

Acute exposure

Chronic exposure

Inhalation

Absorption through skin

Through food or water

How pesticides get in

Exposure levels

Central nervous system

Skin irritation

Eye irritation

Health effects (depends on specific pesticide)

Hormone imbalance

Cancer

Liver damage

Reproductive effects

Misuse of Pesticides

• Unintentional Misuse

• Unintentional Release

• Intentional Misuse

Unintentional Misuse

• Results from poor knowledge of correct use of pesticides or equipment…

• Prevent through effective training, certification and supervision.

• Respond by correcting practices through prevention program.

• Report when unintentional misuse could have impacts on health, environment, food products.

Pesticides and Terrorism?

Investigations after the 9/11 attacks raised the concern

that terrorists might use crop dusters to spray pesticides on

large crowds.

Pesticides have not been used often in terrorist attacks.

Regulation of pesticides p 678

• Pesticides are carefully

regulated by the Environmental

Protection Agency (EPA),

which reviews studies to

determine the risks posed by

individual pesticides.

• Regulated by WHO, EPA, FDA, FAO

1947 Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and

Rodenticide Act (FIFRA)

Food and Drug Administration

1972 – EPA takes over FIFRA – expanded

registration and safety requirements

1996 – Food Quality Protection Act

Regulatory Status

• Focus – long-term prevention of pest

problems

• Reduce or eliminate chemical pest

control methods

• Monitor for the presence of pests before

treating

• Nonchemical strategies (make habitat

less attractive, physical controls)

• Learn about your pests

Integrated Pest Management (IPM)

Honey Bees - Excellent Indicator

of Environmental Pesticides Acephate

Acetamiprid

Aldicarb sulfone

Aldicarb sulfoxide

Allethrin

Amicarbazone

Amitraz (2,4-DMA)

Amitraz (2,4-DMPF)

Atrazine

Azinophos-methyl

Azoxystrobin

Bendiocarb

Bifenthrin

Boscalid

Captan

Carbaryl

Carbaryl (1-Naphthol)

Carbendazim

Carbofuran, 3-hydroxy

Carfentrazone

Chlorfenapyr

Chlorothalonil

Chlorpyrifos

Coumaphos

Coumaphos-Chlorferone

Coumaphos oxon

Cyfluthrin

Cyhalothrin (total)

Cypermethrin

Cyprodinil

Deltamethrin

Diazinon

Dicofol

Difenoconazole

Diflubenzuron

Dimethomorph

Diphenylamine

Endosulfan 1

Endosulfan 2

Endosulfan sulfate

Esfenvalerate

Etoxazole

Fenbuconazole

Fenhexamid

Fenpropathrin

Fluvalinate

Heptachlor

Hexachlorobenzene

Imidacloprid

Imidacloprid olefin

Imidacloprid, 5-hydroxy

Indoxacarb

Malathion

Methidathion

Methoxyfenozide

Methyl parathion

Metolachlor

Metribuzin

Myclobutanil

Norflurazon

Oxamyl

Oxyfluorfen

p,p'-DDE

Pendimethalin

Permethrin

Phosmet

Pyraclostrobin

Pyrethrins

Pyrimethanil

Quintozene (PCNB)

Sethoxydim

Simazine

Tebuconazole

Tebufenozide

Tebuthiuron

Tetramethrin

Thiabendazole

Thiacloprid

Tribufos

Trifloxystrobin

Trifluralin

Vinclozolin

Multiresidue Pesticide Analysis on US Wax,

Pollen and Bees Samples 2007-08

• Very few samples lacked detections

• Found 121 different pesticides and metabolites

pyrethroids, organophosphates, carbamates, neonicotinoids

insect growth regulators, organochlorines, chlorinated cyclodienes,

20 fungicides, 12 herbicides, 2 acaricides, 1 synergist,

At least 14 of these are systemic pesticides

• On average 6 different pesticides per pollen sample

- Up to 31 in a single sample

Pesticide or

Metabolite Class LOD

Samples

Analyzed

Total

Detections

% of

Samples

Mean

(ppb)

