ORDER
BUILD
TEST
SHIP
OK?
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Section Topic 1.0 Introduct ion and Purpose
2.0 Improvement Systems 2.1 Quality Management Systems 2.2
Improving Existing Products and Services 2.3 Managing Processes 2.4
Designing New Products and Services 2.5 Business Strategy Planning
Process 2.6 Six Sigma “Belts”
3.0 Team Facil itation and Management 3.1 Working With Teams 3.2
Idea Generation & Decision Making 3.3 Exercises
4.0 Obtaining the Voice of the Customer 4.1 Core Customer Research
Methods 4.2 Exercises
5.0 Process Management & Analys is 5.1 Process Thinking 5.2
Pictures of the Process 5.3 Process Management Methods 5.4 Process
Analysis Methods 5.5 Lean Manufacturing 5.6 Exercises
6.0 Measuring Performance & Variabi lity 6.1 Developing
Performance Indicators 6.2 Data Collection 6.3 Core Data Displays
6.4 Introduction to Control Charts 6.5 Measurement Control
Charts
Section Topic 6.6 Attribute Control Charts 6.7 Measurement System
Analysis 6.8 Process Capability Analysis 6.9 Additional Control
Chart Topics
6.10 Exercises
7.0 Stratification & Prioritization 7.1 Pie, Bar & Radar
Charts 7.2 Pareto Analysis 7.3 Exercises
8.0 Cause & Effect 8.1 Cause and Effect Analysis 8.2
Exercises
9.0 Detecting Differences 9.1 Foundations of Probability and
Statistics 9.2 Hypothesis Testing 9.3 Sampling Theory 9.4
Exercises
10.0 Relationships Between Variables 10.1 Scatter Diagrams and
Correlation
Analysis 10.2 Regression Analysis 10.3 Analysis of Variance
(ANOVA) 10.4 Exercises
11.0 Experimentation 11.1 Designing and Running Experiments 11.2
Exercises
Countermeasures 12.2 Financial Analysis of Changes 12.3
Exercises
13.0 Changing 13.1 Change Management 13.2
Exercises
14.0 Design Management 14.1 Defining Product/Service Requirements
14.2 Conceptual Design 14.3 Benchmarking 14.4 Taguchi Design
Approach 14.5 Multi-Generational Product Planning 14.6
Exercises
15.0 Reliabil ity Management 15.1 Reliability Concepts and
Management 15.2 Failure/Error Modes & Effects Analysis 15.3
Fault Tree Analysis 15.4 Quantifying Reliability 15.5 Root Cause
Analysis 15.6 Exercises
16.0 Planning & Review Tools 16.1 Seven Planning Tools 16.2
Operating Reviews 16.3 Exercises
Section Topic
Appendices A. Probab il ity Distribut ions B. Sigma
Conversion Table C. Forms and Templates D. Answers to Selected
Exercises
Glossary of Statistical Terms Bibliography Index
1- 3
Respect for People – Finally, we recognize the people
“dimension” of quality. There are several aspects to address here.
First, at the core, modern quality management adopts the assumption
that people are “good.” They don’t come to work intending to
produce failures or defects. Second, to improve, we will ask our
staff to change, which is not always comfortable. Third, you will
be involved with teams of people who will help you solve problems
and improve your business processes. You will need skills to
effectively lead and facilitate improvement efforts. Sections 3,
12, 13 & 16 provide you with methods to support this
principle.
Good luck with your Black Belt training, qualification and
projects. We are sure you will find this time of your career
exciting, challenging and rewarding – both for you personally and
for your company.
John O’Neill
Six Sigma Alliance
Recognition – There are too many people to thank for their
contribution and input to this manual. A few, though, that we
cannot fail to mention include :
Our Counselors at Florida Power & Light : the late Dr. Teiichi
Ando, Prof. Hideo Iwasaki, Dr. Kazuyuki Suzuki, Dr. Hajime Makabe,
Dr. Noriaki Kano, Dr. Yoshio Kondo, Professor Asaka,
FPL Thought and Application Leaders : Bob Young, Bill Hensler, Bob
Fritz, Cathy Lindbergh, Bruce Sharp, Marie DaVerio, Tom Gilmore,
Bob Wernly, Brendan Collins, Rick Dobbins, Don Paxson, Kent
Sterett
2.2 Improving Existing Products and Services 2.2 – 1
2.3 Managing Processes 2.3 – 1
2.4 Designing New Products and Services 2.4 – 1
2.5 Strategic Planning Process 2.5 – 1
2.6 Black Belts and Master Black Belts 2.6 - 1
• To understand the purpose, principles and practice of
quality management
Unit Contents
2.1 - 3
Plan-Do-Check-Act (PDCA) – This is the simplest of the
principles, but the most difficult to practice. Companies often
employ a linear, “market-out” process to product/service
production:
In the 1920’s, Walter Shewhart turned this linear process into a
feedback loop, adding a “Check” step:
When Dr. Deming introduced the Shewhart cycle to the Japanese in
the 1950’s, they translated the cycle into the PDCA loop and
renamed it the Deming Cycle. They also generalized the cycle to
incorporate any kind of work, not just product production:
Specify Product Produce & Sell Product
Evaluate Product
2.1 - 4
company must balance the rewards of its endeavors among management,
staff and shareholders. Finally, the company owes its employees a
safe working environment, as free as possible from injury
potential.
One Company that has managed to blend all these into an operating
philosophy is Johnson & Johnson. Their Credo is known (and
applied!) by all employees. The Corporation has drawn heavily on
the strength of the Credo for guidance through the years, and at no
time was this more evident than during the TYLENOL ® crises of 1982
and 1986, when the company's product was adulterated with cyanide
and used as a murder weapon. With Johnson & Johnson's good name
and reputation at stake, company managers and employees made
countless decisions that were inspired by the philosophy embodied
in the Credo. The company's reputation was preserved and the
TYLENOL ® acetaminophen business was regained.
JOHNSON & JOHNSON COMPANY CREDO
We believe our first responsibility is to the doctors, nurses and
patients, to mothers and fathers and all others who use our
products and services. In meeting their needs everything we do must
be of high quality. We must constantly strive to reduce our costs
in order to maintain reasonable prices. Customers’ orders must be
serviced promptly and accurately. Our suppliers and distributors
must have an opportunity to make a fair profit.
We are responsible to our employees, the men and women who work
with us throughout the world. Everyone must be considered as an
individual. We must respect their dignity and recognize their
merit. They must have a sense of security in their jobs.
Compensation must be fail and adequate, and working conditions
clean, orderly and safe. We must be mindful of ways to help our
employees fulfill their family responsibilities. Employees must
feel free to make suggestions and complaints. There must be equal
opportunity for employment, development and advancement for those
qualified. We must provide competent management, and their actions
must be just and ethical.
We are responsible to the communities in which we live and work and
to the world community as well. We must be good citizens – support
good works and charities and bear our fair share of taxes. We must
encourage civic improvements and better health and education. We
must maintain in good order the property we are privileged to use,
protecting the environment and natural resources.
2.1.2 Quality Management Approaches
The problem of quality management has been with us as long as
humans have engaged in economic activity. Here we will provide a
brief overview of different approaches. For those interested in the
history of quality management, Dr. Joseph Juran has written The
History of Quality – a fascinating documentary of this topic.
“ Old-Fashioned” Approach
Prior to the development of mass-production methods, a large
fraction of human economy occurred on a one-to-one basis. A
customer would meet with a craftsman and describe what they wanted
(e.g. a silversmith or goldsmith for jewelry or a blacksmith for a
plough or other tool). The craftsman embodied all corporate
“functions” in one person – sales, planning, design, production,
and service. This approach helped ensure that the customer’s needs
were incorporated into the product or service. Since the products
were generally produced one at a time, variation between parts was
not a problem. The craftsman also acted as the “quality control”
function, inspecting the product for flaws or defects.
Inspection Based
With the advent of mass-production and the modern, functionally
divided organization, the close connection between the producer and
consumer became fragmented. A worker assembling engines in an
automobile factory would never see the ultimate customer of the
car. To communicate requirements, specifications were developed. To
account for inevitable variation in parts, tolerance limits were
incorporated into the specifications. Inspection and sorting of
parts based on a “go, no-go” conformance to specifications was
employed to prevent defects in the product.
