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Chapter 10: Revenue Recognition and Valuation of Receivables

Overview:•What are receivables•Recognition of accounts receivable

•Treatment of sales discounts•Gross method, net method

•Valuation of accounts receivable•Direct write-off method•Allowance method

•Percentage-of-sales approach, percentage-of-receivables approach

•Recovery of accounts written-off•Are bad debts really bad?•Recognition of notes receivable•Disposition of accounts receivable and notes receivable

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Receivables: definition and categorization

• Definition: revenues recognized but not yet received, revenues on account– receivables include any taxes the seller collects on behalf of the

government• gross of VAT

• Classification – current receivables: expected to be collected within a year – noncurrent receivables: all others

– trade receivables: amounts owed by customers for goods sold and services rendered

– nontrade receivables: arise from a variety of transactions• e.g. interest, royalties, dividends, compensation for damages

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Treatment of VAT

• Example– invoice: Gross amount: 1000, including 25% VAT

• usually VAT has to be separately shown in the invoice– revenue × (1 + 25%) = 1000

• revenue = 1000/1.25 = 800– Journal entries:

Dr.: Customer 1000Cr.: revenue 800

VAT 200

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Trade Receivables

• Accounts receivable– oral promises of the purchaser to pay– usually collectible within 30-60 days– represent „open accounts“ (short-term extension of credit)

• „accounts receivable“ account in general ledger control account

summarizes total amount receivable

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Receivables / Total assets Receivables / Current assets

Manufacturing General Electric (Manufacturer) 0,35 1,03* Chevron (Oil drilling and refining) 0,09 0,47

Retail Supervalu (Grocery retail) 0,09 0,26 Tommy Hilfiger (Clothing retail) 0,09 0,26

Internet Yahoo (Internet search engine) 0,04 0,07 Cisco (Internet systems) 0,07 0,21

General services SBC Communications 0,10 0,03 (Telecommunications services) 0,04 0,24 Wendy's (Restaurant services)

Financial services Bank of America (Banking services) 0,61 0,87 Merril Lynch (Investment services) 0,47 0,52

* includes note receivable

Importance of Accounts Receivable

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Revenue recognition revisited

• Accounting regulation (IAS 18: Revenues) Revenue is to be recognized when all of the following conditions are met– it is probable that economic benefits will flow to the entity from the

respective transaction– the amount of revenue and the related costs can be measured reliably– the significant risks and rewards of the transaction have been

transferred to the buyer• specific cases

– goods sold on consignment: consignor recognizes revenue only when consignee has sold to his customer

– right of the customer to return the goods: recognition depends on the amount of risk that customer will exercise this right (consignment on approval ... return only if defective)

– warranty claims do not prevent revenue recognition but they lead to a provision (a separate debt item)

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Recognition of Accounts Receivable

• usual way if a credit sale occurs– record the sale as revenue and record

an increase in accounts receivable

– basis for recognition exchange price,i.e. the amount due from the debtor

• exchange price can be found in the contract or on the invoice– Discounts must be recognized– interest not recognized, no discounting (immaterial)

Accounts Receivable € XYZ Revenue € XYZ

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Discounts

• Trade Discounts– used to avoid frequent changes in catalogues– allow for different prices for different quantities– hide true invoice price from competitors

revenue recognized is the net amount• Sales Discounts

– offered to induce prompt payment– usually 2% - 3% if payment occurs within 10 days, net amount due

within 30 days – foregoing the discount is expensive (in terms of opportunity costs!)

e.g. not using a 2% discount means incurring a 36.9% interest on the discounted balance!!