SEM

(ppb)

Lowest

Value

Highest

Value

LD50

(ppb)

Carbaryl

PS

CARB 5 836 44 5.3 170.2 9.9 4.5 1010.0 10500

Coumaphos OP 1 887 668 75.3 1454.6 174.8 1.0 91900.0 46300

Fluvalinate PYR 1 887 749 84.4 2947.6 330.7 1.1 204000.0 15860

Imidacloprid NEO 2 836 14 1.7 77.5 5.9 2.4 646.0 280

Imidacloprid

olefin NEO 25 836 2 0.2 597.0 2.1 554.0 640.0 280

Imidacloprid,

5-hydroxy NEO 25 836 2 0.2 151.0 0.0 150.0 152.0 280

Chlorpyrifos OP 0.1 886 396 44.7 40.1 4.0 0.1 890.0 1220

Chlorothalonil FUNG 1 797 316 39.6 1860.4 286.3 1.0 98900.0 1110000

Selected Pesticides fond in WAX, POLLEN and BEES

Pesticide or

Metabolite Class LOD

Samples

Analyzed

Total

Detections

% of

Samples

Mean

(ppb)

SEM

(ppb)

Lowest

Value

Highest

Value

LD50

(ppb)

Carbaryl

PS

CARB 5 836 44 5.3 170.2 9.9 4.5 1010.0 10500

Coumaphos OP 1 887 668 75.3 1454.6 174.8 1.0 91900.0 46300

Fluvalinate PYR 1 887 749 84.4 2947.6 330.7 1.1 204000.0 15860

Imidacloprid NEO 2 836 14 1.7 77.5 5.9 2.4 646.0 280

Imidacloprid

olefin NEO 25 836 2 0.2 597.0 2.1 554.0 640.0 280

Imidacloprid,

5-hydroxy NEO 25 836 2 0.2 151.0 0.0 150.0 152.0 280

Chlorpyrifos OP 0.1 886 396 44.7 40.1 4.0 0.1 890.0 1220

Chlorothalonil FUNG 1 797 316 39.6 1860.4 286.3 1.0 98900.0 1110000

Selected Pesticides fond in WAX, POLLEN and BEES

Pesticide or

Metabolite Class LOD

Samples

Analyzed

Total

Detections

% of

Samples

Mean

(ppb)

SEM

(ppb)

Lowest

Value

Highest

Value

LD50

(ppb)

Carbaryl

PS

CARB 5 836 44 5.3 170.2 9.9 4.5 1010.0 10500

Coumaphos OP 1 887 668 75.3 1454.6 174.8 1.0 91900.0 46300

Fluvalinate PYR 1 887 749 84.4 2947.6 330.7 1.1 204000.0 15860

Imidacloprid NEO 2 836 14 1.7 77.5 5.9 2.4 646.0 280

Imidacloprid

olefin NEO 25 836 2 0.2 597.0 2.1 554.0 640.0 280

Imidacloprid,

5-hydroxy NEO 25 836 2 0.2 151.0 0.0 150.0 152.0 280

Chlorpyrifos OP 0.1 886 396 44.7 40.1 4.0 0.1 890.0 1220

Chlorothalonil FUNG 1 797 316 39.6 1860.4 286.3 1.0 98900.0 1110000

Selected Pesticides fond in WAX, POLLEN and BEES

Pesticide or

Metabolite Class LOD

Samples

Analyzed

Total

Detections

% of

Samples

Mean

(ppb)

SEM

(ppb)

Lowest

Value

Highest

Value

LD50

(ppb)

