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baking& pastry
Mastering the Art and Craft
2nd edition
baking& pastry
Mastering the Art and Craft
2nd edition
JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC.
This book is printed on acid-free paper.
Copyright 2009 by The Culinary Institute of America. All rights reserved
Photography 2009 by Ben Fink
Cover marble background photo 2009 by Spencer Jones/Getty Images, Inc.
THE CULINARY INSTITUTE OF AMERICAPRESIDENT Dr. Tim Ryan 77
VICE-PRESIDENT, CONTINUING EDUCATION Mark Erickson 77
DIRECTOR OF INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY Nathalie Fischer
EDITORIAL PROJECT MANAGER Lisa Lahey 00
RECIPE TESTING DATABASE MANAGER Margaret Wheeler 00
Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey
Published simultaneously in Canada
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Design by Vertigo Design NYC
LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOGING-IN-PUBLICATION DATA
Baking and pastry : mastering the art and craft / the Culinary Institute of America. 2nd ed.
p. cm.
Includes index.
ISBN 978-0-470-05591-5 (cloth : alk. paper)
1. Baking. 2. Pastry. 3. Desserts. I. Culinary Institute of America.
TX763.B3234 2009
641.8 15dc22
2008009576
Printed in the United States of America
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
acknowledgmentsThe Culinary Institute of America would like to thank the following people for
their support and dedication to excellencewithout their guidance and vision
the completion of this edition would not have been possible: Kate Cavotti, Alain
Dubernard, Stephen Eglinski, Peter Greweling, Marc Haymon, George Higgins,
Eric Kastel, Todd Knaster, Alison McLoughlin, Francisco Migoya, Dieter Schorner,
Juergen Temme, Thomas Vaccaro, Stphane Weber, Hans Welker.
Our gratitude must also be extended to Ben Fink, for without his photo-
graphs the lessons and the craft would not be so clearly and beautifully pre-
sented; to our partners at John Wiley & Sons, Inc., for their tireless attention to
detail; and to Alison Lew at Vertigo Design NYC for her creativity and insight that
assembled a beautiful book.
Preface viii
part one The professional baker and pastry chef xiCHAPTER 1 Career opportunities for baking and pastry professionals 1
CHAPTER 2 Ingredient identi cation 7
CHAPTER 3 Equipment identi cation 35
CHAPTER 4 Advanced baking principles 55
CHAPTER 5 Food and kitchen safety 71
CHAPTER 6 Baking formulas and bakers percentages 87
part two Yeast-raised breads and rolls 99CHAPTER 7 Beginner yeast breads and rolls 101
CHAPTER 8 Advanced yeast breads and rolls 147
part three Baking building blocks 209CHAPTER 9 Pastry doughs and batters 211
CHAPTER 10 Quick breads and cakes 237
CHAPTER 11 Cookies 301
CHAPTER 12 Custards, creams, mousses, and souf s 351
CHAPTER 13 Icings, glazes, and sauces 403
CHAPTER 14 Frozen desserts 465
contents
part four Assembling and finishing 509CHAPTER 15 Pies, tarts, and fruit desserts 511
CHAPTER 16 Filled and assembled cakes and tortes 555
CHAPTER 17 Breakfast pastries 611
CHAPTER 18 Individual pastries 637
CHAPTER 19 Savory baking 687
CHAPTER 20 Plated desserts 731
CHAPTER 21 Chocolates and confections 761
CHAPTER 22 Dcor 821
CHAPTER 23 Wedding and specialty cakes 861
APPENDIX A Elemental recipes 892
APPENDIX B Dcor templates 903
APPENDIX C Conversions, equivalents, and calculations 906
APPENDIX D Readings and resources 908
Glossary 912
Index 918
PrefaceThe audience for which Baking and Pastry: Mastering the Art and Craft is written includes
pastry professionals and serious home bakers who want to continue their education or refer
to a complete guide of baking and pastry techniques, formulas, and presentations. In addi-
tion, our students at The Culinary Institute of America will use this book as an important part
of their education.
In developing the structure of this book we re ected on the structure of the education
students receive at The Culinary Institute of America and used the same philosophy. The rst
six chapters set the stage for understanding the baking and pastry profession and using the
specialized equipment and products that are common in the bakeshop. In these chapters we
explain baking science, or how different ingredients act and react to help the reader gain a
deeper understanding of baking formulas speci cally and in general. We introduce the funda-
mental methods of baking and basic calculations that are essential for any baker.
In Chapter 7 we explore the basic methods and principles for making yeast-raised
breads and rolls. And in Chapter 8 we further explore yeasted breads made by more complex
methods of fermentation.
In Chapters 9 through 14 the reader is exposed to the building blocks of baking, a wide
range of formulas and production techniques that make up the foundation for a top-quality
bakeshop. Pastry doughs and batters, quick breads and cakes, cookies, creams and custards,
and glazes and sauces are the basis for many baking and pastry presentations.
