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INTRODUCTION TOENVIRONMENTAL
STUDIESPart II
Part I already covered byCivil Engg. Faculty
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CE-105 Civil Engineering Department
Lectures: 3/week ; 21 total ; 3 creditsEvaluation : 50 marks
ETE : 40 marks
CW : 10Tutorial, Assignments, Regularity in class
Soft copy of lectures
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S.No.
Name of Books/Author(s)/Publisher Year ofPubl.
1 Introduction to Environmental
Engineering, M.L. Davis and D.A.Cornwell, McGraw Hill, New York 3/e
1998
2 Introduction to Environmental
Engineering and Science, G.M. Masters,
Prentice Hall of India, New Delhi. 2/e
1998
3 Environmental Engineering, H.S. Peavy,
D.R. Rowe and G. Tchobanoglous,
McGraw Hill, New York
1986
Suggested Books
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Why environmental studies?
Intergovernmental Penal on Climate Change (IPCC), 1988
31stAugust 2013: 25 years UNEP and WMO of United Nations Organization
Substantial changes are happening to our environment
Air, water and soil being affected
2007 Nobel Peace Prize: IPCC
R.K. Pachauri and Al Gore
US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA)
Central Pollution Control Board, New Delhi State Pollution Control Boards
Ministry of Environment and Forests, New Delhi
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Five elements
1. Water, 2. Air,
3. Earth,
4. Space,
5. Fire,
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Water
1. All the living systems need water and contain
water
2. Life on earth is due to water, 70% water cover
3. God of water, (Indra)4. Ganga water, (Shelf life: long); BOD/COD
5. Water pollution
Coca cola, Pepsi-CSE, New Delhi : Lindane, DDT etc.Effluents from industries and agrichemicals (Punjab hub of cancer
patients)
Ganga and Yamuna rivers
Ground water, lakes, sea water is contaminated, treatment strategies of
treatment already dealt with in first half of syllabus
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Air1. Air needed by all the living systems
2. Without air no survival
3. God of air, (Vayu), Prna4. Pranayam : oxygen transfer rate
5. 78.08% Nitrogen and 20.95% Oxygen + other gases
6. Combustion: CO2, NOx, SOx, SPM, RSPM, Hg,
arsenic, HCs, VOCs etc.
Paper industry: Dioxins 100 times lethal than cyanideCarbon dioxide: 400 ppm (May 2, 2013)
280 ppm (1750)
Greenhouse gases: CO2, N
2O, H
2O, O
3, CH
4, CFCs
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Earth
1. We eat which is grown on earth2. Photosynthesis process: biomass
3. Goddess of earth, , Prithvi
4. Soil is getting contaminatedPollution air/water
Mango trees near Roorkee: no fruits
Micronutrients in herbs: much lower
Sustainability ? Recent Uttarakhand
tragedy-(Havoc)
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Space
1. Solar energy2. Photosynthesis process
3. Solar energy into biomass and other forms of
energy: hydro, coal, petroleum, wind etc.4. God of space,, Aakash5. O3depletion: CFCs and space shuttles,
rockets etc. , UV radiations: human skin,cataract, plant kingdom damages, buildings ?
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Fire
1.Combustion
2. Carbon and Hydrogen
3. CI and SI engines, cooking, thermal powerplants: steam and gas turbines, steam engine
4. Goddess of fire,, Agni5. Because of fire air pollution
6. Every thing is getting into CO2and H2Owhich are converted back by photosynthesisprocess to complex biomass species and theprocess goes on ..goes on..