Standard Based
2.1 - 7
Statistical Approach
In the 1920’s, Walter Shewhart, of Bell Laboratories, developed the
control chart or statistical approach to control of quality.
His approach incorporates the idea that variation exists in all
production processes and that a state of control can be
achieved through systematic elimination of assignable causes of
variation – that due to materials, methods, people, or machines.
The incorporation of statistical quality control into the US’
wartime “Z” standards is credited as one of the major factors
leading to the allied victory (interestingly, Japanese quality
texts almost always cite this effect). Through statistical quality
control, a rifle produced in one factory could fire bullets
produced in another plant.
Deming’s Approach
Although W. Edwards Deming’s roots are found in the
application of statistical quality control on the shop floor, he
recognized that quality was the main responsibility of senior
management. Without their commitment to continuous improvement,
efforts at lower levels in the organization would be fragmented and
ineffective. Rather than focus on the “mechanics” of quality
management, Deming evolved a set of principles that he stated could
be applied by any organization, regardless of what they
“produced:”
Deming’s 14 Points 1. Create constancy of purpose toward
improvement of product and service, with the aim to become
competitive and
to stay in business, and to provide jobs. 2. Adopt the new
philosophy. Western management must awaken to the challenge, must
learn their responsibilities,
and take on leadership for a change. 3. Cease dependence on
inspection to achieve quality. Eliminate the need for inspection on
a mass basis by building
quality into the product in the first place. 4. End the practice of
awarding business on the basis of price tag. Instead, minimize
total cost. Move toward a single
supplier for any one of item, on a long-term relationship of
loyalty and trust. 5. Improve constantly and forever the system of
production and service, to improve quality and productivity and
thus
constantly decrease costs. 6. Institute training on the job. 7.
Institute leadership. The aim of supervision should be to help
people and machines and gadgets to do a better job.
2.1 - 8
9. Break down barriers between departments. People in research,
design, sales and production must work as a team, to foresee
problems of production and in use that may be encountered with the
product or service.
10. Eliminate slogans, exhortations and targets for the work force
asking for zero defects and new levels of productivity. Such
exhortations only create adversarial relationships, as the bulk of
the causes of low quality and low productivity belong to the system
and thus lie beyond the power of the work force.
11. Eliminate work standards (quotas) on the factory floor.
Eliminate management by objective. Eliminate management by numbers,
numerical goals. Substitute leadership.
12. Remove barriers that rob the hourly worker of his right to
pride of workmanship. The responsibility of supervisors must be
changed from sheer numbers to quality. Remove barriers that rob
people in management and in engineering of their right to pride of
workmanship. This means, inter alia, abolishment of the annual
or merit rating and of management by objective.
13. Institute a vigorous program of education and self-improvement.
14. Put everybody to work in the company to work to accomplish the
transformation. The transformation is
everybody’s job.
Deming’s principles also include the following “deadly diseases”
and obstacles to improvement:
Deadly Diseases 1. Lack of constancy of purpose to plan product and
service that will have a market and keep the company in
business, and provide jobs. 2. Emphasis on short-term profits:
short-term thinking (just the opposite from constancy of purpose to
stay in
business), fed by fear of unfriendly takeover and by push from
bankers and owners for dividends. 3. Evaluation of performance,
merit rating, or annual review. 4. Mobility of management;
job-hopping. 5. Management by use only of visible figures, with
little or no consideration of figures that are unknown or
unknowable. 6. Excessive medical costs (unique to the US). 7.
Excessive costs of liability, swelled by lawyers that work on
contingency fees.
2.1 - 9
4. “Our problems are different.” 5. Obsolescence in schools. 6.
Poor teaching of statistical methods in industry. 7. Use of tables
and methods for acceptance sampling of incoming or outgoing
product. 8. “Our quality control department takes care of all our
problems of quality.” 9. “Our troubles lie entirely in the work
force.” 10. False starts. 11. “We installed quality control.” 12.
The unmanned computer. 13. The supposition that it is only
necessary to meet specifications. 14. The fallacy of zero defects.
15. Inadequate testing of prototypes. 16. “Anyone who comes to try
to help us must understand all about our business.”
One of Dr. Deming’s last books, Out of the Crisis, should be
read by all people interested in managing for quality.
Feigenbaum, Juran, Quality Systems and the Japanese Approach
Armand Feigenbaum and Joe Juran also recognized that quality
management required the cooperation and engagement of the entire
organization. Contrasting to Deming’s development of fundamental
principles, Feigenbaum and Juran took a more application-oriented
approach. Feigenbaum coined the term “Total Quality Management” to
describe a holistic approach to achieving quality and financial
performance. In his book of the same name, Feigenbaum outlines the
responsibilities, quality systems, tasks and activities of quality
management. Dr. Juran has long been noted for the Juran Quality
Handbook, the “Bible” of quality management. The quality
practitioner can find just about every quality tool in existence
described there.
2.1 - 10
holistic, organization-wide approach to quality. During the 1980’s
and 1990’s, although the term TQM was used in the US, for the most
part, organizations only focused on “local” problem-solving/process
improvement, only one component of TQM.
Six Sigma
In the 1980’s, a new angle on quality management appeared under the
banner of Six Sigma. Although Six Sigma’s core includes the
traditional statistical and quality techniques, the original
approach developed by Motorola added a few wrinkles worthy of note.
The term Six Sigma simply refers to a process that operates at a
short-term process capability of 2.0 – that is the process’
standard deviation is 1/6 th the distance from the target to
the specification limit. Over the long- term, such a process can be
expected to produce less than 3.4 defects per million
opportunities. There is nothing “magic” about this defect rate – it
is simply a benchmark that Motorola observed was being achieved by
best-in-class companies (typically Japanese!). The Six Sigma term
does seem to have a certain appeal to executives as a worthy goal.
The fact that Jack Welch of GE has successfully promoted the
pursuit of Six Sigma has also enhanced its marketability and
(currently) Wall Street looks favorably on companies that announce
their pursuit of Six Sigma.
Another element of the Six Sigma approach is the use of a
dedicated resource applied to significant corporate problems and
opportunities – the Black Belt (see Section 2.6 for more details).
The Black Belt model supports two aims. First, the dedicated
resource embodied in the Black Belt helps achieve an improvement
“velocity” in the organization that is does not occur via other
models (e.g. training lots of staff and then engaging them in part
time projects). Second, the rotation of the Black Belt back into
the line organization after a “tour of duty” can help embed the
quality culture in the organization.
2.1.3 One Approach – A Baldrige-Based Quality System
Utilizing Information and Data to Develop Plans and Actions
to
Support Our Strategic Direction and Deliver Business Results
Defining Strategy & Actions Based on Customer Needs
&
Communicating Direction
Focused
Delivering Total Shareholder Return
Employees Through Focused Involvement
Driving Improvement In Our Processes To Exceed Our Customer and
Internal
Requirements & Expectations
Into Products/Services Which Delight Them
A Brief Organizational Assessment:
Category Items
Leadership Leadership System – describe the company’s leadership
system and how senior leaders guide the company in setting
directions and in developing and sustaining effective leadership
throughout the organization.
Company Responsibility & Citizenship – describe how the company
addresses its responsibilities to the public and how the company
practices good citizenship.
Strategic Planning
Strategy Development Process – describe how the company sets
strategic directions to strengthen its business performance and
competitive position.
Company Strategy – summarize the company’s strategy and action
plans, how they are deployed and how performance is tracked.
Customer & Market Focus
Customer and Market Knowledge – describe how the company determines
longer-term requirements, expectations and preferences of target
and/or potential customers and markets. Describe this information
is used to understand and anticipate needs and to develop business
opportunities.
Customer Satisfaction & Relationship Enhancement – describe how
the company determines and enhances the satisfaction of its
customers to build relationships, to improve current offerings, and
to support customer- and market-related planning.
Information & Analysis
Selection & Use of Information & Data – describe how the
company determines and enhances the satisfaction of its customers
to build relationships, to improve current offerings and to support
customer- and market-related planning.
improve company performance.
Analysis & Review of Company Performance – describe how
the company analyzes and reviews overall performance to assess
progress relative to plans and goals and to identify key areas for
improvement.