Carbaryl

PS

CARB 5 836 44 5.3 170.2 9.9 4.5 1010.0 10500

Coumaphos OP 1 887 668 75.3 1454.6 174.8 1.0 91900.0 46300

Fluvalinate PYR 1 887 749 84.4 2947.6 330.7 1.1 204000.0 15860

Imidacloprid NEO 2 836 14 1.7 77.5 5.9 2.4 646.0 280

Imidacloprid

olefin NEO 25 836 2 0.2 597.0 2.1 554.0 640.0 280

Imidacloprid,

5-hydroxy NEO 25 836 2 0.2 151.0 0.0 150.0 152.0 280

Chlorpyrifos OP 0.1 886 396 44.7 40.1 4.0 0.1 890.0 1220

Chlorothalonil FUNG 1 797 316 39.6 1860.4 286.3 1.0 98900.0 1110000

Selected Pesticides fond in WAX, POLLEN and BEES

Pesticide or

Metabolite Class LOD

Samples

Analyzed

Total

Detections

% of

Samples

Mean

(ppb)

SEM

(ppb)

Lowest

Value

Highest

Value

LD50

(ppb)

Carbaryl

PS

CARB 5 836 44 5.3 170.2 9.9 4.5 1010.0 10500

Coumaphos OP 1 887 668 75.3 1454.6 174.8 1.0 91900.0 46300

Fluvalinate PYR 1 887 749 84.4 2947.6 330.7 1.1 204000.0 15860

Imidacloprid NEO 2 836 14 1.7 77.5 5.9 2.4 646.0 280

Imidacloprid

olefin NEO 25 836 2 0.2 597.0 2.1 554.0 640.0 280

Imidacloprid,

5-hydroxy NEO 25 836 2 0.2 151.0 0.0 150.0 152.0 280

Chlorpyrifos OP 0.1 886 396 44.7 40.1 4.0 0.1 890.0 1220

Chlorothalonil FUNG 1 797 316 39.6 1860.4 286.3 1.0 98900.0 1110000

Selected Pesticides fond in WAX, POLLEN and BEES

Outcomes of Honey Bee Pesticide Analysis

• No “commodity” has had as many detections at such high amounts in so few samples over

such a short time as has bee pollen

• Highest detections were in-house miticides, fluvalinate and coumaphos, but well over 100

other pesticides and metabolites found

• Pyrethroids dominate: known to impact foraging behavior,

• No individual chemical is likely to explain CCD

• Systemic or other fungicides occur at levels that may synergize with pyrethroids,

organophosphates or neonicotinoids.

• Role of pesticides and diseases like IAPV in CCD remains to be reconstituted in lab

bioassays at relevant doses

• Impacts of multiple pesticide residues in bee food most likely will be via synergistic

interactions at sublethal levels on key behaviors/physiology

What impact are they having?

• Toxic effect (multiple pesticides) (Sara Ashcraft)

– Synergistic insecticides + fungicides

• Behavioral effects – Learning and retention (Daniel Schmehl)

• Comparison of European and African bees

• Physiological effects – Immune system function (Diana Cox-Foster)

– Longevity

• Larval development - adult behavior and physiology

Pesticides

• Pesticides can be safe when used appropriately, but

leave residue on foods.

• When used inappropriately, they can be hazardous.

• Consumers can minimize exposure to pesticides in

foods by following specific food preparation

guidelines.

• Pesticides can improve crop yields.

• Alternative farming methods are being explored.

Pesticides

• Hazards and Regulation of Pesticides – Hazards of Pesticides

• Tolerance level set by government

• People with weakened immune systems may be vulnerable.

– Regulation of Pesticides • EPA and FDA keep within safe limits

• Enforces the law

– Pesticides from Other Countries • Policies must be established.

• Imported foods contaminated with our banned pesticides that were sold outside the U.S. (circle of poison)

Pesticides

• Monitoring Pesticides

– Food in the Fields

• Monitoring programs

• Certifications with periodic inspections

– Food on the Plate

• Survey research to determine how much is

consumed

• The Total Diet Study estimates pesticide

consumption.

Pesticides

• Consumer Concerns

– Minimizing Risks

• Trim fat and remove skin.

• Select fruits and vegetables without holes.