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Environment
1.Atmosphere: layer of air that surrounds
our planet
2.Hydrosphere: liquid envelop that
surrounds our planet
3.Lithosphere: solid earth, including earths
crust and part of the upper mantle
4.Biosphere: living organisms that inhabit the
above spheres
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Atmosphereair to breathe Hydrosphere water to drink
Lithosphere food to eat Biosphere food to eat
Minutes
without air
Days w/o
water
Months w/o food
Environment
Resources: fossil fuels,
ores, uranium, thorium
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Environment
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Atmosphere
Constant components (fix over time and location)
Nitrogen 78.08%
Oxygen 20.95%
Argon 0.93%
Neon, Helium, Krypton 0.0001%
Age of earth : 4.6 Billion year
Oxygen : 0% 2 Billion years ago
Total mass of atmosphere: 5*1015Tonne
:1/1,200,000 of earth
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Atmosphere
Variable components (variable with time and
location)
Carbon dioxide 0.04%
Water vapor 0-4%
Methane traces
Sulfur dioxide traces
Ozone traces
Nitrogen oxides traces
Others: dust, volcanic ash, snow and rain
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Atmospheric temperature: vertical structure
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Vertical structure of atmospheric pressure
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Atmosphere zones
The zones are not sharply delineatedand their elevation varies with both
time of year and latitude
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Troposphere1.Thickness from sea level: 18 km; Everest
8848 m
2.Pressure at top is 10% of atmosphere 76
mm of Hg
3.Air movement is vertical as well horizontal
4.Weather/clouds formation/rains
5.Air cools progressively with height
6.Temperature: -6.5 oC/km
next
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Tropopause
1.Thin layer between troposphere andstratosphere: 4 km
2.Air is completely dry
3.The elevation where the temperature
no longer decreases with altitude
next
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Stratosphere
1.This extends up to 50 km and comprises
of ozone
2.Ozone is 2-8 ppm
3.In the middle and upper stratosphere,air temperature increases progressively
with height
4.Heated by ozone
next
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Stratopause
The elevation where the temperature nolonger increases with altitude
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Mesosphere
1.Mesosphere is from 50 to 90 km2.Temperature again decreases here
3.Intermediate zone between stratosphere
and thermosphere4.Air cools progressively with elevation
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Mesopause
The elevation above the mesosphere where
the temperature no longer cools with altitude
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Ionosphere
1.Next is thermosphere or ionosphereextending to 350 km
2. Oxygen is in ionic form heat is absorbed
3. Temperate rises again
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Outer limit of atmosphere
1. Difficult to define
2. At 32,000 km, the Earths gravitation pull equals
centrifugal force of the Earths rotation
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Ozone measurementDeveloped by G.M.B. Dobson, 1920s; Professor at Oxford University
1 DU = 0.01 mm thickness of ozone at oC and 1 atm (STP)
US sky : 300 DUMinimum at Antarctica : 200 DU
Dobson Ozone Spectrophotometer
Total ozone mapping spectrometer (TOMS)
Ozone holes: when concentration of ozone reduces more than 50%
Antarctica: 25 million km2
in 2001
All the ozone over a certain
area is compressed to oC
and 1 atm and forms a 3 mmthick slab corresponding to
300 DU
A i
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Antarctic ozone
Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer
H d h
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Hydrosphere
1. 70.8% earths surface is covered by water
2. 60-70% of living world
3. Physiological reactions in aqueous phase
4. Total quantum of water : 1.4 B km3
5. Salty sea water : 97.6%6. Fresh water : 2.4%
7. Renewable in nature next
8. Important food source9. Easily polluted
10. Must be treated (already dealt in I part)
11. Major industrial and agriculture input
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Rain harvesting
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Distribution of fresh water
Location % of totalSnow, ice, glaciers 86.9
Accessible ground water 12.0
Lakes, reservoirs, ponds 0.37
Saline lakes 0.31Soil moisture 0.19
Moisture in living organisms 0.19
Atmosphere 0.039
Wetlands 0.011
Rivers, streams, canals 0.0051
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Freshwater as a resource in India
Renewable through evaporation from
the seas and precipitation (solar powered)Demands for freshwater include:
Agriculture & livestock (79.6%)
Power generation (13.6%)Domestic(3.5%)
Industry (3.3%)
Demands increase with increasing population
Unequal distribution of freshwater
Interlinking of rivers: solution of water problem
Lithosphere
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Lithosphere
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Lithosphere
1.Land area: 26%
2.Supports all the living systems and provides
a wealth of raw materials which has made
the civilization to develop
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Lithosphere: India
2.4% of worlds land
15% of worlds population
Per capita land availability, ha
Russia 8.43USA 7.39
Australia 6.60
China 0.98India 0.48
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Lithosphere: India
Land use categories, Mha
Cultivable land 142 (46%)Forest land 67 (22%)
Nonagricultural land 20 (6.5%)
Barren and pasture land 55 (17.8%)Fallow land 25 (8.0%)
Mineral exploration
Rich in coal,crude,bauxite, copper, gold,
nickel, uranium, thorium etc.
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Lithosphere: India
Food resource
Self sufficient in agriculture produceI in world in sugar production
I in milk production, 97 million tonnes
Live stock, 25% of world
Forest resource
21.68 % forest cover
reduction in global warming
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What is Ecology?