Chapters 15 through 23 turn the readers attention to assembling and nishing tech-
niques, employing the use of the formulas set forth in the previous chapters. These chapters
cover both sweet and savory baked goods, from the simple (pies and breakfast Danish) to the
complex (plated desserts and wedding cakes).
viii BAKING AND PASTRY
Filled and assembled cakes are the focus of Chapter 16. Here, proper assembly tech-
niques are stressed along with combining different avors and textures. We separate the
chapter into two parts, making a distinction between classic and contemporary cakes.
The later chapters draw upon lessons and formulas learned or presented earlier in the
book to make more complex presentations. Formulas for making breakfast pastries (viennoi-
serie), individual pastries, savory baking, and plated desserts are presented in Chapters 17,
18, 19, and 20, respectively. The addition of savory baking to this edition offers the pastry
chef, baker, and caf owner techniques and formulas that will help develop an hors doeuvre
menu or simply complement an already existing menu for a caf or smaller operation.
The principles and techniques used for creating chocolates and confections can be
complex and challenging. The fundamentals of this craft are presented in Chapter 21, which
then lead readers to formulas of the kind to create dramatic confections of their own.
Chapter 22 addresses some of the principles, techniques, and materials used in d-
cor. Piping, lettering, marzipan, gum paste, sugar, and chocolate work are just some of the
techniques and materials presented. The chapter also focuses on hand tools, equipment, and
proper storage and handling of the materials.
Chapter 23, the nal chapter, concentrates on wedding and special-occasion cakes. This chap-
ter is a synthesis of many of the techniques and applications presented in earlier chapters. However,
we also introduce some new decorating techniques and specialized equipment and materials.
Working on this book has led us to an even richer appreciation not only for the process,
but also for the art and craft of baking and pastry. We are con dent the reader will not only
enjoy this book, but also gain a renewed respect for the eld. This book will prove to be the
perfect bakeshop companion.
PREFACE ix
x BAKING AND PASTRY
part one
The professional baker and pastry chef
xi
XII BAKING AND PASTRY
The dessert station on a busy night in a full-service restaurant
baking originated thousands of years ago and it is integral to human history and still is the source of the most basic foodstuffs. Breads importance can be seen in the way
governments regulated its production, quality, weight, and price. Bakers established the
rst trade guilds in Rome in 150 b.c.e.
chapter one
Career opportunities for baking and pastry professionals
1
2 BAKING AND PASTRY
The pastry chef, as the position exists today, evolved through the brigade system.
Instituted by Escof er, it served to streamline work with workstation and speci c responsi-
bilities. Pastries were made by the ptissier (pastry chef). Later, this position separated from
the brigade and developed its own organization largely attributed to Marie-Antoine Carme
(17841833), a Parisian chef and pastry chef whose books on the pastry arts are in uential to
this day.
Career opportunities for baking and pastry professionals
Bakers and pastry chefs can pursue many options. You might own your own company or work
for someone else. It can be a commissary setting, restaurant, or shop specializing in wedding
cakes or handcrafted breads. To get a foundation you may work in a cross section of bakeries
and kitchensthen specialize in a discipline.
Bakers often follow one of two paths, working in large commercial bakeries that do
volume production or smaller shops that produce less volume but higher-quality goods.
Wholesale bakeshops focus on large-scale production, selling nished or unbaked and
items, and batters, to supermarkets, cafs, gourmet shops, restaurants, caterers, cafeterias,
and the like. Individually owned shops provide a range of services, from a full-service bake-
shop to one that specializes in chocolates and confections or wedding cakes. Large hotels rely
upon the skills of the pastry chef and baker who are often responsible for breakfast pastries,
elaborate pastry displays, wedding cakes, and the like, including the many food outlets and
banquet rooms.
The restaurant pastry chef needs a range of baking and pastry skills to create a variety
of itemsice cream and cakes, chocolates to serve as mignardises and petits fours, even piz-
za dough. Private clubs and executive dining rooms as well as schools, hospitals, and colleges
rely upon executive pastry chefs and master bakers to handle high-volume, high-quality fare.
Food producers operate research and development kitchens to test products and formulas
and ne-tune them. These large businesses also offer bene ts and career advancement within
the corporation.
Pastry chefs and bakers often hire caterers, who meet the desires of a special client for
a particular event, whether a trade convention, wedding, birthday party, cocktail reception,
or gallery opening. Grocery stores hire baking and pastry professionals to develop carryout
desserts and signature breads, as well as assisting with research, focus groups, packaging,
pricing, and marketing strategies. Consultants in the baking and pastry arts work with clients
to develop menus, staf ng strategies, marketing plans, packaging, and the like.
Working in the front of the house as a salesperson is also an important function. Such
professionals understand the needs of todays bakeries and pastry shops, promoting new ways
to use familiar products and equipment. Teachers in the baking and pastry arts are vital to de-
gree- and certi cate-granting programs. Baking and pastry professionals who teach bring a spe-
cial awareness of how things work in the real world. Food writers and critics have come with
education and experience in the baking and pastry arts. This allows them to write truly informed
reviews, articles, columns, books, and content for multimedia and online presentations.
Formal educationAll employers look for experience and educationeven
entry-level positions can require a degree. The increasing
emphasis on a formal education has brought about more pro-
grams dedicated exclusively to baking and pastry. Employers
rely on the craft taught by these schools to establish a com-
mon ground of ability.