Human Resource Focus
Work Systems – describe how all employees contribute to achieving
the company’s performance and learning objectives, through work
design, compensation and recognition approaches.
Employee Education, Training & Development – describe how the
company’s education and training support the accomplishment of key
company action plans and address company needs, including building
knowledge, skills and capabilities, and contribute to improved
employee performance and development.
Employee Well-Being & Satisfaction – describe how the company
maintains a work environment and climate that support the
well-being, satisfaction and motivation of employees.
Process Management
Management of Product & Service Processes – describe how
products and services are designed, implemented and improved.
Describe how production/delivery processes are designed,
implemented, managed and improved.
Management of Support Processes – describe how the company’s key
support processes are designed, implemented, managed and
improved.
Management of Supplier and Partnering Processes – describe how the
company’s supplier and partnering processes and relationships are
designed, implemented, managed and improved. Describe how supplier
and partner performance is managed and improved.
Business Results
Customer Satisfaction Results – summarize the company’s customer
satisfaction and dissatisfaction results.
Category Items
Human Resource Results – summarize the company’s human resource
results, including employee well being, satisfaction, development
and work system performance.
Supplier & Partner Results – summarize the company’s
supplier and partner performance results.
Company-Specific Results – summarize company operational
performance results that contribute to the achievement of key
company performance goals – customer satisfaction, product and
service quality, operational effectiveness and financial/
marketplace performance.
2.2 - 1
Learning Objectives
Unit Contents
2.2 - 2
Continuous improvement is the goal. As Jack Welch, CEO of General
Electric notes, “If the rate of change on the outside is greater
than the rate of change on the inside, then the end is near.”
The word continuous means ongoing, endless, unbroken, and is
figuratively associated with the circle, which embodies these
characteristics.
We use the Plan-Do-Check-Act (PDCA) cycle as the core “theory” of
our improvement method. In our years working with companies, we’ve
noted that PDCA is easy to understand, but hard to practice.
Plan-Do-Check-Act
process.
based on customer needs,
them.
Plan
what is working and what is not.
Check Implement what you
2.2 - 3
The DMAIEC Improvement Process
We’ve translated the PDCA cycle into a practical 6-step approach
for teams and individuals to employ during problem solving/process
improvement efforts. The method is described on the next few pages.
The PDCA wheel is “rotated” more than once in this six-step
approach.
•Launch The Project
•Identify Breakthroughs
•Identify Replication Opportunities
•Develop Future Plans
2.2 - 4
PURPOSE: There are many problems could be addressed. You must
build the case for why this problem is important to address now.
Does the problem relate to the most important product/service of
your department or is it strategically important to your
organization? What is the “gap,” what’s the “pain?” If the problem
is not seen as important, there won’t be much enthusiasm to work on
it. Also, in this step, the project is planned, team members
identified, resources approved.
METHODS: • Launch The Project - Brainstorm a list of
problems. Select the most important one to address. Collect
customer feedback to identify problems with your products and
services. Select the most important one to address. Collect
performance data on your products and services (quality, cost,
delivery, safety). Pick a product/service with the largest
performance “gap.” Obtain a copy of your organization’s strategic
plan. Where and how can your department contribute to the overall
plan? Which of your products/services must be improved? As the
output of this step, develop a “theme” or “mission” statement for
the effort.
• Define Outcomes – How will the success of the project
be measured? What aspect of the product or service needs
improvement - quality, cost, delivery or safety?
• Identify Stakeholders – Who are the key people who
will be impacted by (or who can influence) the project’s direction
and success? Where do they stand relative to changes that may occur
as a result of this project?
• Select Team – Who should be represented? Full-time?
Part-time?
• Determine Project Approach – DMAIIC provides a general
project approach; what specific modifications or additions are
needed?
• Create Project Plan – Develop a work breakdown
structure, PERT and/or Gantt chart.
TOOLS: • Customer Feedback/Complaint Data
• Organization Strategic Plan
• Project Planning Worksheet
2.2 - 6
PURPOSE: This is the “why” or diagnostic step. Where the
Current Situation step helped us understand the 5W1H of the
process, here we will develop hypotheses regarding the variables
that are causing the problem or “gap.” These hypotheses must then
be confirmed or refuted and the “true causes” of the problem
identified.
METHODS: • Develop Cause & Effect Hypotheses
- Develop hypotheses about why the problem occurs. These
may include Material, Machine/Equipment, Method, People,
Measurement and Environment factors. Cause and Effect analysis
is the most basic (but powerful!) approach to developing these
hypotheses.
• Gather Causal Data – Plan how you will gather evidence
to support your hypotheses. Gather evidence to establish the
“guilt” or “innocence” of the different factors. This may be done
through analysis of product or service outputs and “production”
process factors, or through experiments performed that deliberately
change the value of factors in the “production” process.
• Determine & Validate Root Causes (X’s) – Study the
results of your cause and effect analysis. Which of the potential
root causes contribute most to the problem you are attempting to
solve. If you eliminate the root cause, how much will the problem
be reduced?
TOOLS: • Cause and Effect Analysis
• Pareto Analysis of Causes
• Design of Experiments
2.2 - 7
PURPOSE: Here, changes will be identified that impact the
important variables discovered during Analysis and that we
think will improve performance. The changes should be evaluated for
their benefits, costs and possible side effects. The changes must
be “sold,” planned and then implemented.
METHODS: • Identify Breakthroughs
- Identify possible countermeasures to address the
process variables affecting performance. Select one or more that
have the highest likelihood (and lowest cost) of impacting the
variables. Benchmark “best” practices and select the
aspects of these that address your situation. Once the
countermeasures have been selected, they must be “sold” to the
stakeholders (customers, staff, management, etc.). Then, detailed
planning and implementation follow. A pilot or demonstration effort
may occur prior to “full-scale” implementation.
• Select Practical Approaches – Translate the
countermeasure to a set of changes that can be implemented.
Experiments may be performed to determine the best “level” for
the key causal factors.
• Design Future State - Design a new product/service or
associated production process . In some cases, either the
existing product or service is inadequate, or the “production”
process is not capable of producing at the required quality and
cost levels. A “clean sheet” design effort may be necessary (see
Section 2.4 – Designing New Products & Services).
• Predict New “ Sigma” – Given what you know about the
countermeasures, what improvement do you expect to see? Will the
problem be reduced by 40%, 90%? What will the new “Sigma” of the
process be?
• Perform C/B & Risk Analysis – Are the changes you are
suggesting justified by the economics? What risks (business,
technical, legal, etc.) are created by the changes? How will the
important risks be prevented or mitigated?
TOOLS: • Root Cause/Countermeasure Matrix
• Project Planning Worksheet
2.2 - 8
PURPOSE: After the changes are made, what effect have
they had on performance - has the “gap” closed, or has the problem
been eliminated? Do we understand that the changes we made caused
the change in performance?
METHODS: • Develop Control Methods – Create or revise
the necessary procedures, protocols, drawings, instructions,
specifications or other methods employed to control the
process.
• Develop Dashboards and Scorecards – Determine how you
will measure the results. The CTQs you have focused on should be
measured. Process variables and supplier metrics may also be
required.
• Train – Train workers on the changes to the
process.
• Execute – Implement the changes. You may first make the
changes on a pilot scale, prior to full-scale implementation.
• Measure Results - Collect and Analyze Performance Data
to determine if the change has had a measurable impact.
Collect data on both the output - that aspect of the product
or service that you were trying to improve (quality, cost, etc.)
and on the variables that you changed through the
countermeasures. Conduct Customer Interviews/Collect Customer
Feedback to determine if the problem addressed has “gone away” or
has been reduced in frequency. Determine if the results
(observed changes in performance) are due to the effects of the
changes you made to the process (sometimes other variables may be
acting on the process that are outside your control). Three
outcomes are possible here: 1. The results are due to our changes
and performance is as expected. Here, move to the
Control
step. 2. The results are much less than expected. Here, go back to
Analyze and understand why. 3. The results are much better
than expected. Here, too, go back to Analyze and
understand why.
• Manage Change – Make sure that the necessary changes
are being implemented. Address sources of resistance; try to ensure
a “win-win” for process stakeholders.