Study of interactions between organismsand their environment.
Ernst Haeckelcoined termEcologyin 1866
Greek word , "house"; ,study of
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Levels of Organization Ecologists study
organisms ranging fromthe various levels oforganization:
Species/individuals
Population
Community
Ecosystem
Biome
Biosphere
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Species
Group of similar organisms that can breed andproduce fertile offspring
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group of organisms, all of the same species, which
interbreed and live in the same area.
Population
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Ecosystem
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Ecosystem
Collection of organisms that live in a place with the
nonliving environment
Biome
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Biome Group of ecosystems with the same climate and
dominant communities
Tropical rain forest
Tropical dry forest
Tropical savanna Temperate woodlandand shrubland
Desert
Temperate grassland
Boreal forest
(Taiga)
Northwestern
coniferous forest
Temperate forest
Mountains and
ice caps
Tundra
O i ti Hi h
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Organization Hierarchy
Ch t i ti f t
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Characteristics of ecosystems
All ecosystems have a constant source ofenergy ( sun)
Cycles to reuse raw materialsWater, nitrogen, carbon, phosphorus cycles
An ecosystem comprises of the biotic or living
( viz. plants and animals)
and the abiotic or non-living components
( viz. air, water, minerals, soil)
A h H h
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Autotrophs vs . Heterot rophs
Autotrophsmaketheir own foodso
they are called
PRODUCERS
Heterotrophsget
their food from
another source so
they are called
CONSUMERS
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Main forms of energy for autotrophs
Sunlight The main source of energy for
life on earth
Photosynthesis: leaf a chemical
reactor
Chemical
Inorganic compounds
Chemosynthesis : opium,
ginseng, garlic (selenium)
Types of Consumers
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Types of ConsumersHerbivores- only eat plants Carnivores - only eat meat Omnivores
Eat plants and meat
Detritivores and
Decomposers
Feed on plant and animal
remains
wildebeest
/
http://images.google.co.in/imgres?imgurl=http://www3.sympatico.ca/drosera1/fish/worms.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www3.sympatico.ca/drosera1/fish/worms.htm&h=581&w=800&sz=112&hl=en&start=40&tbnid=vnFx9a-uFQJ0KM:&tbnh=104&tbnw=143&prev=/images?q=detrivores&start=20&gbv=2&ndsp=20&hl=en&sa=Nhttp://images.google.co.in/imgres?imgurl=http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Coptotermes_formosanus_shiraki_USGov_k8204-7.jpg/300px-Coptotermes_formosanus_shiraki_USGov_k8204-7.jpg&imgrefurl=http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Adventist_Youth_Honors_Answer_Book/Nature/Insects&h=450&w=300&sz=45&hl=en&start=1&tbnid=JlvX3vLj2NXasM:&tbnh=127&tbnw=85&prev=/images?q=detrivores&gbv=2&hl=en&sa=Ghttp://images.google.co.in/imgres?imgurl=http://bogglesworldesl.com/flashcardsESL/omnivores.jpg&imgrefurl=http://bogglesworldesl.com/foodchain_flashcards.htm&h=792&w=576&sz=249&hl=en&start=2&tbnid=pZVUDuVihH6RhM:&tbnh=143&tbnw=104&prev=/images?q=omnivores&gbv=2&hl=enhttp://images.google.co.in/imgres?imgurl=http://locallygrownnorthfield.org/wp-content/uploads/wlw/BeefOBradyscomingtoSouthfield_E321/carnivores.jpg&imgrefurl=http://locallygrownnorthfield.org/archives/2381/&h=533&w=800&sz=179&hl=en&start=1&tbnid=cJ9Ru7klcgjrCM:&tbnh=95&tbnw=143&prev=/images?q=carnivores&gbv=2&hl=en&sa=Xhttp://images.google.co.in/imgres?imgurl=http://www.davidwallphoto.com/images/thumbnail/{51CDFCAF-8888-4470-A75B-BF4FA61F8C2A}.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.davidwallphoto.com/searchresults.asp?tx=herbovore&h=82&w=125&sz=4&hl=en&start=13&tbnid=o-phFkkSLIamaM:&tbnh=59&tbnw=90&prev=/images?q=herbovores&gbv=2&hl=en&sa=G8/13/2019 CE-105 Introduction and Ecology
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Decomposers /detr it ivo res
Polythene/plastics: no decomposition; banning of PB by States,
Uttarakhand, Choking of sewer lines; agriculture sector: moisture,
nitrogen fixation, Spills of crude in oceans.