Both employers and schools recognize that formal ed-
ucation on its own is not enough to ensure excellence. Baking
and pastry are practical arts. To master them, you need to
work and make job choices that invest in your future.
Continuing education Just as formal education has become important in launching a career, certi cation and con-
tinuing education keep advancing you as a baking arts professional. Because the industry is
constantly evolving, continuing education, attending workshops, seminars, and trade shows
hone skills while keeping up with new methods, ingredients, techniques, products, and busi-
ness skills.
Throughout your career, you should evaluate your achievements and goals; take the
appropriate steps to keep on top of the latest information geared to both culinary profession-
als and the world at large. Enter contests and competitions. Educate yourself, learn to use the
important tools of your business from budgets to inventory control systems.
Certi cationThe Retailers Bakery Association (RBA) and the American Culinary Federation (ACF) have es-
tablished standards for certifying bakers and pastry chefs. The RBAs certi cation levels begin
with Certi ed Journey Baker (CJB). The RBAs next level includes three designations: Certi ed
Baker (CB), Certi ed Decorator (CD), and Certi ed Bread Baker (CBB). Each level requires that
your work history meet certain criteria for you to be eligible to take the exams, which have a
written and practical component.
The ACF certi es pastry culinarians, giving Working Pastry Chef (WPC), entry-level cer-
ti cation based on a written test. Individuals working at this level are typically responsible
for a shift or a section within a food-service operation. The next level is Executive Pastry
Chef (CEPC), which is for department heads who report to a corporate executive or manage-
ment team. Researchers and others in specialized areas also take the CEPC test. Certi ed Mas-
ter Baker (CMB) is the highest certi cation given by the RBA. The ACF grants the Certi ed Master
Pastry Chef (CMPC) certi cation, a ten-day exam that combines a written and practical test of
classical and contemporary applications. Finally, the RBA and the ACF have speci c minimum
criteria that must be met before you can apply for certi cation.
CAREER OPPORTUNITIES FOR BAKING AND PASTRY PROFESSIONALS 3
A special pulled sugar centerpiece
4 BAKING AND PASTRY
NetworkingDeveloping a professional network can be formal or informal. You begin simply by introducing
yourself to others in your eld. Then its having business cards at trade shows and other pro-
fessional encounters. Join culinary arts organizations. Many maintain Web sitesand many
culinary artists maintain blogsthat enable you to communicate with other professionals,
get ideas, express ideas, and make new contacts. When you rst make a good contact, follow
up with an e-mail, phone call, or a note. The communication that you develop with your peers
will keep your own work fresh and contemporary, and an established network will also make it
much easier for you to nd your next jobor your next employee.
The business of baking and pastryAs your career evolves, you will move into those positions where your skills as an executive, ad-
ministrator, and manager are in demand. This does not mean that your ability to make breads
and pastries are less important. Plating, presentation, and pricing are daily concerns for any
executive pastry chef or bakerand you may still be creating new menu items and products
while keeping costs under control and improving pro ts. Managing a bakery or pastry shop
requires the ability to handle four areas effectively: physical assets, information, people (hu-
man resources), and time. The greater your management skills in these areas, the greater your
potential for success. Many management systems today emphasize the use of excellence
as a yardstick. Every area of your operation can be used to improve the quality of service you
provide to your customers.
Managing physical assets
Physical assets are the equipment and supplies needed to do business: everything from in-
dustrial-size mixers to our to cash registers. In short, anything that affects your ability to do
business well. These require control systems that will keep your organization operating at
maximum ef ciency.
For any baking and pastry operation, the material costswhatever you use to create,
present, sell, and serve your goodsis the biggest expense. For this reason, being a baking
and pastry professional entails being your own purchasing agentor knowing how to work
with oneto maintain inventories to produce and market your products and services.
Managing information
Given the sheer volume of information generated each day, the ability to tap into the informa-
tion resources you need has never been more important. You must not only keep yourself
informed of the latest trends, but also develop the ability to look beyond what is current to
predict future trends. This will help to keep your business thriving. Restaurants, menus, dining
room design, and more change dramatically with societal trends, on-the-go lifestyles, and the
interest in world cuisines. Current tastes affect what people eat and where and how they want
to eat it. The Internet is a powerful in uence as well.
CAREER OPPORTUNITIES FOR BAKING AND PASTRY PROFESSIONALS 5
Managing human resources
Every shop relies on the work and dedication of people, whether they are the executive pastry
chef, bakers, or wait staff to name a few. No matter how large or small your staff may be, a
team effort is one of the major factors in determining whether you succeed. One of the hall-
marks of the true professional is being a team memberand this team can simply be you,
your clients, and suppliers. Being part of a team requires as much practice and concentration
as any baking or pastry technique. The best teams are made of talented individuals who bring
not only technical skills to the mix, but passion for excellence. You can immediately recognize
a strong team approach in a successful bakeshop or pastry kitchen. Everyone knows what
work must be done beyond just their job description.
