CHAPTER 10DNA, RNA, and Protein Synthesis
http://www.3dscience.com/3D_Models/Biology/DNA/DNA_with_Phosphate.php
Section 1 Vocabulary Pretest1. Virulent2.
Transformation3. Bacteriophage
A. Viruses that infect bacteria
B. Transfer of DNA fragments from cell to cell
C. Virus capable of causing disease
Answer key1. Virulent C2. Transformation B3. Bacteriophage A
Discovery of DNA Three experiments led to the discovery of
DNA as the hereditary factor that Mendel described in his experiments with pea plants. Frederick Griffith’s Experiment (1928)—
showed that hereditary material can pass from one bacterial cell to another (transformation)
Oswald Avery’s Experiment (1940s)—showed that DNA is the hereditary material that transfers information between bacterial cells.
Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase’s Experiment (1952)– confirmed that DNA, and not protein, is the hereditary material in all cells.
Fig. 16-2
Living S cells (control)
Living R cells (control)
Heat-killed S cells (control)
Mixture of heat-killed S cells and living R cells
Mouse diesMouse dies Mouse healthy Mouse healthy
Living S cells
RESULTS
EXPERIMENT
Griffith concluded that the living R bacteria had been transformed into pathogenicS bacteria by an unknown,heritable substance from the dead S cells that allowed the R cells to make capsules.
Protective capsule
Griffith’s Experiment
Fig. 16-4-1
EXPERIMENT
Phage
DNA
Bacterial cell
Radioactive protein
Radioactive DNA
Batch 1: radioactive sulfur (35S)
Batch 2: radioactive phosphorus (32P)
Fig. 16-4-2
EXPERIMENT
Phage
DNA
Bacterial cell
Radioactive protein
Radioactive DNA
Batch 1: radioactive sulfur (35S)
Batch 2: radioactive phosphorus (32P)
Empty protein shell
Phage DNA
Fig. 16-4-3
EXPERIMENT
Phage
DNA
Bacterial cell
Radioactive protein
Radioactive DNA
Batch 1: radioactive sulfur (35S)
Batch 2: radioactive phosphorus (32P)
Empty protein shell
Phage DNA
Centrifuge
Centrifuge
Pellet
Pellet (bacterial cells and contents)
Radioactivity (phage protein) in liquid
Radioactivity (phage DNA) in pellet
See page 307Hershey and Chase’s Experiment
Section 2 Vocabulary Pretest
1. Nucleotide2. Deoxyribose3. Nitrogenous base4. Purine5. Pyrimidine6. Base-pairing rules7. Complementary base
pair8. Base sequence
A. Sugar found in DNAB. Consists of a sugar, phosphate
and nitrogenous baseC. Single ring nitrogenous base pairD. Double ring nitrogenous base
pairE. Rule stating: A always pairs w/ T
and C always pairs w/ GF. Order of bases on an DNA strandG. Contains nitrogen and carbon
atoms and is found on the rungs of a DNA ladder
H. A and T C and G
Answer Key1. Nucleotide B2. Deoxyribose A3. Nitrogenous base G4. Purine D5. Pyrimidine C6. Base-pairing rules E7. Complementary base pair H8. Base sequence F
DNA Structure By 1950, we knew DNA
was the hereditary molecule.
How did it work? How did it replicate, store and transmit hereditary information and direct cell function?
The answer is found in the unique structure of DNA.
http://www.med.unc.edu/pmbb/DNA_Day/mission.html
The structure of DNA was discovered in 1953 by James Watson and Francis Crick.
http://svhs.ucps.k12.nc.us/academics/science.php
Francis Crick James Watson
Deoxyribonucleic Acid Described as a double
helix (twisted ladder). Formed by two long strands
of repeating subunits called nucleotides.
http://www.biologyjunction.com/nucleotide_model_preap.htm
http://www.biojobblog.com/tags/dna/
Each nucleotide has three parts: Five-carbon sugar
called deoxyribose Phosphate group
(phosphorous bonded to 4 oxygens)
Nitrogenous base (either adenine, thymine, guanine or cytosine)
http://www.biologyjunction.com/nucleotide_model_preap.htm
http://asm.wku.edu/pix/pix.htm
The sides of the ladder are formed by covalently bonding the sugar of one nucleotide to the phosphate of another.