Vultures vanished from India, Pakistan (DDT - cow/buffalos)
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f
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Energy f low in ecosystems
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E f l i t
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Energy f low in ecosystems
Photosynthesis
6CO2+ 6H2O + energy C6H12O6+ 6O2
RespirationStored energy is released in the reverse reaction
C6H12O6+ 6O2 6CO2+ 6H2O + energy
Released energy is available to drive other reactions,
e.g. cell metabolism and growth
I. C. engines/combustion processes same reaction
Difference: temperature
F d i l i h i
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Feed ing relat ionships
Food Chainsteps oforganisms transferringenergy by eating & beingeaten
Food Webnetworkof all the food chains in
an ecosystem
Food web
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Food web
Ecological pyramids
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Ecological pyramids
Energy Pyramid
Biomass Pyramid
Number Pyramid
Trophic Leveleach step in a food chain or food web
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Trophic levels
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Trophic levels
Trophic levels
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Trophic levels
Why are nutrients important ?
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Why are nutrients important ?
95% of our body is made of
1) OXYGEN
2) CARBON
3) HYDROGEN
4) NITROGEN
Every living organismneeds nutrients to buildtissues and carry outessential life functions.
Availability of nutrients
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Availability of nutrients
If a nutrient is in short supply, it will limitorganisms growth. It is called a limiting
nutrient and is in accordance of Leibigs Law
When a limiting nutrient is dumped into a lake
or pond, an algal bloom occurs and this candisrupt the ecosystem
Matter movement through an ecosystem
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Matter movement through an ecosystem
Unlike the one way flow ofenergy, matter is recycledwithin & between ecosystems
Nutrients are passed between
organisms & the environmentthrough biogeochemical cycles
Biogeochemical Cycles
Bio life
GeoEarth
Chemi chemical
1. WATER CYCLE
2. NUTRIENT CYCLES
a)CARBON CYCLE
b)NI TROGEN CYCLE
c)PHOSPHORUSCYCLE
WATER CYCLE
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C C
CARBON CYCLE
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CARBON CYCLE
4 PROCESSESMOVE
CARBON THROUGH
ITS CYCLE:
1) Biological
2) Geochemical
3) Mixed biochemical
4) Human Activity
CO2
CO2
CO2
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CO2
CO2
Carbonate rocks
GLOBAL CARBON CYCLE
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(All values are in Billion Metric Tons Carbon)
NITROGEN CYCLE
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NITROGEN CYCLE
Nitrogen-containing nutrients in
the biosphere include:
1) Ammonia(NH3)
2) Nitrate(NO3-)
3) Nitrite(NO2-)
ORGANISMS NEED
NITROGEN TO MAKE
AMINO ACIDS FOR
BUILDING PROTEINS!!!
N2
in Atmosphere
NH3
N03- &
N02-
N2
in Atmosphere
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NH3
N03- &
N02-
Haber process: 1918
Nobel Prize
PHOSPHORUS CYCLE
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OS O US C CPHOSPHORUS FORMS PART OF IMPORTANT LIFE-SUSTAINING
MOLECULES (ex. DNA & RNA)
Cold drinks; pH: 3
phosphoric acid
Phosphatic
fertilizers
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Natural succession
Well Balanced Ecosystem changes over time
Lake Shallow Lake (deposition of Silt)
Marsh Meadow Hardwood Forest
Takes place long period of time and not
visible in human lifespan
Can be affected by human activities such as
pollution
ACCUMULATION OF POLLUTANTS IN
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ENVIRONMENT
1.Conservative Pollutants:Pesticides, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs),
polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs),
cynide, selenium etc.heavy metals(mercury, copper, cadmium,
chromium, lead, nickel, zinc, tin etc. )
2. Nonconservative pollutants:
biodegradable organics, human waste,
animal waste
ACCUMULATION OF POLLUTANTS
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Bioaccumulation/Bioconcentrationincrease in concentration of a pollutant
from the environment to the firstorganism in a food chain: a pesticide in a crop
Biomagnificationincrease in concentration of apollutant from one link in a
food chain to another: a pesticide in a crop
Conditions:
long li fesoluble in fats: animal l i fe/human li fe
biologically active
chicken
human
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Biomagnification
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The level at which a given substance isbioaccumulated depends on :The rate of uptakeThe mode of uptake (through the gills of a fish, ingested
along with food, contact with epidermis (skin) etc. )
How quickly the substance is eliminated from the organism,
transformation of the substance by metabolic processes, thelipid (fat) content of the organism, the hydrophobicityof the
substance, environmental factors etc.