TOOLS: • Line Graphs, Run Charts, Control Charts
• Pareto Analysis
• Procedures, Instructions
2.2 - 9
PURPOSE: The changes may have been done on a pilot basis, or
under temporary procedures. If the changes actually improved the
process, then we must ensure that they are repeated each time the
product or service is “produced.” They must be built into the PLAN,
training & education performed and responsibilities clarified.
Monitoring tools should be put in place.
METHODS: • Report Dashboard and Scorecard Data –
Continue to measure and report on process performance. On-going
measurement may occur less frequently and with fewer measurement
points than during the pilot phase of the improvement.
Monitor performance to ensure that the changes aren’t
Teflon-coated, i.e. that they don’t “stick.”
• Create Feedback Loop & Adjust Process
- Ensure that the performance metrics are acted upon if they
go awry. Help staff understand the difference between actions to
address process instability (e.g. special causes) and process
incapability (e.g. process not centered or excessive variation
relative to specifications).
• Identify Replication Opportunities – Given that the
process improvement has worked well, are there other
products/services/processes that could benefit from the
changes?
• Develop Future Plans – What portion of the original
problem remains? Is there benefit to be gained by tackling the next
“bar on the Pareto?” At the end of the project, don’t forget to
reward the team and celebrate!
TOOLS: • Procedures, Protocols, Standards
• Quality Improvement Story Review Form
• Project Planning Worksheet
2.2 - 10
• Understand the Purpose of a Process Management System
• Be able to “Build,” Implement and “Run” a Process
Management System
• Link Process Management to Process Improvement and
Design
Unit Contents
• Process Management System Example
2.3.1 Process Management Purpose
Supplier
Process
Supplier
Customer
Supplier
Process
Supplier
Customer
In many organizations, basic work processes are not well
defined; the “how-to” do a process is passed from worker to worker,
how well a particular process is performing is not understood
and, when things go wrong, reactions often focus on individual
employees rather than the factors in the process actually
responsible. Often, process improvement is difficult because each
worker performs the job differently.
Process Management, then, has several quality-related
purposes:
2.3 - 3
Locally – to ensure that work processes are planned and conducted
to meet the objectives of the process – at the basic level, to
satisfy the requirements of the customers of the process, and
Organizationally – to ensure that the ultimate, external
customer of the company is receiving the value they seek from the
products and services offered by the company.
Process Management helps the organization’s constitution, by
clarifying responsibilities and accountabilities for company
activities. For example, who in your company is responsible for
reliability of the products? Is it Engineering,
Manufacturing, Service?
2.3.2 Build ing, Implementing and Running a Process Management
System
Section Five describes the methods of Process Management. The
Plan-Do-Check-Act cycle shows how the concept of continual
improvement is embedded in Process Management.
Identify/Prior itize Business Processes
Define Process Metrics
“ As-Build” Business Processes
Prepare Implementation Plan
Implement Process Control
Train & Educate Staff
Perform the Work
Identify Performance Gaps
Redesign Processes (DMEDVI)
The basic elements of a Process Management System include:
Process Owners – Managers, Supervisors or Individuals
responsible for the outcome of a company process. In some cases,
especially for broad corporate processes (e.g. Order to Receipt), a
team of managers will be assigned as Process Owners.
Process Purpose, Definition, Measurement and Action Plan –
The company should define (and record) why the process exists – who
are the customers of the process, what are their needs &
requirements, what key characteristics of the process must be
assured to meet the customers’ needs? Process Definition usually
includes some graphic picture such as a flowchart defining how the
process operates (and, often, who is accountable for the various
process steps). Measurement of both output-type variables (e.g.
quantifying the quality, cost, delivery and safety key
characteristics) and important input-type variables (key factors
influencing the output variables) is put in place. Performance
dashboards are often used to summarize the overall performance
of the process. Action plans are developed to describe immediate
remedies when the process variables do not exhibit a state of
statistical control or when they produce output beyond the process’
specification limits as well as plans to prevent the
reoccurrence of chronic process performance gaps. In this
latter we find the link to process improvement. Problem-solving
teams can be assigned to analyze the root causes of these
performance gaps and develop/implement actions to address the root
causes.
2.3.3 Process Management System Example
TITLE: PROCESS CUSTOMER: CUSTOMER VALID REQUIREMENTS: PROCESS
OUTCOME MEASURE[S]:
PROCESS FLOW CHART
ENGINEERING CHANGE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
END
TITLE: PROCESS CUSTOMER: CUSTOMER VALID REQUIREMENTS: PROCESS
OUTCOME MEASURE[S]:
PROCESS FLOW CHART
ENGINEERING CHANGE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM PRODUCT CUSTOMERS
RAPID IDENTIFICATION AND INCORPORATION OF DESIGN CHANGES
DISPOSITION
APPROVED
REJECTED
TITLE: PROCESS CUSTOMER: CUSTOMER VALID REQUIREMENTS: PROCESS
OUTCOME MEASURE[S]:
PROCESS FLOW CHART
ENGINEERING CHANGE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM PRODUCT CUSTOMERS RAPID
IDENTIFICATION AND
INCORPORATION OF DESIGN CHANGES
MAPICS PRELIM
TITLE: PROCESS CUSTOMER: CUSTOMER VALID REQUIREMENTS: PROCESS
OUTCOME MEASURE[S]:
PROCESS FLOW CHART
ENGINEERING CHANGE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM PRODUCT CUSTOMERS RAPID
IDENTIFICATION AND
INCORPORATION OF DESIGN CHANGES
2.4 - 1
Learning Objectives
• Be able to apply the design process to develop new products
and services.
Unit Contents
2.4 - 3
This feedback loop is best known today as the "PLAN-DO-CHECK-ACT"
or PDCA cycle.
From:
Specification
ProductionInspection
2.4 - 5
•Develop & Implement Customer Research Plan
•Translate Customer Needs to Product/Service CTQ’s
•Specify Targets, Tolerance Limits & Sigma Targets
•Develop Product/ Service Necessary Functions
•Develop Conceptual Product/ Service Designs
•Develop High- Level Production Processes
•Predict Capability & Evaluate Gaps
•Develop Detailed Production Processes
•Develop Process Control & Validation Plans
•Build Pilot Processes
•Validate Pilot Readiness
•Perform Pilot Testing
•Evaluate Scale- up Potential
•Develop Implementation & Transition Plans
•Perform Start-up Testing
•Transition to Process Owners
•Evaluate & Close Design Project
2.4 - 6
PURPOSE: The Define Step of DMEDVI is similar to that of
DMAIEC. A clear link to the company’s product development
priorities (perhaps articulated in the Business Plan) is
established. By the end of this phase, the product or service to be
designed is clarified, the overall scope of the project defined,
the project team is in place and necessary plans and design
controls developed.
INPUTS: • Business Plans
STEPS: • Launch The Project – Decide that this product
or service should be designed/redesigned (based on market research,
company strategy, customer input). Assign overall responsibility
for the project.
• Define Outcomes – Determine how the success of the
project will be measured (typically from a business standpoint).
Will the design/redesign reduce cost, increase revenue or market
share?
• Scope Project – Determine the boundaries of the
project. Determine the project deliverables, what is in and out of
scope for the project. Product/Service designs may be divided into
“generations.”
• Identify Stakeholders – Who will be impacted by the
new design, who can impact the success of the design
project?
• Select Team – Determine full and part-time members of
the team. Which disciplines or departments should be involved?
• Determine Project Approach – DMEDVI provides a
generic framework; determine how DMEDVI will be tailored to the
specific project.
• Create Project Plan – Develop a work breakdown
structure, PERT and/or Gantt chart.
• Define Project Controls – Develop communication
plans, change control (for the design), change management (for
stakeholders, staff), review plans (design and tollgate), risk
management processes.
OUTPUTS: • Project Charter
• New Product/Service Introduction Process
2.4 - 7
PURPOSE: In the Measure step, you will obtain the
“voices” of the various customers of the product or service. These
will include those customers external to the business, perhaps
internal customers and the stakeholders who will be impacted or may
impact the success of the project (e.g. management, regulatory
bodies, others). The goal of this step, though, is to develop a set
of requirements (some of which will be critical-to- quality, i.e.
CTQs) that the design team can use as inputs to their design
processes. A clear linkage between the “voices” and the
requirements must be established in this step.
INPUTS: • Project Charter
• Define State of Current Customer Knowledge – Review
existing customer information, including complaints, complements,
and market research studies.