• Wash fresh produce with a scrub brush and rinse.

• Use a knife to peel.

• Discard outer leaves.

• Peel.

• Eat a variety of foods.

• Consider buying certified organic foods.

• Food selection/prep to decrease risk

Food Prep to Reduce Pesticides

• Trim fat, remove skin

• Wash produce

• Use a knife to peel oranges and grapefruit

• Discard outer leaves lettuce

• Peel waxed fruits and vegetables

In-text Figure

Page 673

Washing fresh fruits

and vegetables

removes most, if

not all, of the

pesticide residues

that might have

been present.

Pesticides

• Consumer Concerns

– Alternatives to Pesticides

• Natural pesticides

• Genetically altered plants; crop rotation

• Using organisms to kill pests

• Alternative farming methods

Pesticides

• Consumer Concerns

– Organically Grown Crops

• Produce and market organic crops

• USDA labeling for organic foods

– 100% organic ingredients may claim 100% organic and use

seal

– 95% organic ingredients may claim organic and use seal

– 70% organic ingredients may list up to three ingredients on the

front of the package

– Less than 70% organic ingredients may list them on the side

panel but not make claims on the front of the package

With the benefits of a safe and

abundant food supply comes the

responsibility to select, prepare, and

store foods safely.

Reduce use

Reduce Exposure

Seek alternatives Integrated Pest Management (IPM)

Beware of local and global

use

Summary

Additional Information

Pesticide Action Network North America

- http://www.panna.org

Washington Toxics Coalition

- http://www.watoxics.org

Pesticide Database site

- http://www.pesticideinfo.org/

US EPA Office of Pesticides

- http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/

USGS - NAWQA Pesticide National Synthesis

Project - http://water.wr.usgs.gov/pnsp/

University of Illinois – Pesticide Impact

Assessment - http://ext.agn.uiuc.edu/piap/

•FOOD

ADDITIVES

What is a Food Additive?

The term ''food additive'' means any substance the

intended use of which results or may reasonably be

expected to result, directly or indirectly, in its

becoming a component or otherwise affecting the

characteristics of any food (including any substance

intended for use in producing, manufacturing, packing,

processing, preparing, treating, packaging,

transporting, or holding food;….

if such substance is not Generally Recognized As Safe,

Sec. 201(s) FFDCA: Definition

21 CFR 170.3(e)(1)

What is a Food Additive?

Sec. 201(s) FFDCA: Definition

• Any substance, that is reasonably expected to become a component of food as a result of its intended use,

• If such use in not Generally Recognized As Safe (GRAS)

IN SHORT

Why food additives are used (PAT)

Preserving

Attractive

Tastier

Main classes of food additives include

1. Colourings

2. Preservatives

3. Flavourings

4. Emulsifiers and stabilizers(Stabilize oil-water

mixtures like ice-cream)

5. Acids, bases and buffers(Control the pH value of

food)

6. Sweeteners(To sweeten food without using sugar)

7. Nutrients

What are the advantages/disadvantages

of food additives?

Should additives always be avoided? Some additives make food taste better, last longer or are actually good for you. Some should be avoided and may cause allergic reactions. But some manufacturers imply that additives are bad, and that having no additives is a good thing. What do you think?

Baked beans are good for you and taste good. But take away the additive and the sauce becomes thin and watery. The additive here is cornflour or starch, a natural product that has been used to thicken sauces for years. Is this an additive you would like to see banned?

Many savoury snacks contain salt – one of the oldest additives on the planet. Some also contain monosodium glutamate or MSG. This helps us to taste flavours so gives food a stronger taste. Some people react badly to MSG. But would you ban it for everyone?

Tartrazine is a yellow colouring. It makes some types of orange squash more orange in colour. Do we need it? Look at these bottles – one with and one without. Which would you buy? And which do you think would taste better? Some people react badly to tartrazine so some manufacturers have started to replace it with turmeric.