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Biomagnification
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Biomagnification
When partitioning concentrates a chemical in one
phase that is the food for a higher phase, the chemicalcan further concentrate as we move up the food chain
Bioconcentration / Bioaccumulation
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Bioconcentration of a substance is correlated to the octanol-
water partitioning coefficient (or Haunsch partitioning
Coefficient) KOW of the substance.The octanol/water partition coefficient (KOW) is defined as
the ratio of a chemical's concentration in the octanol phase
to its concentration in the aqueous phase of a two-phase
octanol/water system.
KOW= Concentration in octanol phase / Concentration in
aqueous phase.
Values of KOW can be considered to have some meaning inthemselves, since they represent the tendency of the
chemical to partition itself between an organic phase (e.g., a
fish) and an aqueous phase.
Bioconcentration / Bioaccumulation
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Chemicals with low KOW values (e.g., less than 10) may
be considered relatively hydrophilic; they tend to have
high water solubilities, small soil/sediment adsorption
coefficients, and small bioconcentration factors for
aquatic life.
Conversely, chemicals with high KOW values (e.g., greater
than 104) are very hydrophobic.
Bioconcentration / Bioaccumulation
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Bioconcentration factor (BCF) is the concentration of a
particular chemical in a tissue per concentration of
chemical in water (reported as l/kg). This physical
property characterizes the accumulation of pollutants
through chemical partitioning from the aqueous phase
into an organic phase, such as fish.
BCF= [Concentration of X in Organism, mg/kg ] /[Concentration of X in Environment, mg/l]
High potential BCF>1000; Moderate Potential
1000>BCF>250; Low potential 250>BCF.
BCF is also related to the Haunsch Partition Coefficient
by
log BCF = 0.79 x log KOW- 0.4
Example
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Example
Hexachlorobenzene (HCB) has a water to
plankton partition coefficient of 200,000; a
plankton to smelt (fish) magnification factor of
7.5; and a smelt to lake trout magification factor
of 3.5. If the concentration of HCB in the wateris 1.0 ppt, will either fish exceed the fish
consumption standards:
5 ppm for general consumption
1 ppm for pregnant and nursing women
Solution
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Solution
kg
mg2.0
kg
ng10x2
L
ng1
kg
L10x2 55plankton
water
planktonp/w
C
C
C
K
kg
mg5.1
kg
mg2.05.75.7 planktonsmelt
CC
kg
mg25.5
kg
mg5.15.35.3 smelttrout
CC
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Interpretation
The lake trout exceed the general
consumption standard and both species
exceed the standard for pregnant andnursing women
Both could easily argued on the basis of
uncertainty
PCB
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PCB (Polychlorinated Biphenyls): Insulating materialsin transformers: impair thyroid functions andneurotoxins.
General Electric Released during 1947-1977 in HudsonRiver, 300 km of Hudson River polluted
Concentrated in bottom sedimentsConsumed byriverbed microorganisms-eaten by fish 2 ppm conc.
Contaminated sediments are removed, extensivedredging & proper disposed off
Dichloro Diphenyl Trichloroethne (DDT)
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Dichloro Diphenyl Trichloroethne (DDT)
Half life 15 years
Year Amount Remaining
0 100 kg
15 50 kg
30 25 kg45 12.5 kg
60 6.25 kg
75 3.13 kg
90 1.56 kg105 0.78 kg
120 0.39 kg
DDT Dichloro-Diphenyl-Trichloroethne
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DDT Dichloro Diphenyl Trichloroethne
Used for malaria control and to protect crops from insects
Biomagnification, not very toxic to human but adverseimpact of egg hatching by birds.
Banned in 1972 and many bird population have recovered.
In India thousands of tons of DDT was used to controlmalarial mosquitoes between 1995 and 1996.
Large numbers of vultures dying and have high levels ofDDT in their carcasses.
Vultures are at the same level of the food chain as humansand serve as sentinels warning of greater pesticide hazardsthrough indirect effects unless there is a change in theIndian government's pesticide policy.
8/13/2019 CE-105 Introduction and Ecology
88/89
8/13/2019 CE-105 Introduction and Ecology
89/89
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