The management of human resources entails legal responsibilities. Everyone has the
right to work in an environment that is free from physical hazards and with properly main-
tained equipment. Liability insurance must be kept up to date and adequate. Taxes on the
earnings have to be paid to federal, state, and local agencies. Employment packages have
to be managed, including life insurance, medical insurance, assistance with dependent care,
and even adult literacy training and substance abuse programs. In an increasingly tight labor
market, bene ts can make a difference in the caliber of employees you work with or manage.
Managing time
The days are not long enough. Learning new skills so that you can make the best possible use
of time should be an ongoing part of your career. If you look at your operation carefully, you
will discover how time is wasted. In most, the top ve time wasters are lack of clear priorities
for tasks, poor staff training, poor communication, poor organization, and inadequate or non-
existent tools for accomplishing tasks. Invest time in these strategies:
REVIEW DAILY OPERATIONS. Until you are clear about what needs to be done and in what
order, you cannot begin the process of saving time. Consider the way you, your coworkers,
and your staff spend the day. Does everyone have a basic understanding of which tasks are
most important? Do they know when to begin a particular task in order to nish it on time? It
can be an eye-opening experience to take a hard look at where everyones workday goes.
TRAIN OTHERS. If you expect someone to do a job properly, take enough time to explain the
task carefully. Walk yourself and your staff through the jobs that must be done, and be sure
that everyone understands how to do the work, where to nd needed items, how far individual
responsibility extends, and what to do in case a questionor emergencycomes up. Give
your staff the yardsticks they need to evaluate their time and jobs, otherwise you may nd
yourself squandering precious hours picking up the slack.
LEARN TO COMMUNICATE CLEARLY. Whether you are training a new employee, introduc-
ing a new menu item, or ordering a piece of equipment, clear communication is essential. Be
speci c and be brief without leaving out necessary information.
CREATE AN ORDERLY WORK ENVIRONMENT. If you have to dig through ve shelves to nd
the lid to a storage container for buttercream, you are not using your time wisely. Organize
work areas carefully, so that tools, ingredients, and equipment are readily available. Sched-
uleand write outlike activities so they are performed at the same time and in the same
way by different people.
6 BAKING AND PASTRY
PURCHASE, REPLACE, AND MAINTAIN ALL TOOLS AS NECESSARY. A well-equipped kitch-
en has all the tools necessary to prepare every item on the menu. If you are missing something
as basic as a sieve, your crme anglaise will not be perfectly smooth. Learn to operate equip-
ment safely and teach others to do the same.
The professionA professional makes a living from the practice of a craft. Rather than viewing work as simply
a means to an end, true professionals have a passion for their craft and a drive for excellence.
Some professionals may tell you that they baked for their families or worked in a bakeshop
when they were young. Others come to the baking and pastry eld after establishing them-
selves in other areas in the food-service industry. Still others make a switch to the baking and
pastry profession as a second or third career.
All professionals must learn the foundations of the professionhandling ingredients
and equipment, and standard or basic formulas. At the next level, they apply those founda-
tions, adapting and modifying formulas or nding ways to improve quality and ef ciency in
their own work. At the highest level, they draw on all they know and use their knowledge,
skills, and creativity to produce somethingas speci c as a new pastry or as intangible as a
successful careerthat was not there before.
Every member of a profession is responsible for its image. Those who have made the
greatest impression know that the cardinal virtues of the baking and pastry profession are an
open and inquiring mind, an appreciation of and dedication to quality, and a sense of respon-
sibilitycultivated throughout a career.
COMMITMENT TO SERVICE. The food-service industry is predicated on service, and profes-
sionals must never lose sight of that. Good service includes (but is not limited to) providing
quality items that are properly and safely prepared, appropriately avored, and attractively
presentedin short, what makes the customer happy.
RESPONSIBILITY. A professionals responsibility is fourfold: to him- or herself, to coworkers,
to the business, and to the customer. Waste, disregard for others, misuse of any commodity
are unacceptable. Abusive language and profanity, harassment, insensitivity to gender, sexu-
ality, and race do not have a place in the professional bakeshop and pastry kitchen. Self-es-
teem and attitude toward the establishment need to be positive.
GOOD JUDGMENT. Although not easy to learn, good judgment is a prerequisite for a profes-
sional. Good judgment is never completely mastered; rather, it is a goal toward which one can
continually strive.
choosing ingredients with care, based upon quality, seasonality, and other considerations, including cost, is a prerequisite for high-quality baked goods. Each ingredient has its own
set of characteristics, and it is the pastry chef or bakers job to know how to handle all
ingredients properly from the time they are received throughout each phase of storage,
handling, and preparation.
chapter two
Ingredient identi cation
7
8 BAKING AND PASTRY
Flours, grains, and mealsThis broad category encompasses both whole grains such as rice and barley and milled or
otherwise re ned products such as cornmeal and pastry our. The fruits and seeds of cereal
grasses and grains are versatile, universal foods, part of every cuisine and culture. For the
most part, they are inexpensive and widely available, providing a valuable and concentrated
source of nutrients and ber.
WHOLE GRAINS are grains that have not been milled. They usually have a shorter shelf life
than milled grains.