• Develop & Implement Customer Research Plan –
Determine what information must be collected, determine appropriate
Voice of Customer methods (interviews, focus groups, surveys).
• Translate Customer Needs to Product/Service CTQ’s –
The Voice of the Customer is generally obtained in their
“language.” A filtering and translation process takes the
customers’ voices as input and develops a set of requirements
stated in the technical language of the product/service.
• Specify Targets, Tolerance Limits & Sigma Targets
– Numerical goals are set for the product/service
requirements. Allowable variation and defect rates (i.e. sigma
targets) are established to help the design team objectively judge
their design.
OUTPUTS: • Product/Service Requirements (a subset of which
are the Critical-to-Quality Requirements (CTQs) ).
• Design Scorecard – CTQ level
• Quality Function Deployment
2.4 - 9
• Benchmark Analysis (functional)
• Reliability Methods
• Design Reviews
2.4 - 10
PURPOSE: Here, the “rest” of the design is developed. The
production version of the product is finalized, as well as that of
the production processes. Verification activities are refined and
completed; the product has been determined to meet its
requirements, tradeoffs are made where necessary. In preparation
for validation of the design, process controls and validation plans
are developed.
INPUTS: Detailed:
• Conceptual Designs,
• Bills of Material,
• Supporting Analyses/Test Results:
• Regulatory Impact/Environmental Impact
Analyses,
• Value Analysis, Value Engineering Studies,
• Cost Estimates to produce product/service.
STEPS: • Develop Detailed Product & Service Designs
– The work done in the Explore step is continued at the
detailed level. By this step’s completion, the design will be
developed to the point where it can be produced using production
equipment and processes.
• Develop Detailed Production Processes – Likewise, the
production process design is complete.
• Refine Capability & Gap Evaluation, Perform Tradeoffs
– Final testing and product verification activities are
completed.
• Develop Process Control & Validation Plans – In
preparation for pilot testing and validation efforts, the necessary
process controls – procedures, protocols, bills of material, device
master record, etc. are developed.
OUTPUTS: Detailed:
• Conceptual Designs,
• Bills of Material,
• Supporting Analyses/Test Results:
• Regulatory Impact/Environmental Impact
Analyses,
2.4 - 11
• Test Plans/Results,
• Benchmark Analysis (functional)
• Reliability Methods
2.4 - 12
PURPOSE: Whereas verification confirms the product meets its
requirements, validation confirms the product (and processes)
meet the needs of the customers. Pilot testing is a key part of the
product/service’s validation. Based on the results of these
activities, the decision to scale-up to full production is made;
implementation and transition plans to support scale-up are
developed.
INPUTS: • Design Outputs from Previous Steps
• Process Control Plans
• Product/Process Validation Plans
STEPS: • Build Pilot Processes – Production facilities,
equipment, information systems, etc. are procured and constructed
in preparation for pilot tests.
• Validate Pilot Readiness – Startup testing of the
production processes is completed. The processes are tested to
determine if they are capable of producing the product/service.
• Perform Pilot Testing – Production version product
(or service) is produced. The product or service is offered to
customers; validation that the product/service meets the needs of
the users is performed.
• Analyze Gaps, Determine Root Causes – Problems
experienced by the customer are identified, root causes determined
and the product/service/process revised to eliminate the gaps.
• Evaluate Scale-up Potential – A business decision is
made to scale-up the product/service to “full- scale.”
• Develop Implementation & Transition Plans – Plans
to fully implement the product/service are developed.
OUTPUTS: • Validated production processes
2.4 - 13
PURPOSE: Here the product or service is launched. The design
is transitioned to the operating forces, e.g. for products,
the Device Master Record is completed and transferred to
production. Although further commercialization of the product or
service may occur, and the design of the next product/service
generation begun, the close of this design project is at hand.
Lessons learned are documented, as well as the history of the
design. As appropriate, the design team is rewarded &
recognized.
INPUTS: • Validated production processes
• Validated product/service
• Implementation/transition plans
STEPS: • Build Full-Scale Processes, Train Staff –
For many products/service, existing facilities are adapted to
support the new processes. In some cases, though, new production
facilities/processes will be required.
• Perform Start-up Testing – Necessary testing of the
new production processes is performed. Production is ramped up to
full-scale.
• Analyze Gaps, Determine Root Causes – Problems
noted with early production units/processes are identified, root
causes determined and appropriate countermeasures implemented.
• Transition to Process Owners – As the new
product/service enters production, the design team performs a
turnover to operating forces. Bills of material, device master
records, process procedures, and control plans are completed.
Design history files are updated.
Evaluate & Close Design Project – Before the design team
disbands and begins to work on the next products/services, lessons
learned are generated, good practices recognized, improvement
opportunities identified. Both of these should be fed back to the
“owners” of the design process to improve the overall design
processes.
OUTPUTS: • Commercialized Product/Service
• Design History Files
2.4 - 14
Design Reviews
Purpose – Design reviews are an effective means of reviewing
the developing design at key stages to determine: • Which
conceptual design to pursue, • Conformance of the design to
goals/needs & expectations, • Ability to
fabricate/assemble or manufacture the design, • Results of
product/service "prototype" testing, • Decision to proceed to
implementing the design.
Design review is used to communicate the progress of the design
team to management and operating forces to solicit comments and
suggestions and obtain "buy-in" from the people who will produce
and use the new product or service.
Types of Design Review include:
Conceptual Design Review - the main purpose of this review is
to decide which conceptual design to pursue into detailed
design.
High-Level Design Review – here, the product/service design
is reviewed against the high-level production processes – will the
design be “produceable” – fabrication, assembly, process capability
are addressed.
Detailed Design Review - the main purpose of this review is to
assure that the design meets the goals of the project and the
product/service requirements.
Interface Design Review - many products/services are
"shoehorned" into an existing system. The objective of this review
is to communicate how the new product/service will interface with
other products/services, upstream, downstream and supporting the
new design.
Final Design Review - this review's purpose is to gain
management acceptance (and budgetary approval) of the new design to
proceed to the next phase, Designing Processes to Produce
Product/Service.
Outputs - As a result of these reviews:
• The new Product/Service is "accepted" by both management
and the operating forces,
• Interfaces between the new product/service and existing
products/services are identified.
2.4 - 15
Produce Product/Service - Check Performance
By the end of the DMEDVI methodology, the newly designed/redesigned
process has been turned over to the operating forces. "Production"
process management (i.e. quality control) controls the quality of
the new product or service.
The "Check-Act" cycle must be implemented to obtain knowledge of
customer reactions and their judgment of the new product/service's
quality. Continual improvement (i.e. through the “usual”
improvement methods) now addresses continued process improvement of
the new design.
Although not something we wish to contemplate, there is the
possibility that the new or redesigned product or service does not
achieve its quality goals (remember the Edsel, "New" Coca-Cola, the
movie Waterworld?) or dramatically exceeds its goals.
In these cases, an analysis of why the goals were not met (or
were exceeded) should be performed. This analysis should focus on
why the design process did not perform as expected. The
investigation should result in improvements to this design
process.
2.4 - 16
• Understand the purpose and process associated with setting
corporate priorities
Unit Contents
• Business Planning Process Elements & Steps
• Business Planning Calendar
2.5.1 The Need for a Business Planning Process
Dr. Deming’s often focused on the problem of companies and
organizations sub-optimizing their efforts. He noted that
improvements made to “optimize” one department’s performance often
hurt the performance of supplier or customer departments. Shigeo
Shingo, one of the key developers of the Toyota Production System,
states that the overall system must be analyzed and improved first,
then improvements at local operations can occur. If I decrease the
cycle time required to produce a part or assembly at my station,
but the result is inventory stacking up in front of your machine,
then the system has not improved.
The business planning process is thus intended to focus the
organization’s energies on the vital improvements that will benefit
the customer and therefore translate to bottom-line results for the
company. Read the following quote from a noted CEO to see the
importance he places on this key process:
The business planning process is the best tool we have for
communicating our strategies and objectives throughout the
organization, aligning all activities with these strategies and
objectives, and making sure we are on track to achieve them. . .
Business planning is our primary vehicle for continuous improvement
of those processes that will make us one of the world’s premier
companies. Our success in this year and beyond depends on our
ability to move as one toward our vision. The business planning
process gives us that ability.