Some additives help to stop food going off. The most commonly used preservatives include benzoic acid or citric acid. Fruit drinks, jams and marmalades, many cakes and biscuits contain preservatives. So, here’s another choice – additives or foods that will go off more quickly?

We’ve all got a very sweet tooth nowadays. The average teenager in the UK gets through 19 kg of sugar every year in foods before they add any to their tea or coffee! This adds lots of calories to our diets and is not good for your teeth. Perhaps an artificial sweetener like aspartame is actually healthier?

All the additives so far have been useful, mostly harmless to most people and can make foods look and taste better. One of the last groups of additives is actually guaranteed to make you healthier. It’s an antioxidant called … vitamin C! This is added to fruit drinks to stop oxygen in the air spoiling the flavour and colour of the drink. It does the same job in some cured meats and is added to many breakfast cereals.

Well, I will avoid some additives but most seem pretty safe to me. I would ban some but keep the others.

Additives are bad. If we concentrated on making good quality healthy food and eating local produce we wouldn’t need them. There is a risk – however small. Let’s just get rid of them all for safety’s sake.

Which of these viewpoints do you agree with? Are there any additives you would ban? And why? Or should some be made compulsory to improve our diet?

What a lot of fuss about nothing! Additives have been tested and any that are unsafe are soon banned. They keep our foods fresh, make them taste better and some even make them healthier for us! What’s there to ban?

• Many of the food additives used are

preservatives.

• Limitations

• Cannot be used:

– To disguise faulty/inferior products

– To deceive consumer

– If significantly destroy nutrients

– If effects can be achieved by sound

manufacturing

• Must have purpose

– Improve color/flavor/texture/stability

– Spoilage inhibitor

– Improve nutritional value

The FDA regulates the use of

intentional additives.

• Consumers are concerned about the incidental additives.

• Regulations Governing Additives

– The GRAS (generally recognized as safe) List • Additives that have been in use a long time

• Believed to be safe based on current scientific evidence

• Ongoing review

Regulations Governing Food

Additives

• Regulations Governing Additives

– The Delaney Clause • Additives that have not been shown to cause

cancer in animals or humans

• Criticism of being too strict and inflexible

• No more than 1 in a million risk

– Margin of Safety • Determined by experimental research

• 100 times below the lowest level that is found to cause harm

Delaney Clause

• No substance known to cause CA, at ANY

DOSE, may be added to foods

• No way to evaluate

– ? Rats vs humans

– Saccharin

– Nitrates: Preservative, anti-botulism agent;

stomach CA

GRAS List

• Generally recognized as safe

• Food additives list used long time,

believed to be safe (about 700 items)

• Re-evaluated periodically

Food Drug & Cosmetic Act

(As amended, 1958)

• Defines “food additive” w/GRAS exemption

• Requires premarket approval of new uses of food additives

• Establishes the standard of review

• Establishes the standard of safety

• Establishes formal rulemaking procedures

Sec. 409 FFDCA

• Regulations Governing Additives

– Risks versus Benefits • Use the lowest amount needed to get the effect

• Cannot disguise faulty or inferior foods

• Cannot deceive consumers

• Cannot be used where nutrients are significantly destroyed

• Cannot be used where their effects can be achieved by economical, sound manufacturing processes

• FDA regulates but manufacturers must prove:

– Effectiveness

– Measurability

– Safety

• If additive involves risk, allowed at level 100 X less than where risk is zero

– Margin of safety = 1/100

• Petitioner is responsible for demonstrating safety

• FDA is responsible for

– Conducting a full and fair evaluation of the data and information

– Issuing a regulation if FDA scientists conclude the requested use is “SAFE”

FDA Petitioner

• Mechanism: FFDCA---Sec. 409---Necessary

Tools

• Process: Safety Evaluation---Scientific review

team

• Result: Regulations, notifications, and

exemptions

Food Additives

• Reading labels

• Intentional vs indirect or incidental

additives

Intentional Food Additives

• Intentional Food Additives

– Antimicrobial Agents

• Salt and sugar

• Nitrites and nitrates

• Nitrites can be converted to nitrosamines in the

human body.

