Chapter 12Getting the Project Started
Winston Jackson and Norine Verberg
Methods: Doing Social Research, 4e
12-2 © 2007 Pearson Education Canada
Choosing a Problem, a Design, and VariablesDoing research involves making a series of
consecutive decisions including:
1. Choosing a problem
2. Choosing a design
3. Determining the precise questions
4. Reviewing the literature
5. Using the Internet and other online sources
6. Choosing variables
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1. Choosing a Problem
The single most important consideration in choosing a topic is genuine interest!
Possible topics may be derived from:A. Current issue
subject of public debate, concern
B. Variation in dependent variable e.g., What factors influence grade performance?
C. Testing a theory examine a relationship between variables
predicted by theory but which is not obvious to common sense
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1. Choosing a Problem (cont’d)
D. Testing partial theories Testing alternative explanations for a well-
established relationship
E. Testing folk wisdom Study a taken-for-granted belief (e.g., sport teams
win more often on home ice/stadium)
F. Applied research Research that has immediate relevance to the
group being studies
G. Replication study
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2. Choosing a Design
Many factors influence choice of design The nature of the research question typically
determines which design is most appropriate There are other pragmatic considerations too
Amount of time, research funds, kind of respondents available to researcher
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2. Choosing a Design (cont’d)
Step 1: What have others done?
Step 2: Consider alternatives If you face problems related to time, ethics
approval, your technical abilities, availability of funding, assistants
Step 3: Review the chapter that introduces the type of design tentatively selected
Step 4: Be prepared to reconsider the research design used
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3. Determining the Precise Questions
Articulate what you want to investigate – define your question precisely
A project cannot address all possible questions on a topic The project will become more precise as the
researcher becomes familiar with the literature and has a better sense of practical limitations
It is normal to go through a process of narrowing down the topic and specifying the hypotheses With time, the project will take shape
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4. Reviewing the Literature
Researchers review the literature to get a sense of the scientific knowledge about the topic
Accessing relevant literature Ask researchers who work in the area for
ideas on where to get information Check with reference librarian Check books and textbooks for leads Check journals that publish work in the area Use Internet and online sources
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4. Reviewing the Literature (cont’d)
Goals of the literature review include: Identifying consensus among researchers Noting inconsistencies among researchers Identifying variables that others have found to be
relevant Identifying areas that could contribute to new
understandings Seeing how others have made connections to theory Seeing how others have measured variables and
analyzed data
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5. Using the Internet and Other Online Sources
Increasingly researchers are using the Internet and online sources
Can conduct searches for papers and books on your topic Most library homepages provide links to online
search engines Reference librarians are a valuable resource
Many journals provide full-text articles online Many are free to public; some free to members
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6. Choosing Variables
Variables are defined as concepts that we intend to measure
Variables may be identified by: Reviewing the research literature Applying relevant theoretical models (variables
implied by the theory) Examining questionnaires for ideas Developing causal models and figuring out
what control variables might be relevant Your own thought on the matter
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Developing Causal Models
A causal model is a graphic representation of proposed interconnections between variables encourages clarity and accuracy
Types of models
1. Two-variable model
2. Three-variable model
3. Multivariate models
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Two-Variable Models
Use X/Y notation for independent (cause) and dependent (effect) variables
Use greater ( > ) and less than ( < ) to indicate the direction of the relationship
Use arrow to indicate causal direction Arrow points to dependent variable
> X > Y
e.g., The greater the participation in social activities (X), the greater the self-esteem (Y)
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Three-Variable Models
Involves the introduction of three additional types of variables
A. Intervening variables
B. Source of spuriousness variables
C. Antecedent variables
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Three-Variable Models:An Intervening Variable Model An intervening variable (I) is a variable that links
an independent variable (X) to a dependent variable (Y) An intervening variable model indicates the way I
influences how X and Y are related
It specifies that a change in X causes a change in I, which in turn causes a change in Y.
<insert unnumbered figure from p. 340, right-hand column>
The greater the X, the greater the I, the lower the Y
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Intervening Variable Model (cont’d)
In this diagram, three alternative explanations are suggested for the connection between X and Y
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Three-Variable Models:A Source of Spuriousness Model A source of spuriousness model proposes that the relationship
between X and Y may be explained by a third factor (called a source of spuriousness (S/S) variable)
It suggests that although X and Y are related, the relationship may be non-causal The relationship exists because a third variable (i.e., a source
of spuriousness variable) influences both X and Y
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Three-Variable Models:An Antecedent Variable Model An antecedent variable model that proposes that an antecedent
variable (A) causes variation in the independent variable (X), which, in turn, influences the dependent variable (Y)
“A” is causally prior to both the independent and dependent variables Thus, it converts the independent variable into an intervening variable
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Multivariate Models
Models that use numerous variables are known as multivariate models
Two main typesA. Candidate variable model
B. Path models
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Multivariate Models:Candidate Variable Model A candidate variable model proposes several
independent variables as possible causes of variation in the dependent variable See Figure 12.1 (next slide)
The variables on the left side of the diagram are the independent variables The arrows indicate the direction of the
relationships
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Figure 12.1 Predicting Positive Attitudes Toward the Elderly
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Multivariate Models:Path Models A path model is a graphic representation of a
complex set of proposed interrelationships among variables Shown in Figure 12.2 (next slide) and Box 2.4
The researcher specifies the nature of the relationship among the independent and dependent variables Considered more complex modelling
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Figure 12.2 Interrelationship of Major Dependent Variables
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Other Considerations
1. Stating hypotheses Good diagrams can replace formal
hypotheses statements Use arrows to show direction of relationship
(i.e., > and < symbols )
2. Specifying methods of analysis Knowing method of analysis in advance will
guide the way in which variables are measured (nominal vs. ratio level)
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Specifying Hypotheses, Procedures of Analysis Once the hypotheses have been specified,
one proposes the method of analysis to be used Researchers are strongly discouraged from
deviating from proposed hypotheses and procedures (“hunting for findings”; see Chapter 10)
renders statistical tests meaningless
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How to Know When You Are Ready to Start the Project Complete a research proposal that includes:
a problem statement a literature review a methodology section
Then, use Table 12.2, “Project Initiation Check List” (page 345), to see if you have all the necessary written materials, permissions, instruments, and equipment in place
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