2.5 - 4
internal capabilities, supplier and partner capabilities, and
performance to the current plan. This information is analyzed to
set strategic directions that strengthen our performance and
competitive position.
2. Annual Operating Plan. The Leadership Team develops
an Annual Operating Plan that includes key business drivers,
strategies, focus areas, and key performance indicators.
3. Implementation. Each business unit cascades the Annual
Operating Plan throughout its organization. This includes
identifying Business Unit objectives, strategies, action plans, key
performance indicators, and benchmarks. It also includes
communicating the plan throughout the organization, aligning all
activities with the plan, and implementing the actions.
• State Key Business Drivers
• Develop Budget/Resource Al location
Each Business Unit:
• Develop Process for Cascading BU Plan
• Review Plans wi th Leadership Team
• Communicate Plans Internally
• Verify Alignment of Divisions, Departments, Work Teams with
BU Plan
• Review Performance on Key Indicators
• Review Performance to Plan
Develop Annual Operating
2.5 - 6
By the time the current year’s AOP is developed, the company should
have aligned and linked their strategy to specific projects. Black
Belts should find that they are leading or facilitating improvement
(DMAIEC), design (DMEDVI) or process control (PDCA) projects. The
charters for these projects should clearly link the project to the
strategy and quantify the contribution of the project to
accomplishing some “piece” of the strategy.
Strategy Formulation
Business Deployment
Projects & Process
Tools & Methods
Letter of Direction from CEO
Provide input and support
Provide input and support
Distribute Business Planning Handbook
Step 2: Annual Operating Plan
Announce preliminary strategies and 1999 focus areas
Develop 1999 AOP
Publish AOP assumptions
Provide economic forecast
Complete preliminary business plan (without budget)
Refine business plans; analyze cost/benefit of capital projects;
develop budget; resolve cross- functional issues
Review complete business plans and make adjustments
Complete final business plan (with budget)
Prepare final AOP and submit to Board of Directors for
approval
Communicate AOP to Business Units
Step 3: Implementation
Cascade plan throughout unit
Step 4: Plan Reviews
Communicate to Leadership Team
Learning Objectives
• To understand the role of the Green Belt, Black Belt and
Master Black Belt • To understand the skills required of a
Green, Black and Master Black Belt • To understand how Green,
Black and Master Black Belts are certified • To provide a
report-out on your specific Black Belt project
Unit Contents
2.6 - 2
2.6.1 Introduction
2.6 - 4
benchmark return on investment of 2 – 1 (their research indicated
2-1 to 4-1 ROIs – they set the “bar” low for their first year of
Six Sigma implementation), they set an average project benefit goal
of $150,000 per project. Although the initial project assigned to a
Black Belt during training may not be a “home run,” subsequent
projects must be high impact.
. . alone or with teams . . The Black Belt will be skilled in
leading teams through improvement and design efforts. The BB will
manage project schedules and budgets, will facilitate teams in the
application of quality tools and methods, and will be effective at
implementing changes in the organization. The Black Belt will coach
management and individuals to learn and apply quality systems,
tools and methods, management systems, tools & methods and is
able to apply these individually and within a team structure to
effect improvement within the company’s culture and
organization.
A typical Black Belt job description follows:
2.6 - 5
Job Title: Black Belt 8 Location: Assigned Company
location 8 Reporting to: Functional VP/Director in current
Division/Staff Function; dotted-line reporting to VP Six Sigma
8 Grade/Job Level: Determined by Division; with
concurrence from VP Six Sigma 8 Job Duration: Minimum of 18
months - 2 years, full time
Job Description
Job Profile:
8 Lead multiple Six Sigma projects per year, each delivering
an significant bottom-line improvement 8 Lead, train and
mentor Green Belts and network with peers in the use of Six Sigma
tools and techniques 8 Facilitate in the selection of Green
Belt projects 8 Support Six Sigma training activities, as
required 8 Carry out other duties and tasks, as requested, by
the Functional VP/Director or VP Six Sigma.
Personal Characteristics:
8 Complete Black Belt training 8 Achieve Black Belt
certification as determined by Six Sigma project office – Black
Belt certification requires the
successful completion of two projects 8 Self-starter who can
work on own initiative with minimum supervision 8 Effective
communicator, at all levels 8 Able to influence and lead
teams; effectively able to work at multiple levels within the
organization 8 Able to use the full range of Six Sigma tools
– e.g., simple brainstorming, detailed statistical analysis of
data, use of
2.6.3 Green Belt Roles and Responsibili ties
Green Belts primarily differ from Black Belts in their being
“part-time” dedication to Six Sigma projects, in the amount of
training they receive and, in the value of the project they may be
assigned.
Some typical figures follow:
Dedication – Green Belts will typically spend about 20% of
their time (1 day a week equivalent) working on Six Sigma projects.
One company scopes the Green Belt projects so that they can be
accomplished with minimal help from others.
Another company encourages Green Belts to lead project
teams.
Training – A typical Black Belt curriculum occupies about 4
weeks. Green Belt curricula are usually about 2 weeks. Johnson
& Johnson has adopted the “bridge” concept. Their Green Belt
curriculum is two weeks – DMAIEC and basic improvement tools are
covered. After successful completion of a project, the Green Belt
may choose to “bridge” to Black Belt. Additional training covering
Black Belt topics is then received.
Project Value – As noted above, Green Belt projects have
smaller scopes than Black Belt. We had a conversation with a Green
Belt around the scope of their project once. The Green Belt was
convinced they could accomplish a much larger scope of effort (the
GB’s manager was also of the opinion that the scope was too large).
After some discussion, we finally asked the manager when they
wanted the project complete – the answer was about 4 – 6 months.
The next question – how much of “Andrea’s” time could be spend on
the project – about 1 day per week. Some simple multiplication
yielded the range of 16 – 24 person-days to complete the effort.
The Green Belt finally saw that they were trying to bite off much
too much. A typical savings goal for Green Belt projects - $50,000.
The Green Belt can then work about 2 – 3 projects per year for a
total average benefit of $100 – 150k per year.
2.6 - 7
Role: Green Belt 8 Location: Assigned Company location
8 Reporting to: Functional Manager/Director 8 Grade/Job
Level: Determined by Division 8 Role Duration: N/A –
expected to support and/or lead improvement projects as part of
normal job duties
Role Description
Role Profile:
8 Lead or participate in one or more Six Sigma projects per
year, each delivering an significant bottom-line improvement
8 Apply Green Belt skills as part of normal job duties
8 Promote the application of Six Sigma within their
functional department
Personal Characteristics:
8 Complete Green Belt training 8 Achieve Green Belt
certification as determined by Six Sigma project office – Green
Belt certification requires the
successful completion of one project 8 Self-starter who can
work on own initiative with minimum supervision 8 Effective
communicator 8 Able to influence and lead teams; effectively
able to work at multiple levels within the organization 8
Able to use a defined range of Six Sigma tools – e.g., project
management, change management, basic process
2.6 - 9
Job Title: Master Black Belt 8 Location: Per assigned
Division 8 Reporting to: VP Six Sigma and/or VP/GM or Staff
VP 8 Grade/Job Level: Determined by Division 8 Job
Duration: Minimum of 2 years, full time
Job Profile:
8 Support improvement activities at locations, and at
suppliers & customers, as required; overseas for short periods
8 Provide mentoring and support, as required, to Black Belts,
Green Belts – coach local teams to use the improvement
tools appropriate to the problem 8 Master Six Sigma theory
and application; able to train/coach company staff and with
customers/suppliers, as required 8 Liaison, as required, with
external agencies in the delivery of Six Sigma training 8
Promote and support improvement activities in all business areas –
manufacturing, engineering, services, finance, HR 8 Network
with other Master Black Belts 8 Execute other duties and
tasks, as defined by the VP Six Sigma
Personal characteristics:
8 Certified Six Sigma Black Belt, and Complete Master Black
Belt training, or demonstrate completion of a similarly structured
program
2.6.5 Supporting Roles
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Roles and Responsibili ties
What business unit do you represent?
What is your experience and education?
What is your present position?
What are your personal reasons for being a Black Belt?