100)360201(98 =+ r

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Note that discounts apply to VAT too

• both revenue and VAT amounts are reduced by the discount percentage

• Example:– Invoice: 1000 + 200 VAT– 2% discount used

• Customer pays: 1176– Journal entries:

• when revenue is recognized using the gross method• Dr. Accounts receivable: 1200

Cr. Sales Revenue: 1000VAT: 200

• payment:• Dr. Cash: 1176

Sales discount: 20VAT: 4

Cr.: Accounts receivable: 1200

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Two methods of accounting for sales discounts

• (1) Gross method– initially recognize gross amount– recognize sales discounts when they are taken

• (2) Net method– initially recognize amount net of sales discount– make „correcting“ entries if sales discounts are forfeited

from an accounting point of view net method preferablewhy? amount recognized closer to net realizable value

from a practical point of view gross method preferablewhy? easy to apply, no additional calculation necessary

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Gross Method Net Method

I Sale of € 4.000, terms 3/10, n/30

Accounts Receivable 4.000 Accounts Receivable 3.880 Sales 4.000 Sales 3.880

II Payment of € 1.940 received within discount period:

Cash 1.940 Cash 1.940Sales Discounts 60 Accounts Receivable 1.940 Accounts Receivable 2.000

III Payment of € 2.000 received after discount period:

Cash 2.000 Accounts Receivable 60 Accounts Receivable 2.000 Sales Discounts

Forefeited 60Cash 2.000 Accounts Receivable 2.000

Note: The payment of € 1.940 results in a reduction of € 2.000 in the accounts receivable

account under the gross method.

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Valuation of Accounts Receivable

– important for financial statement presentation– important also for internal decision making– valuation at net realizable value

• not always equal to face value!

• Motivating examples– 1. Installment sales

• allow purchase of goods too expensive to fully pay instantly in cash• risk of default if consumers overestimate their financial capabilities

When and what amount of (expected) credit losses should be recognized?

– 2. Businesses with high return ratios• credit sales as, say, books are delivered to stores• unsold copies are returned

should general allowances be made upfront?

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One important valuation aspect:payment behavior

0

5

10

15

20

25

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How do German companies evaluate the payment habits of their customers?

Bad 11,5 26,6 12,9 15Good 27,4 21,4 23,9 26,9

Manufact-uring Construction Wholesale /

RetailersService

Industries

Source: C

reditreform, Figures from

2000

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Valuation of Receivables: Gross method

• From book value (face value) to net realizable value• Face value: nominal amount recognized when credit sale

transaction is recorded• Net realizable value (NRV): amount estimated to be collectible from

outstanding receivables• adjustments necessary for

– discounts– returns, and– expected losses from revenues (uncollectible accounts)

• NRV = face value – adjustments for discounts– adjustments for sales returns– allowance for uncollectible accounts

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Uncollectible Accounts Receivable

• represent loss of revenue – expense due to selling on credit– uncollectible accounts expense (also called bad debt expense) is

recorded• When should uncollectible accounts expense be recognized?

– either at the time when an account turns out to be „uncollectible“: direct write-off method

– or in the period of the sales: estimate of uncollectible accounts: allowance method

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Direct Write-Off Method

• no entries until a specific account is deemed uncollectible– loss recorded as credit entry for Accounts Receivable and debit entry for

Bad Debt Expense (or uncollectible accounts expense)

• Discussion– facts are recorded, not estimates– however, no matching of revenues and costs– no net realizable value presentation of receivables

on the balance sheetApply only for individual amounts not material!

Bad Debt Expense € XYZ Accounts Receivable € XYZ

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Allowance Method

• Bad Debt Expense recorded in the same period as the sale– debit Bad Debt Expense and credit Allowance for Uncollectible (or

Doubtful) Accounts

– two approaches: percentage-of-sales or percentage-of-receivables• Discussion

– involves estimates– better matching of revenues and costs – receivables recorded at their net realizable values– This is the method that should be used (and must be used in many

countries)

Bad Debt Expense € XYZ Allowance for Doubtful Accounts € XYZ

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Treatment of direct write-offs when the allowance method is applied

• debit Allowance for Uncollectible Accounts• credit Accounts Receivable• estimated net realizable value of Accounts Receivable remains

unchanged– exception: unexpected high write-offs (major customer goes

bankrupt)