• Discuss the advantage(s) and the disadvantage(s) of using nitrite additives.

• Advantages:

• Decreases the risk of botulin toxin formation.(botulism)

• Maintain a pink colour of meat.

• Disadvantages:

• Decreases level of haemoglobin in the blood.

• Malnutrition.

• Growth retardation./ may cause cancer.

Reproductive capacity impairment,

reduce life span

Food Additives

• Intentional Food Additives

– Antioxidants

• Vitamin C (erythorbic acid, sodium ascorbate)

• Vitamin E (tocopherol)

Food Additives

• Antioxidants – Sulfites (sulfur oxide, sodium sulfite, sodium bisulfate,

potassium bisulfate, sodium metabisulfite, and potassium metabisulfate)

• Prevent oxidation in many processed foods

• Adverse reactions in people

• Declare on the label

• Inhibit use on raw foods

• Destroy thiamin

– BHA and BHT • Prevent rancidity in baked goods and snack foods

• Cancer link – protect in small amounts, harm in larger amounts

• Suggest the uses of sulphur dioxide as

food additives.

• Acts as a preservatives for

• dehydrated fruit and vegetables.

• wine(the fermented juice of fresh grapes)

• non-alcoholic beverage(drinkable liquid)

Food Additives

• Intentional Food Additives

– Colors

• Natural colors include annatto, caramel,

carotenoids, dehydrated beets, and grape skins.

• Artificial colors include blue #1 and #2, green #3,

red #40 and #3, yellow #5 and #6.

Food Additives

• Intentional Food Additives

– Artificial Flavors and Flavor Enhancers

• Natural flavors include spices, herbs, essential oils, fruits,

and fruit juices.

• Artificial flavors include artificial sweeteners.

• Flavor enhancers include MSG or monosodium glutamate.

– Used in Asian foods, canned vegetables, soups, and processed

meats

– MSG symptom complex has adverse reactions in some people.

– Must be listed on the label

Food Additives

• Intentional Food Additives – Texture and Stability

• Common emulsifiers – for stabilization

– Lecithin

– Alginates

– Mono- and diglycerides

• Common gums – to thicken and gel

– Agar, alginates, and carrageenan

– Guar, locust bean, and psyllium

– Pectin

– Xanthan gum

– Gum Arabic

– Cellulose derivatives

Food Additives

• Artificial colors

• Artificial flavors

• Antimicrobial agents

• Antioxidants

• Nutrient additives

Artificial Colors

• Dispensable (make food “pretty”)

– Crystal Pepsi

– 7-Up

– Red Dye # 2 = CA?

– Tartrazine (FD & C yellow # 5)

In-text Figure

Page 679

Color additives not only make foods attractive, but identify

flavors as well. Everyone agrees that yellow jellybeans

should taste lemony and black ones like licorice.

Artificial Flavors

• Largest single group of additives (~ 2000)

• MSG

• Orange “drink” vs juice

Antimicrobials

• Antimicrobial Agents

– Protects food

– Salt / sugar

• H2O removed from food

• jams, jellies, salted foods

– Nitrites

• Smoked/cured foods (nitrosamines = CA)

In-text Figure

Page 677

Both salt and sugar act as preservatives by

withdrawing water from food; microbes cannot

grow without water.