Your Current Understanding:
2.6.6 Qualification/Certi fication Path
The following table depicts the relationship between organizational
functions and associated quality management responsibilities. Note
that the first three responsibilities are core to all functions.
Black Belts will therefore all be qualified in these quality areas.
Three Master Black Belts “tracks” are also identified, to provide
specialized and advanced skills for individual business functions.
Most companies select their Black Belts with an eye toward future
promotion. Companies such as General Electric rotate their Black
Belts and Master Black Belts back into the business both as part of
their professional development and to provide a means of instilling
the quality culture into the business.
Quality Responsibility
I m p r
o v e m
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t &
M a n a
g e m e
n
t
i n g
t
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a r c
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S t a
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Marketing
Design
Manufacturing
with Specialized Knowledge to
2.6 - 14
Master Black Belt Manufacturing Track
Master Black Belt Design Track
Management or Senior
2.6 - 15
Training/Qualification - General
A typical training and qualification path for a Black Belt
appears below.
Training Sessions
• 5 - Five Day Sessions • Training “progresses” through
improvement method • Training will include project reviews
and coaching • Benchmarking visits to other companies will
occur, when practical • Tools practice using “hand”
calculations first, then computer application • Training will
include Evening Homework • Continuing Education will be a
part of the process
Black Belts
• Black Belt – Waves 1 – 5 concurrent with project •
Candidate Black Belts come to training with an improvement project
• Company will certify candidates as Black Belts at
completion of project (see later in this unit for specific
criteria)
Master Black Belts
• Master Black Belt – Black Belt plus Waves 6 – 8 concurrent
with project • Master Black Belts will have three flavors –
Sales & Service, Design, Manufacturing • Company will
certify candidates as Master Black Belts at completion of project
(TBD)
MS-Office (Pre-Wave One) MS Project (Pre-Wave One) Visio (Pre-Wave
One) Black Belt Roles and Responsibilities X
Qualification/Certification Plan X Improving Existing Products and
Services
X X
Voice of Customer Feedback X Developing Indicators X Basic Data
Collection X Measurement System Analysis X X Line Graphs X Run
Charts X Sampling X Histograms X Process Capability (including Six
Sigma) X X Process Flow Charts X Process Analysis Methods X Bar
Charts X Pareto Analysis X Pie Charts X Radar Charts X Cause and
Effect Analysis X X X X Project Chartering X Project Reporting and
Reviews X
Focus on Getting Your Project
Started; Performance
Measurement, Stratification
Mini-Tab Statistical Software X Improving Existing Products and
Services
X X
Cause & Effect Analysis X X X X Contingency Analysis X Scatter
Diagrams X Correlation Analysis X Regression Analysis – Simple,
Linear X Probability Distributions X Hypothesis Testing X Parameter
Estimation & Confidence Intervals
X
Sampling X Single Factor Experiments X Reliability Terms and
Definitions X Reliability Management X Failure Modes & Effects
Analysis X Fault Tree Analysis X Weibull Analysis X
Focus on Understanding Cause & Effect, Verifying Root
Causes
Selecting and Implementing Process Changes
X
X
Controlling Processes X Process Management Charts X Control Charts
X Process Capability (including Six Sigma) X X Measurement System
Analysis X X
Focus on Process Control to Ensure Consistent Quality
Outcomes
Topic 1 2 3 4 5
Designing New Products and Services X Obtaining Voice of the
Customer X Developing Product/Service Requirements – QFD
X
Creativity Methods X Performance & Process Benchmarking X Pugh
Concept Design Selection X Tolerance Development & Analysis
X
Analysis of Variation (ANOVA) X Design of Experiments X
Taguchi Approach to Design X Reliability Testing/Accelerated
Testing X
Focus on Design of New Products &
Services; Advanced Improvement
Business Planning Process (SRP-AOP- LRP)
X
Company-Wide Process Management X Operating Reviews X Flag Systems
X Indicator Families X Seven Planning Tools X Team Types X Team
& Meeting Management X Team Roles & Responsibilities X Idea
Generation Methods X Decision Making Methods X Conflict Management
& Interventions X Change Management Approach X Change
Management Tools and Methods
X
Facilitating Improvement X
Focus on Business Planning; Link to Quality Projects and Processes,
Working With
Teams
Black Belt Certification
Objective: To certify Black Belts by assuring their capability to
use the methods and tools taught in the Black Belt curriculum.
Certification as a Black Belt at requires the following:
• Attendance at all 5 waves of the Black Belt
training.
• Completion of all in class work and homework assigned
during the classes.
• The completion of an improvement project, assigned by a
sponsor, that results in significant, proven, improvement. The
results must be reported in financial terms.
• The completion of a process control system that is
implemented and used to manage a process.
• Application of the methods and tools in actual
projects and using actual data gathered from the projects. (See
methods and tools certification requirements checklist)
• Sign-off by the mentor for each of the requirements
• Presentation of the improvement project and process control
system to the sponsor and a panel of mentors.
Certif ication Criteria
Improvement Process (DMAIIC)
Candidates are required to utilize the improvement process to
complete a project. The project must result in a significant
improvement, reported in financial terms and meet the improvement
story checkpoints.
Process control system Candidates are required to develop a process
control system that is implemented and used to control and monitor
a process.
Design Method (Optional) Candidates may complete a design project
to obtain a special certification for design. Customer Survey or
interview
Candidates are required to determine customer needs through the use
of an interview or survey.
Pareto Chart Candidates are required to use Pareto charts to focus
improvement efforts on significant problems.
Histogram Candidates are required to plot a histogram of actual
data they obtained in their job function. Process capability
calculation
Candidates are required to calculate process capability for a
process in their job function.
Cause & Effect Diagram Candidates are required to develop a
cause and effect diagram to determine potential root causes in
their project.
Control charts Candidates are required to use an appropriate
control chart to evaluate process performance and interpret
stability.
Hypothesis test • Test of means • Test of proportions
• Test of variability
Candidates are required to use hypothesis tests to determine
significant differences between data sets within their project for
means, proportions or variability.
Gantt chart Candidates are required to develop a Gantt chart for
their project. Cost Benefit analysis Candidates are required to
calculate the cost benefit of countermeasures in their project
and
Method or Tool Certif ication Requirement
collection. include the confidence level of their sample and the
sampling technique used to limit bias. Quality Function
Deployment
Candidates may use QFD to determine specific requirements for a
special design certification.
Deployment Flowchart Candidates are required to develop a
deployment flowchart for an actual process. Scatter Plots
Candidates are required to graph a scatter plot to identify
possible correlation between two
factors. Correlation coefficient Candidates are required to
calculate the correlation coefficient for two factors that
appear
correlated. Regression analysis Candidates are required to
calculate the regression equation for correlated variables. Failure
modes and effects analysis. (FMEA)
Candidates are required to develop a FMEA for a product or
service.
Design of Experiments Candidates may perform a DOE on data from
their job function for a special certification. Weibull Analysis
Candidates may perform a Weibull analysis on data from their job
function for a special
certification. Functional Analysis Candidates may perform a
functional analysis to obtain a special design certification. Fault
Tree Analysis Candidates are required to perform a fault tree
analysis on failure that has occurred in their
job function. Affinity Diagram Candidates are required
to construct an affinity diagram to group unstructured inputs.
Relations diagram Candidates are required to draw a relations
diagram to determine leverage points of a group
of actions on an objective. Matrices Candidates are required to use
matrices to show relationship of projects to priorities.
2.6 - 24
Additional Self-Study:
• War as I Knew It – Patton
• Success is a Choice – Pitino
• Hope is Not a Method – Sullivan
• Jack Welch Speaks - Lowe
• Rocket Boys - Hickam
• Managing Transitions - Bridges
• Out-of-the-Crisis – Deming
• Tolerance Design - Crevelling
• Corporate Financial Analysis - Harrington
• Design for Manufacturing and Assembly – Boothroyd, Dewhurst,
Knight
• Design for Six Sigma - Crevelling
• Design and Management of Service Processes –
Ramaswamy
A High Bar for You!
Cecila Shallenberger is a Black Belt at TRW Systems, a defense and
government contractor. We received this email from her:
“I trust all is well with you. All is well here.
I realize Six Sigma is all about teamwork, but just this once I
thought I'd brag just a little. I certainly do realize that the
following could not have been accomplished without the help of
many, many people.