Allowance for Uncollectible Accounts 1.100 Accounts Receivable 1.100

a specific account is written-off

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Effect of write-off on NRV illustrated:

Balances BalancesBefore After

Write-Offs Write-Offs

Accounts Receivable € 143.000 € 141.900Less Allowance for Uncollectible Accounts 13.690 12.590

Estimated Net Realizable Value of Accounts Receivable € 129.310 € 129.310

No effect on net realizable value of Accounts Receivable

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Percentage-of-Sales (Income Statement) Approach

• Bad Debt Expense as a percentage of credit sales during the accounting period– percentage determined from past experience and future expectations– amount to be recognized = percentage uncollectible × credit sales

• Example– Credit sales amounted to € 760.000 while 3%, on average,

deemed uncollectible

Uncollectible Accounts Expense 22.800 Allowance for Uncollectible Accounts 22.800

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Percentage-of-Receivables (Balance Sheet)Approach

• allowances for doubtful accounts made depending on the aging schedule of outstanding receivables– percentages for different age categories determined from past experience

and future expectations

NOTE:• Percentage-of-receivable focus on balance sheet account• Percentage-of-sales focus on income statement

account• Different focus of approaches:

– Percentage -of-sales approach implicitly assumes that annual credit sales are linearly related to bad debt amount!

– Percentage –of-receivables approach assumes that a linear relationship exists between the amount of credit sales outstanding at the balance sheet date and the amount of bad debt

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Example of an aging schedule under the percentage-of-receivables approach

The (uncollected) credit sales of Paper Company in its first year of business amount to:

Month Customer AmountJan. Holm 10.000Feb. Lowe 2.000August Smith (I) 8.000Nov. Miller 20.000Dec. Baker 6.000

Cooper 1.000Gardener 3.000

50.000

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Aging schedule for year 1 (prepared on December 31, year 1):

Age Amount Percentage Uncoll.category uncollectible amount

0 – 30 days 10,000 (B,C,G) 5% 500

31 – 90 days 20,000 (M) 10% 2,000

91 – 180 days 8,000 (S I) 15% 1,200

>180 days 12,000 (H,L) 25% 3,0006,700

Targeted balance for Allowance for Uncollectible Accounts

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Journal entries and accounts in year 1:

Uncollectible accounts expense 6,700

Allowance for uncollectible accounts 6,700

Accounts Receivable Allowance for uncoll. accounts50,000 6,700

Net realizable value of accounts receivable: 43,300

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(uncollected) credit sales in year 2:

Month Customer AmountJan. Koller 2,000March Deutsch 40,000July Franco 6,000August Weyer 1,000Sept. Hunger 12,000Nov, Smith (II) 9,000Dec. Camillo 4,000

74,000

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Other information for year 2:

• Payments received from outstanding year-1 receivables– Holm 10,000– Miller 20,000– Smith (I) 8,000

• Write-offs of year-1 receivables– Cooper 1,000– Gardener 3,000

• Open accounts from year 1– Baker 6,000– Lowe 2,000

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Aging schedule at the end of year 2:

Age Amount Percentage Uncoll.category uncollectible amount

0 – 30 days 4,000 (C) 5% 200

31 – 90 days 9,000 (S II) 10% 900

91 – 180 days 19,000 (F,W,H) 15% 2,850

>180 days 50,000 (K,D,B,L) 25% 12,50016,450

Targeted balance for Allowance for Uncollectible Accounts

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Determining bad debt expense for year 2:

Targeted balance for allowance for u.a. 16,450less credit balance from prior year – 6,700plus debits due to write-offs + 4,000

13,750

Accounts Receivable

50.000 1.000 3.000 10.000 20.000 8.000

74.000

82.000

Red – write-offs; blue – collections yr.1; green – adj. yr.2

Allowance for uncoll. Accounts

1.000 6.7003.000

13.750

16.450

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Remarks

• Net realizable value of receivables at the end of year 2– 82.000 – 16.450 = 65.550