MILLED GRAINS are polished to remove the germ, bran, and hull. They may have a longer
shelf life than whole grains, but some of their nutritive value is lost during processing.
Milled grains that are broken into coarse particles may be referred to as cracked. If
the milling process continues, meals and cereals (cornmeal, farina, rye meal) are the result.
With further processing, the grain may be ground into a ne powder, known as our, whether
wheat, rice, or another type.
Various methods are used for milling: crushing the grains between metal rollers, grind-
ing them between stones, or cutting them with steel blades. Stone-ground grains are prefer-
able in some cases, because they are subjected to less heat during milling than with other
methods and so retain more of their nutritive value.
Wheat our
Each our has its own characteristics, but wheat our is the most common type used in the
bakeshop. It is the only our that contains enough gluten-forming proteins to provide the
structure essential to baked goods. (For more about gluten in our, and gluten development,
see Proteins in Flour, page 57.) Flours made from other grains such as rye, rice, corn, millet,
barley, oats, and spelt add distinctive avors and textures to baked goods.
The Wheat KernelBefore the baker can understand the different varieties of wheat our, he or she must under-
stand what makes up wheat. The wheat kernel is made up of the following components:
BRAN constitutes 14.5 percent of total kernel weight. The bran is the dark outer coating of the
wheat kernel and contains large amounts of insoluble dietary ber.
ENDOSPERM comprises 83 percent of total kernel weight. The endosperm is the internal por-
tion of the wheat kernel and contains the largest amount of protein and starch. White our is
produced from the endosperm.
GERM is 2.5 percent of total kernel weight. The germ is the embryo of the wheat kernel and
contains fats, vitamins, minerals, and some protein.
Wheat is classi ed by season and color, as follows: hard red winter wheat, hard white
winter wheat, hard red spring wheat, soft red winter wheat, and soft white winter wheat.
(Durum wheat is a particular type of hard wheat.) Winter wheat is planted in the winter and
harvested the following summer; spring wheat is planted in the spring and harvested that
summer. Generally, spring wheat produces the hardest ours and winter wheat the softest.
MillingMilling is the process that separates the wheat kernel into its three parts: bran, germ, and
endosperm. Once the bran and germ have been removed, the endosperm is sifted to reduce
the particle size to the correct quantity for our.
Extraction RateThe extraction rate is the percentage of our obtained after a grain has been milled. The ex-
traction rate will vary with our re nement. For example, our with an 80 percent extraction
rate indicates that 80 lb/36.29 kg of our was obtained from 100 lb/45.36 kg of grain. Whole
wheat our, which has nothing removed, has a 100 percent extraction rate.
AshThe ash content is a milling standard that determines the mineral (inorganic) material remain-
ing in the our after milling. Ash content is determined by burning a measured amount of
milled our and weighing the mineral material that remains after incineration. Ash content is
related to our color and type. This information can be found for any our by checking indi-
vidual speci cations.
Flour TreatmentsAGING and BLEACHING. Newly milled our is not ready for the bakeshop. Bakers refer to
freshly milled our as green our. Due to the immature proteins found in the our, dough made
using green our tends to absorb more water and is not elastic. In addition to having weak
proteins, freshly milled our is yellow in color. When our is allowed to age naturally for two to
three months, oxygen in the air will whiten the our and develop the proteins.
Chemicals are sometimes used to synthetically replicate the aging and whitening pro-
cess. Benzoyl peroxide and chlorine dioxide are two of the products used to chemically age
and bleach our. Flour that has been chemically aged and bleached will bear a bleached
our label.
OXIDIZING. Potassium bromate, an inorganic compound, is an oxidizing agent added to our
to improve bread volume. When potassium bromate is present in our, product volume in-
creases by 10 to 15 percent.
ENRICHMENT. Enriched our has nutrients replaced that were lost during milling. Nutrients
added include thiamine, niacin, ribo avin, iron, and calcium. Flour that has been enriched will
bear an enriched our label. Enrichment has no effect on baking performance.
Types of FlourALL-PURPOSE FLOUR is a blend of hard and soft wheat ours milled from the endosperm of
the wheat kernel; the speci c blend varies from region to region. Southern all-purpose our
generally has more soft wheat than all-purpose ours in other parts of the county. The protein
content in all-purpose our can range from 8 to 12 percent.
BREAD FLOUR, also known as patent our, is a hard wheat our made from the endosperm
and is used for breads and soft rolls. Its protein content ranges from 11 to 13 percent.
CAKE FLOUR is a soft wheat our with a protein content ranging from 6 to 9 percent. It is used
for cakes and cookies.
INGREDIENT IDENTIFICATION 9
10 BAKING AND PASTRY
CLEAR FLOUR, a hard wheat our made from the endosperm, has a darker color than bread
or high-gluten our and is typically used in rye breads. The protein content of clear our rang-
es from 13 to 15 percent.
DURUM FLOUR, milled from the endosperm of the durum wheat kernel, is a hard wheat our
used in bread making. Its protein content ranges from 12 to 14 percent.
HIGH-GLUTEN FLOUR is milled from the entire endosperm; it is used for bagels and hard rolls.
Its protein content is typically 13 to 14 percent.