I closed 10 charters last year, total benefit $11.84M (although the
books show a conservative $10.6M). 62 GBs were trained, and 44 of
those were certified. So far this year, I've got 5 charters in
process, and 5 being drafted as we speak. 3 of those include the
customer as GBs on the teams.
I have about 32 people left on the TCS contract to get onto
charters and through training. GBs are kicking down my door wanting
to lead charters.
This year, my focus is on creating a lead GB community with 3 BBs
being mentored - they will lead the charters, I will lead them. As
you can see, we're doing well. I'm now going after my BB
certification through ASQ to compliment the TRW cert.
My thanks go to you for your inspiration. You've created a
monster!!!
PS We won 100% of our award fee, . . . ”
Describe Your Project to the Class:
• What is the Product or Process?
• What is the Problem? Why is it a Problem? How Long Has It Been a
Problem?
• What Data Do You Have to Support the Problem? •Quality, Cost,
Warranty, Delays, etc.
• Who “Owns” the Product/Process?
• Who Will Help You With Your Project?
• When Should The Project Be Complete?
3.0 - 1
Unit Descr iption Page
3.2 Idea Generation & Decision Making 3.2 - 1
3.3 Exercises 3.3 - 1
3.0 - 2
Learning Objectives
• Understand the types of Teams that may be employed for
improvement • Be able to organize a team • Be able to
develop a project charter • Be able to develop a project plan
• Be able to plan and conduct team meetings • Be able
to plan and conduct team reviews • Be able to recognize and
address team conflict • Be able to close a team
Unit Contents
3.1 - 2
3.1.1 Teams
The columnist George Will, once commented, “ Football combines the
two worst features of American life. It is violence punctuated by
committee meetings.”
You’ve probably been on at least one committee that just doesn’t
seem to be much more than a forum for gossip, whining,
psychoanalyzing each other, or reading the minutes from the last
committee meeting.
Worse, yet, are those committees “chartered” to make some decision
when it turns out that the decision has already been made by the
“higher-ups.”
Even though we’ve seen the “worst” of teams, we’ve also been on
some pretty darn good teams. We’ve been fortunate to have been part
of teams that have been given a mission, the responsibility,
authority and resources to get it done, and have “crossed the
goal line,” successfully completing the mission.
3.1 - 3
Team Philosophy
Let’s establish one thing right away. A quality improvement team is
a method of getting something accomplished. Teams don’t exist
just for fun.
In fact, there really is no such thing as a team. There is,
however, a group of people that have come together for a purpose,
hopefully a common one. We always try to remember that it’s
the people who are going to accomplish the goal. How can we
balance their needs with the needs of the improvement effort?
Teams also consume resources. Meeting time, data collection
and analysis work all take time. Therefore, without sounding too
much like a bean counter, we should expect some return on this time
investment.
You should consider the efficiency of your teams, just as you would
any other production process. If your teams are taking a year
or more to solve simple problems, then something is rotten in
Denmark! What’s going on? Teams and the improvement process can and
should be improved, just like any other.
Having made the preceding nasty, business-like statements, we’ll
back off a bit. If you are just starting to use teams for quality
improvement in your organization, we’ll “allow” for a growth curve.
It takes people a while to get used to working together, to
practicing the steps of quality improvement, to using the
statistical tools and improvement methods.
Florida Power and Light started the teams’ program in the early
1980’s. It took us about six or seven years to get to where our
teams were “efficiently” producing quality improvements. Along the
way, much improvement occurred, and when we compared the early QI
Stories to those of the late 1980’s, it was like Stone Age to Space
Age.
3.1 - 5
to work with their heads engaged, instead of just “their hands and
feet.” One of our greatest pleasures is to see someone stretch and
develop beyond their current capabilities.
On the other hand, here are some reasons to not form a
team:
Have a solution that you want proved - On our very first
team, the manager handed us a solution, and then told us to prove
that this was the solution. We didn’t even know what the
problem was!
Want a team to “ rubber-stamp” a decision - In organizations
where teams are popular, some managers may think that having a team
reach their conclusion will lend credence to the decision or
action.
When you don’t intend to take action on the problem - We
worked at a nuclear plant that had developed a wonderful, but
short-term solution to plant safety issues. Whenever the regulator
(the NRC) would come around, management could always point to a
team that was working on a particular problem. After a while,
though, the regulator began to wonder where the products of
all this team activity were. Management had used the teams as a
delaying tactic, but it only worked for a while.
Like to have consensus on all decisions, think a team will achieve
this - We worked for a manager once who seemed to think that
consensus was necessary on all things. Teams weren’t formed
to analyze a problem, but as the manager’s way of forcing
consensus on his decision. He’d just keep talking about the
issue until we gave up and “agreed with” his
conclusion.
Can’t make a decision yourself - If you have a hard time
making critical management decisions, don’t think that a team will
help.
Like to get a team started, then confused, then “ save them.”
- Some managers like to play the role of the “cavalry.” They
will start a team, give them poor direction or a fuzzy objective to
begin with, watch the team flounder around 1 for a while, and
then come in and “save” the team. We suppose their ego gets a
boost, but . . .
Organization says you must have a certain number of teams -
Early in many organizations’ quality journeys, they will measure
the number of teams doing something in the organization. Of course,
this puts pressure on managers to have teams, regardless of whether
they need them or not.
3.1 - 9
It’s the little things that get you. Often, teams are crammed into
a long, thin conference room. It’s hard to have a sense of meeting
cohesiveness when people are stretched out on both sides of a long
table. 3 Try to get a room where a round table or at least a
square arrangement of tables can be achieved. Everybody’s facing
each other and side conversations tend to be limited under these
conditions.
How much time is required? - Make sure everybody
recognizes and accepts their commitment. Even more important, make
sure their management is aware of the commitment. If somebody can’t
support the time commitment, they may still be able to contribute
as a “guest” (see Team Organization).
What support will the team need? - Many organizations
provide some sort of support structure for their improvement teams.
The facilitator (see Team Organization) is a popular
method of providing the team with guidance through their first
improvement project. The facilitator may offer advice on tools,
methods, or team “dynamics” issues.
Additional support may include information from the data
processing department, laboratory support, vendor support and
others. Despite what Phil Crosby preaches, quality is
not free!
Planning the project - One VP of Quality was in a position to
see the difference in productivity between teams who did not plan
their projects and those who did (see Project Planning). His
insightful comment: “The teams that did a project plan got results,
those that did not floundered.”
“ Outside” Issues
Those “left out” - What about those people in the department
who are not on the team? Dr. Kaoru Ishikawa used to comment, “The
whole department is on the team; there are just some who go to the
meetings.” There are several strategies to address
this.
The Storyboard posted in a public area can serve as a
two-way communication vehicle. From the team to the rest of
the department, it communicates progress made on the problem. From
the department to the team, “sticky notes” can be left on the
storyboard with suggestions or ideas.
During periodic department meetings, the team can spend a few
minutes (again, the Storyboard is helpful, here) presenting the
progress they’re making, and “alligators” they’re wrestling
with.
3.1 - 11
Team Types
Picked by Team A C
Assigned to Team B D
A - Departmental Team, Picks own Project - One of our
good friends is a laboratory director at a hospital in Georgia. He
maintains a “Wish Board” in the lab’s break area. On this board,
people pin small slips of paper that start with “ I wish we could .
. .“ Most of these are minor process problems that get in the
way of the staff doing their best work. He encourages his
laboratory staff to organize small (two or three people) teams,
pick any one of the “I wish” statements and work them through
to completion. There are always four or five small teams at work on
the “ I wish” projects.
What our friend has created is a very simple, yet effective quality
circle program in his lab. The people on these teams are all
from one department or function, and they pick their
own projects. Now George has several purposes to this
program. First, his people learn how to work together. Second, they
learn how to practice process improvement. Third, they solve local
departmental problems.
The order of these purposes is important. For quality circle teams,
the first two are most important. Education and
practice are the key words here. In some organizations, these
are “standing” teams, continuing from project to project. For each
project, a different leader may be picked, again, to develop
leadership skills in the group. People in the department may rotate
on and off the team, depending on the problem being tackled.
B - Departmental Team, Assigned a Project - Because
the improvement is important to the departm