• In year 2: net realizable value of year-1 receivables after write-offs but before collections is the same as at the end of year 1, i.e. is equal to€ 43.300

• Accounts written-off in year 2 „accounted“ for just € 200 of allowance for uncollectible accounts in year 1

• Balance of € 6.700 in Allowance for Uncollectible Accounts account from year 1 matters for determining bad debt expense (uncollectible accounts expense) in year 2

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Example 2 of an aging schedule of receivables

Company XYZ Percentage Required estimated to be Balance in

Age Amount uncollectible Allowance

less than 30 days old € 65.000 3% 1.95031 - 60 days old 35.000 6% 2.10061 - 90 days old 12.000 15% 1.80091 - 120 days old 14.000 22% 3.080over 120 days old 17.000 28% 4.760

targeted balance of the Allowance for Uncollectible Accounts account: € 13.690

• Determination of Uncollectible Accounts Expense– ... subtract the current credit balance of Allowance for Uncollectible

Accounts to determine Uncollectible Accounts Expense for thecorresponding accounting period

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Credit balance of € 2.400

Targeted Balance for Allowance for Uncollectible Accounts: € 13.690Less Current Credit Balance of Allowance for Uncollectible Accounts 2.400

Uncollectible Accounts Expense € 11.290

Dec. 31 Uncollectible Accounts Expense 11.290 Allowance for Uncollectible Accounts 11.290

Allowance for Uncollectible Accounts

Dec. 31 2.400Dec. 31 adjustment 11.290

Dec. 31 balance 13.690

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Recovery of accounts receivable written-off

• allowance method– reestablish the receivable written-off– debit Cash and credit Accounts Receivable

• direct write-off method– debit Cash– credit Uncollectible Amounts Recovered

Accounts Receivable 1.100 Allowance for Uncollectible Accounts 1.100

Cash 1.100 Accounts Receivable 1.100

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Economic evaluation of allowing for bad debt

• Two contrasting views:1. „In God we trust. All others pay cash.“ (anonymous)2. If the percentage of uncollectibles is below some percentage of all

receivables, our credit policy is too tight and we forego business.• According to view #1, uncollectible accounts expense represents

unnecessary expenses that reduce profits.• According to view #2, uncollectible accounts expense is a

„necessary evil “ associated with credit sales but these credit sales are a means to increase and repeat business.– in advance it is not known which accounts will turn bad

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Recognition of Notes Receivable

• A promissory note is a written promise to pay a certain sum of money at a specific future date.– payee – holder of note; regards it as note receivable asset– maker – issuer of note; regards it as note payable liability– terms are negotiable– stronger legal claim than accounts receivable– some notes are tradable

• short-term notes recorded at face value– interest immaterial

• long-term notes recorded at present value of cash expected to be collected

• Accounting for notes receivable:– similar to accounting for accounts receivable– notable difference in recognition of interest

• topic will be dealt with under „liabilities“, i.e. notes payable

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Disposition of Accounts Receivable and Notes Receivable

• growing popularity of credit sales soaked up cash of the selling companies

• means to accelerate receipt of cash: – transfer accounts or notes receivable to another company, e.g. bank or

factor• finance charge associated with these transactions• transfer of receivables via

– secured borrowing– sales of receivables

differ in some legal aspects and accounting treatment

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Sale of Receivables

• An account receivable that ZiscoSys holds is sold to Deutsche Factors (a fictitious commercial factor). The receivable amounts to €15.000 and the factor takes a 4% finance charge.

• Journal entries that both companies would make as a result of the transaction.

ZiscoSys Deutsche Factors

Cash 14.400 Accounts Receivable 15.000Loss on Sale of Receivables 600 Financing Revenue _ _600 Accounts Receivable 15.000 Cash 14.400