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The English Language System
Speech results from a complexinteraction between severalsystems in the body.
The brain, the sense ofhearing, the lungs, larynx,vocal tract, and tongue all worktogether to produce the soundsof the English language.
Understanding the processand anatomy of speech can
assist teachers in teachingELL learners.(Voice Foundation, 2006)
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Anatomy of the Voice System(Voice Foundation, 2006)
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Voicing
Sounds are classifiedon the basis of theirvoicing.
Voicing is producedwhen the larynxmuscles vibrate.
The larynx muscles
form the vocal bands. This is a picture of a
normal larynx.(Voice Foundation, 2006)
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Voicing contiuned
Sounds can be voiced orvoiceless.
Voiced sounds requirevibration of the musclesin the larynx that form thevocal bands.
The space between thesebands is called theglottis.
This photo shows theglottis during normalbreathing periods.(Voice Foundation, 2006)
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Voicing Continued..
The glottis is closed
when the vocal bands are
brought together.
This is called adducted. This action blocks the
breath stream that builds
up below and causes the
bands to vibrate
repeatedly.(Edwards, 2003)
Graphic: (Voice Foundation, 2006)
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Voicing continued..
This graphic shows what
the vocal bands look like
when they are open, or
abducted. The bands move together
like stiff rubber bands to
restrict and adjust airflow
for forming speech
sounds.(Voice Foundation, 2006)
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Vowels and Voicing
Vibratory cycles arenecessary for the vowelsand voiced consonants.
When the glottis is
partially closed, it willproduce sounds such as/h/.
All the vowels are voicedexcept for voicelessvowels in whisperedspeech.
(Edwards, 2003)
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Physiology of Speech
Diagram of Vocal Fold Vibration
1 Column of air pressure movesupward towards vocal folds in "closed"position2, 3 Column of air pressure opensbottom of vibrating layers of vocalfolds; body of vocal folds stays in
place 4, 5 Column of air pressure continues
to move upward, now towards the topof vocal folds, and opens the top
610 The low pressure created behindthe fast-moving air column produces aBernoulli effect which causes thebottom to close, followed by the top
10 Closure of the vocal folds cuts offthe air column and releases a pulse ofair
(voicefoundation.org, 2006)
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Consonants and Voicing
Consonants are made up of many pairs of sounds calledcognates.
We tell them apart primarily by their voicing.
For example, the pairs s/z, p/b, and t/d.
The first sound is voiceless, the second is voiced.
As a rule, the voiceless member of the pair will beproduced with more muscle tension, more airflow, and ashorter sound duration than the second member.
(Edwards, 2003)
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The Spoken Word
The spoken word results from three
components of voice production: voiced
sound, resonance, and articulation.
Voiced sound is the basic sound produced
by vocal fold vibrations.
Often referred to as a buzzy sound.
(voiceproblem.org, 2004)
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Place ofArticulation
A place of articulation is apoint of contact forproducing a speechsound. It is the vocal
configuration necessaryfor the production ofsounds.
There are many places ofarticulation as indicated
on the left.
(Voice Foundation, 2006)
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Description ofPlaces ofArticulation
1,2: Labial Sounds areproduced here.
3: Inderdental
4: Dental sounds
5,6: Alveolar sounds
7, 8: Palatal sounds, Velarsounds
9: Uvular sounds
10: Pharyngeal sounds
11-14: Glottal sounds
15: Interdental sounds 16-18: Labiodental sounds
(Edwards, 2003)
Graphic: Voice Foundation,2006)
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Articulation and Sound Production
With articulation, vowels typically have
nine basic positions determined by the
placement of the tongue.
Consonants are organized much the same
way, using the lips more than the vowels
do.
(Edwards, 2003)
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LABIAL sounds: Produced by one or both lips. They breakdown into bilabial (both lips) sounds and labiodentals(lower lip touches upper teeth).
Labial sounds can be produced by one or both lips.
Labial sounds are /p/, /b/, /f/, /v/, /m/, and /w/.
When both lips are used it is called a bilabial sound.
Examples of bilabial sounds are the /p/ and /b/ sounds.
Examples of bilabial words are mama and papa
When the lower lip hits the upper teeth, the sound is alabiodental sound. For example, the sound /v/. (Edwards, 2003)
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Place ofArticulation
DENTAL sounds: When the tongue
contacts the teeth, for example: // and //
A
LEVEOLAR
S: These sounds occur whenthe tongue contacts the upper area behind
the teeth. Examples include: /r/,/t/,and /l/.(Edwards, 2003)
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Place ofArticulation
PALATALS: For these sounds, the tongue must
touch some part of the roof of the mouth. These
sounds are also broken down into various
groups depending upon the placement of thetongue on the palate. Some examples of this
sound are: //, //, //.