PASTRY FLOUR has a protein content ranging from 8 to 10 percent. It is used for pie crust
dough, muf ns, and some biscuits, as well as pastries.
SEMOLINA is a more coarsely ground durum wheat our, used most typically in pasta making.
WHOLE WHEAT FLOUR is a hard wheat our milled from the entire wheat kernel, including
the bran and germ; because the germ is high in lipids (fats), whole wheat our can quickly
become rancid. Its protein content ranges from 14 to 16 percent.
Other Wheat ProductsCRACKED WHEAT is coarsely cracked or cut wheat kernels, and includes the bran and germ.
It lends texture and avor to breads.
VITAL WHEAT GLUTEN is produced from the insoluble gluten protein extracted from our dur-
ing the milling process. The protein is dried and ground into a powder. It is used to fortify dough.
RyeRYE FLOUR behaves quite differently from wheat our in baking, although rye kernels are
milled in a manner similar to that used for wheat kernels. White rye our is the mildest- avored
and lightest-colored rye our, with a protein content of 8 to 10 percent. Medium rye our has a
slightly higher protein content, 9 to 11 percent, and is somewhat darker. Dark rye our, which
CLOCKWISE FROM TOP:
Oats, medium rye our, cornmeal,
nine-grain cereal, white wheat our,
whole wheat our, durum wheat our,
millet, cracked wheat (center)
INGREDIENT IDENTIFICATION 11
is milled from the outer portion of the endosperm, has a protein content of 14 to 17 percent.
Pumpernickel our (or rye meal) is a coarse grind made from the entire rye kernel, with an
intense avor and a dark color.
Other grains and cereals
OATS are cleaned, toasted, and hulled before use. Cleaned whole oats are referred to as oat
groats.
OAT FLOUR is made from oat groats ground into a ne powder; it contains no gluten.
STEEL-CUT OATS (also called Scotch, Scottish, or Irish oats) are milled by cracking oat groats
into smaller pieces.
ROLLED OATS, sometimes called old-fashioned oats, are made by steaming and attening
oat groats.
INSTANT OATS are cracked oat groats that are precooked, dried, and rolled.
BUCKWHEAT is not a type of wheat, but a cereal grain that has a distinctive strong, nutty
whole-grain avor and a relatively high fat content. Buckwheat may be roasted or unroasted.
Roasted buckwheat groats, sold as kasha, have an intense avor. Unroasted groats have a
slightly milder avor. Both are also milled into meal or our.
SPELT is a cereal grain that contains less gluten and more protein than wheat. It is used in a
variety of baked goods. It is available for use as a whole grain or a white or whole-grain our.
MILLET is a gluten-free seed with a mild avor. It is available whole, cracked, or ground into our.
CORNMEAL is made by grinding dried corn kernels. Its color is determined by the color of the
corn kernels used. Cornmeal is available in varying consistencies, from nely to coarsely ground.
RiceDuring processing, rice is polished to remove some or all of the bran. White rice has had all
the bran removed, while brown rice is only partially polished, leaving behind some of the bran.
Rice is categorized generally by the length of the grain: short, medium, or long.
RICE FLOUR is made by grinding white, brown, or sweet rice. It has a mild avor and is com-
monly used to make gluten-free baked goods.
Sugars, syrups, and other sweetenersGRANULATED SUGAR is pure re ned sucrose derived from either sugarcane or from sugar
beets. Granulated sugar has small, evenly sized crystals, and it is the most commonly used
sugar in the bakeshop.
SUPERFINE SUGAR has very small crystals and dissolves quickly. It is sometimes used in cake
batters and meringues.
SANDING SUGAR has large crystals and is used primarily to decorate baked goods.
PEARL or DECORATING SUGAR has large pearl-shaped crystals and is also used as a decoration.
BROWN SUGAR is granulated sugar with added molasses. Light brown sugar has a mild mo-
lasses avor; dark brown sugar, which contains more molasses, has a more pronounced a-
vor. Store brown sugar in an airtight container to prevent loss of moisture.
TURBINADO SUGAR is a coarse-grained partially re ned sugar with a light brown color and a
very mild molasses taste.
CONFECTIONERS SUGAR, also called powdered sugar or icing sugar, is granulated sugar
ground to a powder with cornstarch added (up to 3 percent by weight) to keep it from cak-
ing. Confectioners sugar is available in different grades of neness (the number in the name
re ects the mesh size of the screen used to sift the powdered sugar); 10X sugar is ner than
6X sugar.
ISOMALT is a white crystalline sugar-free sweetener made from sucrose and used in diabet-
ic baking. Because it does not break down when heated and absorbs very little water, some
pastry chefs like to use isomalt for pulled sugar work.
CORN SYRUP is produced from cornstarch. It contains 15 to 20 percent dextrose (glucose),
other sugars, water, and often avorings. Light corn syrup has been clari ed to give it its light
color; dark corn syrup includes re ners syrup and caramel color and avor, giving it a darker
color and a molasses avor. Corn syrup resists crystallization, making it suitable for some con-
fectionery work.