Antioxidants

• 27 antioxidants approved – Including vitamins C and E

• Sulfites – Hypersensitivity

– Can destroy thiamin in foods

– Banned in salad bars; still used in beer, wine, some processed foods

• BHA & BHT – Decrease rancidity (foods with fat)

– BHT: ? protective CA rats; high levels ? cause CA rats

Intentional Food Additives

• Intentional Food Additives

– Nutrient Additives

• Appropriate uses

– Correct dietary deficiencies

– Restore nutrients to levels prior to storage, handling, and

processing

– Balance vitamin, mineral, and protein content of a food in

proportion to its energy content

– Correct nutritional inferiority

Food Additives Nutrient Additives

– Common Nutrient Additives

• Thiamin, niacin, riboflavin, folate, and iron in grain

products

• Iodine in salt

• Vitamins A and D in milk

• Vitamin C and calcium in fruit drinks

• Vitamin B12 in vegetarian foods

Nutrient Additives

• Used to improve/maintain nutritional value

of food

• Refined:

– Usually refers to grains (white flour)

– Removal of bran and germ

• Whole Grain:

– Not refined

Nutrient Additives

• Enriched:

– Nutrients added back to refined food; usually grains; thiamin, riboflavin, niacin and iron

• Fortified:

– Nutrients added not originally in food: • Iodized salt

• Vit A and D fortified milk

• Ca fortified OJ

Nutrient Additives, continued

• Supplement:

– Nutrients added in high amounts (>50% RDI)

– Some cereals more like pills than whole

grains

Nutrient Additives

• Supplement:

– Nutrients added in high amounts (>50% RDI)

– Some cereals more like pills than whole

grains

Food Additives

• Indirect or incidental food additives enter food

through harvesting, production, processing,

storage, or packaging.

– Acrylamide

• Causes cancer and nerve damage in high doses

• Found in potatoes cooked at high temperatures (french fries

and potato chips, breakfast cereals, and cookies)

• Also classified as a genotoxicant – a substance that mutates

or damages genetic materials

Food Additives

• Indirect Food Additives

– Microwave Packaging

• Active packaging is where the packaging components

migrate into food.

• Passive packaging is where the package simply holds the

foods but components can migrate into food at high

temperatures.

• Test empty glass or ceramic containers in microwave for 1

minute:

– If warm, do not use.

– If lukewarm, it is safe for short-term heating.

– If cool, it is safe for long-term cooking.

Food Additives

• Indirect Food Additives

– Dioxins

• Chemical pollutants created as by-products of chemical

manufacturing, incineration, chlorine bleaching of paper pulp,

and other industrial processes

• Found in coffee filters, milk cartons, paper plates, and frozen

food packages in minute quantities

– Decaffeinated Coffee

• Methylene chloride found in decaffeinated coffee

• Depends on the decaffeinating process used

Food Additives

• Indirect Food Additives

– Hormones

• Bovine growth hormone (BGH) in cattle to produce

leaner meats and dairy cows to produce more milk

• All cows make this hormone naturally.

• Food levels are regulated and monitored.

• Digested by the human body

• Still controversy

Food Additives

• Indirect Food Additives

– Antibiotics

• Given to animals and residues remain in meat and

milk

• People with sensitivities may suffer allergic

reactions.

• Antibiotic resistance is a problem.

Food additives and health

• Beware of:Allergies

• Hyperactivity e.g. E102

• Long-term illness (such as cancer)

• Chinese Restaurant Syndrome

• headache, asthma , faint or even death

• MSG

• burning sensations, thirst, vomiting

1. Look at these two food labels.

Muesli Ham spread

Ingredients Ingredients

Wheat flakes, raisins, oats,

sultanas, chopped Brazil nuts,

chopped dated, chopped

apricots, fried unsweetened

bananas, roasted coconut,

preservative E250.

Ham, cured pork tongues,

preservative E250, pork, water,

liver, flour, spices, sodium

polyphosphate E450, flavour

enhancer E620, colour E102

and E128.

(a) Which of the two foods contains artificial colouring?

List all these colouring.

(b) Which additive prevents the growth of micro-organism?

Questions:

A can of fizzy drink includes the following ingredients:

carbonated water, sucrose, vitamin C, butyl butanoate,

citric acid

In the drink, vitamin C is used as an anti-oxidant.

a) Why is an anti-oxidant used?

b) Suggest another reason for including vitamin C in

the drink.

c) Name ONE other anti-oxidant that can be used.

d) Why is butyl butanoate used in the drink? (2001Q.3)

Question:

• Which of the following statements

concerning monosodium glutamate is

correct?