VELLARS: These sounds are produced when
the tongue touches the soft palate (/k/,/g/).(Edwards, 2003)
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Place ofArticulation
And, last, but not least
GLOTTALS: The only sound of this kind inAmerican English is the /h/ sound made by
narrowing the glottis by partially opening
the vocal folds to produce some friction.
(Edwards, 2003)
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The manner of articulation describes how the tongue, lips, andother speech organs are involved in making a sound make
contact. Manner is often used in describing the production ofconsonants. (Manner of Articulation, 2006) As indicated lateron during the presentation, there are many manners ofarticulation.
(www.umanitoba.ca)
This controls the flow of air and produces the sounds we hear.(Edwards,2003) Once the articulators (tongue, lips, etc.) are in place, they
behave in particular ways.
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Manner ofArticulation and the
Tongue
The tongue plays an
important role in the
manner of articulationand production of speech
sounds.
The type of sound and
articulation is determined
by the placement andcontact of the tongue in
the mouth.(Voice Foundation, 2006)
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Placement of the Tongue and
Sound Production (Edwards, 2003)
The tongue can touchthe teeth producing adentalized sound.
The tongue can touchthe area behind theupper teeth producingan alveolar sound.(/t/, /d/, /s/, /z/, /n/, /l//r/, etc.)
The tongue can touch the
roof of the mouth (hard
palate).
producing a palatalsound. Some productions
of /r/ are palatal.
For sounds such as /k/,
and /g/, the tongue
touches the soft palateand are called Velar
sounds.
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Various Manners ofArticulation
In Phonetics, articulation may be dividedinto two large classes, obstruents andsonorants. The following slides will
describe these and other various mannersof articulation. Again, manner ofarticulation refers to howthe sound isproduced. There are many manners of
articulation.
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Obstruents
Obstruents consonants are characterized
by an obstructed vocal tract, either
complete or partial. All of the consonants
except the sonorants are obstruents. To
understand obstruent sounds better,
compare the labial /b/ and/w/. The /b/
sound is a sound that completely blocksthe vocal tract while the /w/ sound does
not. (Edwards, 2003)
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Sonorants
When a sonorant sound is produced, thechannels through which air passes arerelatively open.
The sonorant sounds are:
/m/, /n/, /l/, /r/, /w/, and /j/
Sonorant sounds are produced without
much extra effort on the part of thespeaker.(Edwards, 2003)
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Nasals, Stridents, and Stops
Nasal sounds are produced when sonorantsounds are made as the passageway into thenasal cavity is opened by the lowering of the softpalate. Examples would be /m/ and /n/.
Stridentsounds are made by directing theairflow against a surface such as the teeth,producing considerable friction. Examples wouldbe /f/, /v/, and /s/.
Stops are obstruent sounds made by thecomplete stoppage of airflow through the vocaltract. Examples would be /b/, /t/, and /g/.(Edwards, 2003)
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Approximants
Approximants are termed much the same waysonorants are.
With approximants, the articulators approacheach other, but not to the extent that turbulenceis produced.
If the articulators are required to be completelyclosed, then the sound (such as the nasalsounds), are not approximants. Even though
they are resonated through the nose. The approximant sounds are: /l/, /r/, /w/, and /j/.
(Edwards, 2003)
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Fricatives and Affricatives
Fricativesare obstruent sounds produced from
a partial blockage of the breath stream. This
partial blockage results in friction or turbulence
during the sound production. Examples offricative sounds are: /h/, /s/, and /z/.
Affricatives are sounds that begin as a stop,
then are released as a fricative. When this
happens, the sound released is termed anaffricative. (Edwards, 2003)
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Sibilants
Sibilants are often referred to as the
hushing or hissing sounds. The are
characterized by relatively high frequency
noise.
Examples of sibilant sounds are: /s/, and
/z/.
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Laterals and Liquids
LATERALS: In American
English, there exists a
sole lateral consonant
produced with lateral
airflow around one or
both sides of the tongue.
The /l/ is also
characterized as a lateral
approximant.(Edwards, 2003)
LIQUIDS: These sounds
are produced with little to
no friction. Laterals and
liquids share many
commonalities. Often
they are treated as the
same class of sound
production. In American
English, the sounds /r/,and /l/ are considered
liquid sounds.
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Glides
When a consonant is rapidly transitioned
to a following vowel, the sound is a glide.
When the sound is produced from a
transition between a consonant and a
preceding vowel, it is termed an off glide.
The common glides forAmerican English
are: /l/ and /r/.
(Edwards, 2003)
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Phonetic Features Not
Distinguishing Phonemes
To review, a phoneme is another name for aspeech sound.
Speech sounds are most often divided into the
categories of vowels and consonants. Vowels are produced when the vocal tract is
basically unobstructed.
Consonants are produced when the vocal tract
has some degree of obstruction of air flow.(Voice Foundation, 2006)
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Exceptions to the Rule of
Classifying Speech Sounds
According to Harold Edwards, sometimes
phoneticians need to add features to the
specification of a particular phoneme to
demonstrate a sounds change that occurs
in a particular context.