Sugar
Phosphate
Covalent bond
http://academic.brooklyn.cuny.edu/biology/bio4fv/page/molecular%20biology/dna-structure.html
The nitrogenous bases form the rungs of the ladder.
There are four types of nitrogen bases: Thymine Cytosine Adenine Guanine
http://student.ccbcmd.edu/~gkaiser/biotutorials/dna/fg4.html
Adenine and Guanine have a double ring of carbon and nitrogen atoms and are called purines.
Thymine and Cytosine have a single ring of carbon atoms and nitrogen atoms. They are called pyrimidines
http://blog.dearbornschools.org/biologyblog/2010/02/09/february-9-2010/
The bases pair together to form the rungs of the DNA ladder.
Hydrogen bonds hold them together. They always pair according to the following base-
pairing rules discovered by Erwin Chargaff in 1949: A – T C – G
Note: since this pairing guarantees that a purine always pairs with a pyrimidine, the rungs are always the same length
http://academic.brooklyn.cuny.edu/biology/bio4fv/page/molecular%20biology/dsDNA.jpg
The base pairs of A/T and C/G are called complementary base pairs.
The order of base pairs on a chain of DNA is called its base sequence. Because of its base pairing pattern,
one strand of DNA can serve as a template for making a new complementary strand.
This is how DNA replicates itself.
A strand of DNA has the following sequence:C T G G A CWhat is the sequence of the complementary strand?G A C C T G
http://www.fhcrc.org/education/courses/cancer_course/basic/img/dna.gif
Section 3 Vocabulary Pretest
1. DNA replication2. Helicase3. Replication fork4. DNA polymerase5. Semi-
conservative replication
6. Mutation
A. A change in a nucleotide sequence of DNA
B. Enzyme that separates two strands of DNA
C. Enzyme that adds nucleotide bases to copying strands of DNA
D. Point where two DNA strands separate
E. Process of copying DNAF. DNA replication that results in
one old and one new strand in each copied molecule
Answer Key1. DNA replication E2. Helicase B3. Replication fork D4. DNA polymerase C5. Semi-conservative replication F6. Mutation A
DNA Replication DNA replication is the
process by which DNA is copied in a cell before a cell divides by mitosis, meiosis, or binary fission.
Steps: Helicases (enzymes)
separate the DNA strands by breaking hydrogen bonds between base pairs. This creates an open area of DNA called a replication fork.
http://www.nvo.com/jin/nss-folder/scrapbookcell/DNA%20Replication.jpg
DNA polymerases (more enzymes) add complementary nucleotides to each of the original sides. Notice that synthesis on each strand moves in opposite directions.
DNA polymerase enzymes fall off and the two new strands completely separate. An enzyme called DNA ligase must fill in gaps created on the strand being copied in the opposite direction.
The end result is two new identical strands of DNA. This type of replication is called semi-
conservative replication because each of the new DNA molecules has kept (or conserved) one of the two (or semi) original DNA strands.
http://jc-biology.blogspot.com/2011/02/replication-of-dna-summary.html
Speed of Replication DNA adds nucleotides at a rate of 50
per second. However, at this rate it would take 53
days to replicate a large human chromosome.
Therefore, replication must begin at several, usually thousands, of different points, or origins, at the same time.
Any change in the nucleotide sequence of a DNA molecule is called a mutation. DNA polymerase can check and correct
mistakes made during replication. However, mistakes do happen. Mistakes can be spontaneous or caused by
environmental factors (radiation, chemicals, etc.)
Mutations can be helpful, harmful or harmless. Mistakes made in genes that control cell
division can lead to tumors.