• It sweetens food.

• It prevents food from being oxidized.

• It emulsifies oil and water in food.

• It enhances the flavour of food.

• Which of the following substances are commonly found in canned grapefruit juice?

• citric acid. (2) benzoic acid (3) ethanoic acid

• (1) and (2) only

• (1) and (3) only

• (2) and (3) only

• (1), (2) and (3)

Consumer Concerns about

Water

p687

Consumer Concerns about

Water • Water may contain infectious

microorganisms, environmental

contaminates, pesticide residues, and

additives.

• The EPA monitors the safety of public

water systems.

• Many consumers are choosing home

water treatment systems or drinking

bottled water.

Consumer Concerns about

Water • Sources of Drinking Water (potable water)

– Surface water • Sources include lakes, rivers, and reservoirs.

• Readily contaminated through acid rain, runoff from highways and urban areas, pesticide runoff from agricultural areas, and industrial wastes

• Refreshed by fresh rain, aeration, sunlight, plants, and microorganisms

Water Supply

• Hard water:

– Rich in Calcium, Magnesium

• Soft water:

– Add sodium to extract minerals

– The harder the water initially, the more sodium is used

• Toxic heavy metals can accumulate: pipes, city sewage, industrial waste

Consumer Concerns about

Water • Sources of Drinking Water

– Ground water

• Sources include underground aquifers.

• Supplies rural areas and pumped by wells

• Contaminated more slowly but more permanently

• Especially susceptible to contamination from hazardous

waste sites, dumps, landfills, underground tanks storing

gasoline and other chemicals, and improperly discarded

household chemicals and solvents

Consumer Concerns about

Water • Water Systems and Regulations

– Home Water Treatments

• Shop carefully.

• Advantages and disadvantages

• Determine the quality of home water first.

Consumer Concerns about

Water • Water Systems and Regulations

– Bottled Water

• FDA has quality and safety standards.

• Expensive

• Water source must be identified

• Refrigerate after opening

• May contain contaminants

Food Biotechnology

Food Biotechnology

• Biotechnology, with proper safeguards and

controls, provides opportunities to

overcome food shortages, improve the

environment, and eliminate disease.

Fig. H19-1a, p. 694

Traditional Selective Breeding

Traditional selective breeding combines many genes from two

varieties of the same species to produce one with the desired

characteristics.

Donor Commercial variety

+

In the new variety,

many genes have

been transferred.

=

Desired

gene

Desired

gene

Stepped Art

Fig. H19-1b, p. 694

Genetic Engineering

Through genetic engineering, a single gene (or several) are

transferred from the same or different species to produce one

with the desired characteristics.

Donor Commercial variety

+

In the new variety,

only the desired

gene is transferred.

=

Desired

gene isolated

Desired

gene

Stepped Art

In-text Figure

Page 688

Genetically modified cauliflower is orange, reflecting

a change in a single gene that increases its

production of beta-carotene 100-fold. P 694

The Promises of Genetic

Engineering • Also called genetically modified (GM) or

genetically engineered (GE) foods

• Extended Shelf Life – tomato example

• Improved Nutrient Composition – biofortification

• Efficient Food Processing – bacteria mass produce rennin for cheese making

• Efficient Drug Delivery – biopharmacy by using plants and animals to produce drugs

• Genetically Assisted Agriculture – plant pesticides grown by the plant itself

• Other Possibilities

The Potential Problems and

Concerns • Disruption of natural ecosystems

• Introduction of diseases

• Introduction of allergens and toxins

• Creation of biological weapons

• Ethical dilemmas

• Rigorous testing and labeling

FDA Regulations

• Many foods are already genetically altered through

selective breeding.

• Many foods are not substantially different.

• Foods that are substantially different require labeling

to identify that difference.

• Allergy-causing substances must be labeled.

• Can these regulations ensure an improved food

supply?