GLUCOSE SYRUP is 42 DE corn syrup (see Bene ts of Glucose Syrup, page 64) used in icings,
confections, and pulled sugar work.
MOLASSES is a thick, dark brown liquid by-product of sugar re ning; it contains sucrose and
invert sugars. Molasses has a rich avor but it is less sweet than sugar. Molasses is available
as light, dark, or blackstrap. These are rendered, respectively, from the rst, second, and third
boiling of the sugar syrup in the re ning process, and range from light in color and avor (light
molasses) to very dark and intensely avored (blackstrap molasses). Molasses may also be la-
12 BAKING AND PASTRY
TOP ROW:
Confectioners sugar, granulated
sugar, super ne sugar
MIDDLE ROW:
Isomalt, light brown sugar, dark
brown sugar, turbinado sugar
BOTTOM ROW:
Sanding sugar
beled sulfured or unsulfured, depending on whether or not sulfur was used during process-
ing. Sulfured molasses has a stronger avor than lighter, more delicate unsulfured molasses.
MALT SYRUP, made from sprouted barley and corn, is used in some yeast breads. Diastatic
malt syrup contains enzymes that break down the ours starch into sugars. Nondiastatic malt
syrup, which contains no diastase enzymes, is used to avor doughs and enhance their color.
GOLDEN SYRUP (or light treacle syrup) is processed from sugarcane juice. It can be used in
place of corn syrup in confections and baked goods.
HONEY, a naturally inverted sugar (see Invert Sugar, page 64), is a sweet syrup produced by
bees from ower nectar. The owers, not the bees, determine honeys avor and color. Honey
can range in color and avor from pale yellow and mild to dark amber and robust, depending
on the source of the nectar.
MAPLE SYRUP is a lique ed sugar made from the concentrated sap of the sugar maple tree.
Maple syrup is available in several different grades, ranging from Grade AA, which is thin and
mild in avor, to Grade C, which is thick and strongly avored.
INVERTED SYRUP is derived from sucrose that has been broken down into equal parts of glu-
cose and fructose. Inverted sugar is manufactured by adding an acid, or invertase, to sucrose.
ThickenersA thickener is any ingredient that is capable of gelling, stabilizing, or thickening. The list of
thickeners used in the bakeshop includes gelatin, pectin, plant gums such as agar-agar, and
starches. (For an explanation of how starches, gelatin, pectin, and gums thicken liquids, see
Thickeners in Chapter 4, page 65.)
Gelling agents
GELATIN is a protein processed from the bones, skin, and connective tissue
of animals. It may be used as a gelling agent, thickener, stabilizer, emulsi er,
or foaming agent. It is available in granulated or sheet form. Sheet gelatin
is sold in different bloom strengths, or gauges, but as there is no universal
standard of identi cation, the strengths of different gauge numbers may vary
depending on manufacturer.
PECTIN is a gelling agent that occurs naturally in many fruits. It is produced
commercially by extraction from citrus or apple skins. Pectin is the gelling
agent commonly used in jams, jellies, and preserves. It is also used to make
the centers of high-quality jelly beans.
AGAR-AGAR is a gum derived from sea vegetables. It is available powdered,
in akes or blocks, or as brittle strands. It has very strong gelling properties
(stronger than those of gelatin), but its higher melting and gelling points make
it unsuitable for some uses. Agar-agar is used in some vegetarian products
and confections.
INGREDIENT IDENTIFICATION 13
Gelatin sheets, granulated gelatin
14 BAKING AND PASTRY
Starches
PROCESSED and REFINED STARCHES are used to thicken and stabilize liquid mixtures. They
result in a range of textures and consistencies once they set into a gel. Arrowroot, which is
sometimes known as arrowroot our, is derived from the arrowroot plant, a tropical tuber. It is
often used for thickening sauces because of the transparent and high-gloss nish it yields. Po-
tato starch comes from potatoes that are cooked, dried, and then ground into a ne powder;
it may also be called potato our. Cornstarch, ground from corn kernels, is used primarily as a
thickener, but it is also sometimes used in conjunction with wheat our to yield softer results
in baked goods. Tapioca is derived from the root of the tropical cassava plant, also called man-
ioc. It is available as akes, granules, and, most commonly, small balls or pellets (called pearl
tapioca), and our; the our or starch is sometimes called cassava or manioc our or starch.
MODIFIED (or CONVERTED) STARCHES are modi ed through a process involving an acid and
hydrolysis. The starches produced in this manner function more ef ciently as thickeners for
frozen items that will be thawed, as they resist separation.
Dairy productsMilk, cream, and butter are among the dairy products used daily in most bakeshops and pas-
try kitchens. Customarily, containers and packages are dated to indicate how long the con-
tents will remain fresh.
When storing dairy products, avor transfer is a particular concern. Store milk, cream,
and butter away from foods with strong odors. Wrap cheeses carefully, both to maintain their
texture and to prevent their aromas from permeating other foods.