Sometimes in American English,
consonant sounds can also be used asvowel sounds. (Such as the /y/ sound.)(Edwards, 2003)
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Phonetic Features: Syllabic/Nonsyllabic and
Aspiration/Nonaspiraton
Other phonetic features that do not distinguish phonemes could bedesignated as Syllabic/Nonsyllabic. For example the /l/ in bottle serves asa vowel like consonant in the words. Even though the word has twosyllables, you do not hear a vowel in the second syllable, which isunstressed.
Two other features would be Aspiration/Nonaspiration.Aspiration would
help describe the voiceless stops in American English. During aspiration, astrong burst of air accompanies either the release or the closure of outwardairflow. For example the /p/ sound changes in the word pot, and in the wordspot. The first is aspirated, but in combination with other consonants, thesecond is nonaspirated.
To see the difference in aspirated and nonaspirated sounds, hold your handin front of your mouth and say the word, tore. With the hand remaining in
front of the mouth, now say the word, store. You should feel a puff of airwith the word tore that you do not feel with the word store. The wordtore carried within it an aspirated sound. The /t/ sound should be theaspirated sound.
(Edwards, 2003)
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Stress/Nonstress
Another feature of phonetic features that do not distinguishphonemes would be Stress/Nonstress.Forexample, saytheword record withthestresssoundinthebeginningoftheword, andyou maybeidentifying anobjectthatharbors music.Saytheword recordwiththestress attheendoftheword,andyou arereferringtotapingsomethingthatisspokenorheard.
These ways help distinguish vowels in syllables of their typicalemphasis (stress) from vowels in other contexts (nonstress)
Stress/Nonstress features are useful in helping to distinguish vowelsin syllables of Stress (primary emphasis) from vowels in othercontexts labeled Nonstress.(Edwards, 2003)
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Summary
Sound characteristics and classifications
are numerous and diverse. Phoneticians
continue to classify sounds today.
Basically, sounds are classified in broad
categories and are then narrowed into
smaller categories. They are refined and
distinctive in their properties.
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For The ELL Teacher
Learning about speechsounds and their specificfeatures can assist ELLteachers in recognizingproblems that may occurbecause of basicanatomy, soundmispronunciation, andtongue placement in thestudent. This can help
the teacher remedy theproblem or seekadditional intervention forthe student.
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For The Teacher continued
Understanding at least the general
characteristics of speech and their
developmental stages will also assist
teachers in individualizing curriculum and
seeking out additional resources for ELL
students.
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Why Should Teachers of ELL Students
Have a Basic Knowledge ofPhonetics?
Most teachers in the everyday classroom canand shouldunderstand the basics ofPhonetics.Not only for speech therapy purposes, but for
use in assisting all students in gainingproficiency in the English language. As I havetaught ELL students, the research I have learnedabout basic phonetics has helped me in avariety of ways in an everyday classroom
setting. The following slides will describe what Ihave learned about the importance of basicphonetics for teachers.
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Communication
Language is the basic building block for
communication. Differences in sound
systems have a phonological basis: they
depend upon speech organ positions and
breath control. Understanding basic
phonetics will help teachers understand
the physical aspects of speech production.
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Social Acceptance
A major challenge for ELL learners is fitting in to a traditional English
classroom, especially if the student is older. To make this
adjustment easier, the teacher can assure the student that they are
producing sounds that are aesthetically pleasing to those around
him/her and are understood by native English speakers.
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Bad Habits.Never Started?
It may be possible for teachers to prevent bad speech
habits from forming in ELL students. If teachers can
understand the correct sound pronunciation, students can
learn this. Understanding this, the student and teacher canwork to avoid sound errors getting in the way of other
targets, such as easily producing words, using words correctly,
and gaining speech confidence.
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Effects of Speech on Students
ELL students in particular maybe sensitive to producing newsounds.
ELL students may do twice asmuch listening as speaking,
and learning the flow of naturalspeech will assist in theirlanguage development.
Speaking is a key element incommunication and givesstudents the skills and
confidence needed to succeedin a classroom and in theireveryday lives.
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References
Manner of articulation. (2006). Retrieved February 20, 2007, from Answers.com
http://www.answers.com/topic/manner-of-articulation
Russell, K. (2006). Phonetics-English Consonants. Retrieved February 19, 2007 from
http://www.umanitoba.ca/linguistics/russels/phonetics/index.html
Voiceproblem.org. (2004). Understanding How Voice is Produced. Retrieved February
19, 2007 from http://www.voiceproblem.org/anatomy/understanding.asp
Edwards, H. T. (2003).Applied phonetics: The sounds of American English. Clifton Park,
New York: Delmar Learning.
Voice foundation. (2006). Retrieved February 20, 2007, from The Voice Foundation Web
site: http://www.voicefoundation.org
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