Mutations
Section 4 Vocabulary Pretest
1. Ribonucleic acid
2. Transcription3. Translation4. Protein
synthesis5. Ribose6. Messenger
RNA7. Transfer RNA
A. Nucleic acid important in protein synthesis
B. Sugar found in RNAC. RNA that carries instructions
from the nucleus to ribosomesD. Process of making an RNA
molecule from a DNA templateE. RNA that assembles an amino
acid chainF. Process of assembling a protein
from a coded RNA messageG. DNA RNA protein
8. RNA polymerase
9. Promoter10. Termination
signal11. Genetic code12. Codon13. Anticodon14. Genome
H. An organism’s entire gene sequence
I. Sequence of nucleotides at the end of a gene
J. Sequence of nucleotides that start transcription
K. 3-nucleotide sequence on mRNA that encodes an amino acid
L. 3-nucleotide sequence on tRNA that complements a codon
M. Specifies the amino acid sequence of a protein
N. Enzyme that catalyzes the formation of RNA
Pretest continued
Answer Key1. Ribonucleic acid A2. TranscriptionD3. Translation F4. Protein synthesisG5. Ribose B6. Messenger RNA C7. Transfer RNAE
8. RNA polymerase N9. Promoter J10. Termination signal
I11. Genetic code M12. Codon K13. Anticodon L14. Genome H
Protein Synthesis (Big Picture)
Cells make proteins. The instructions to
make a protein are on the DNA in the nucleus.
Ribosomes in the cytoplasm make the proteins
Cells MUST be able to get the instructions from the DNA inside the nucleus out to the ribosomes.
RNA is the messenger !!!
http://www.sciencephoto.com/images/download_lo_res.html?id=670020523
RNA Structure and Function RNA is different
from DNA in 4 ways RNA sugar is
ribose Uracil replaces
thymine as a base RNA is single
stranded RNA is shorter
than DNA
DNA vs. RNA DNA RNA
DoubleSingle
DeoxyriboseRibose
ThymineUracil
LongerShorter
Types of RNA Three major types of RNA
Messenger RNA (mRNA) —carries instructions for making a protein from a gene in the nucleus to a ribosome in the cytoplasm
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) —part of a ribosome
Transfer RNA (tRNA) —transfers amino acids to the ribosome to make a protein.
mRNA is made fromDNA in the nucleus. It carries the messagefor making a protein out of the nucleus to a ribosome in the cytoplasm
rRNA is part of the ribosome.tRNA is folded with many nucleotidebases. However, we emphasize the three at the bottom.
Protein Synthesis Forming proteins
based on information in DNA and carried out by RNA is called protein synthesis.
DNA RNA protein It involves two
processes: Transcription Translation
Transcription Transcription —the genetic code is copied or
“transcribed” onto a mRNA in the cell nucleus. Three steps:
RNA polymerase (enzyme) binds to a specific site on a DNA molecule called a promoter. This causes DNA to unwind.
RNA polymerase uses the base-pairing rules to add the RNA nucleotides that match the DNA code (A/U; C/G)
RNA polymerase stops at a termination signal that marks the end of a gene.
Transcriptionhttp://meyerbio1b.wikispaces.com/Transcription+and+Translation
Reading the Code The code on the mRNA must next be
“read” during the process of translation. This genetic code tells us how a
sequence of bases on a DNA molecule (or its RNA messenger) corresponds to a particular amino acid.
The code is read three bases at a time. Each 3 base sequence that codes for an amino acid is called a codon.
Codons in mRNA
Notice AUG is the start codon UAA, UAG, and UGA are the stop codons.
Amino Acids The genetic code rules are the same for
nearly all living things. The same codons always code for the same
amino acids. There are 20 different amino acids. A chain of amino acids makes up a
polypeptide. Polypeptides join and twist to make up
proteins. It is tRNA and the ribosomes that assemble
the proteins during translation.
Three bases at one end of a tRNA are complementary to a codon on the mRNA. They are called an anticodon.
The specific amino acid that the codon codes for is attached to the top of the tRNA
http://www.personal.psu.edu/staff/d/r/drs18/bisciImages/index.html
A U G G G A C C U
Translation Translation —the making of a protein Steps:
Initiation —ribosomal subunits, mRNA and the tRNA carrying methionine (amino acid of the start signal AUG) bind together.
Elongation —the tRNA carrying the amino acid specified by the next codon binds. Peptide bonds form between the amino acids beginning the chain. This continues until a termination signal is reached.
Termination —stop codon is reached Disassembly – the ribosome complex falls apart
and the peptide is released.
http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/biobk/biobookprotsyn.html
Recap: Protein Synthesis: Big Picture
The Human Genome Genome —the complete genetic material
contained in an individual. The entire Human Genome consists of 3.2
billion base pairs. We now know the order of these base pairs and have discovered that humans have approximately 30,000 genes.
We now need to learn where and when human cells use each of the proteins coded for in the genome.
This can help diagnose, treat, and prevent many genetic disorders.
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