Milk and cream
The milk sold today is typically forced through an ultra ne mesh at high pressure to break
up the fat globules, dispersing them evenly throughout the milk in the process known as
homogenization. Unless milk is homogenized, it will separate, allowing the cream to rise to
the top as the milk sits. Milk is also pasteurized to kill bacteria and other harmful organisms
by heating it to a speci c temperature for a speci c period of time (140F/60C for 30 min-
utes, or 161F/72C for 15 seconds). Ultrapasteurized milk and cream are heated to at least
280F/138C for at least 2 seconds, increasing their shelf life for 60 to 90 days.
MILK is labeled according to its milk fat content. Whole milk contains at least 3 percent milk
fat. Reduced-fat milk contains 2 percent milk fat, low-fat milk contains 1 percent, and fat-free
milk contains less than 0.1 percent.
CREAM Heavy or whipping cream must contain at least 35 percent milk fat, and is used for
whipping. Light cream has between 16 and 32 percent milk fat, and it does not whip easily. It is
sometimes used instead of milk to add a richer avor and creamier texture.
EVAPORATED MILK is whole or fat-free milk that is heated in a vacuum to remove 60 percent
of its water content.
INGREDIENT IDENTIFICATION 15
SWEETENED CONDENSED MILK is evaporated milk that has been sweetened. It is sold in
cans of varying sizes.
NONFAT DRY MILK (powdered milk) is made by removing the water from de-fatted milk. Sold
in boxes, it does not contain any milk fat and can be stored at room temperature.
Fermented and cultured milk products
Buttermilk, crme frache, sour cream, and yogurt are all produced by inoculating milk or
cream with a bacterial strain under precisely controlled conditions. The reaction of the culture
with the milk product thickens the milk or cream and gives it a pleasant tangy avor.
BUTTERMILK was traditionally the by-product of churning milk into butter. Most buttermilk
sold today is nonfat milk to which a bacterial strain has been added and, despite its name,
contains only a very small amount of butterfat. Buttermilk has a thick texture and a slightly
sour avor.
SOUR CREAM is cultured cream with 16 to 22 percent fat. Low-fat and nonfat versions of sour
cream are also available.
YOGURT is a cultured milk product made from whole, low-fat, or nonfat milk; it may be plain
or avored.
CRME FRACHE is made by adding an acid to cream that has 30 percent milk fat. The acid
thickens the cream but does not cause it to ferment, so crme frache has a sweet avor. Its
high fat content gives it a velvety texture.
Cheeses
Cheeses may be categorized in many ways. Included here are only a few cheeses that are well
suited and commonly used in baking.
Soft cheeses usually have a high moisture content and are relatively perishable.
FARMER and BAKERS CHEESES are cows milk cheeses with a mild, tart avor and soft,
grainy texture.
RICOTTA CHEESE is a cows milk cheese with a very mild, delicate avor; it can be drained to
produce a drier, grainy cheese. Ricotta impastata is a smooth, spoonable, dry cheese used
when regular ricotta would add too much moisture to a formula, such as cannoli lling.
CREAM CHEESE has a mild, slightly tangy taste and a soft, spreadable texture. The reduced-
fat cream cheese sometimes called Neufchtel (not to be confused with French Neufchtel, a
soft unripened cheese) has less fat than regular cream cheese, but it also has more moisture.
This Neufchtel may often be used interchangeably with regular cream cheese without requir-
ing changes to the formula to compensate for the lower fat and higher moisture. Other types
of cream cheese include low-fat, nonfat, whipped, and avored; cream cheese is sold in large
blocks, tubs, or smaller packages.
MOZZARELLA CHEESE, made from either cows or water buffalos milk, has a mild, slightly
tangy avor and a soft, creamy, slightly elastic texture. Mozzarella is sold fresh or aged, in balls
or blocks; it is also available grated.
16 BAKING AND PASTRY
CHEDDAR CHEESE is a dry semi rm cheese made from cows milk. During manufacture it
undergoes a cheddaring process where the curds are piled and pressed, which causes the
expulsion of whey and allows for the development of characteristic Cheddar texture. Cheddar
cheese originated in England, but is now commonly made in America and elsewhere.
PARMESAN CHEESE (Parmigiano-Reggiano) is a very hard, crumbly grating cheese. It gets its
special avor and texture from an extended aging period, during which it dries and develops
an intense pungency.
Butter
The best-quality butter has a sweet avor, similar to fresh heavy cream; if salt has been added,
it should be barely detectable. The color of butter will vary depending upon the breed of cow,
the diet of the cow, and the time of year, but is typically a pale yellow.
Both salted and unsalted butter are available. The designation sweet butter indicates
only that the butter is made from sweet cream (as opposed to sour). If unsalted butter is de-
sired, be sure that the word unsalted appears on the package.
Old butter takes on a very faintly cheesy avor and aroma, especially when heated. As it
continues to deteriorate, the avor and aroma can become quite pronounced and unpleasant,
much like sour or curdled milk.
Grade AA butter has the best avor, color, aroma, and texture. Grade A butter also is of
excellent quality. All grades of butter must contain a minimum of 80 percent milk fat. Grade B
may have a slightly acidic taste, as it can be made from soured cream.
CLOCKWISE FROM
TOP: Cream cheese, Manchego,
jalapeo jack, Monterey jack,
Cheddar, Parmigiano-
Reggiano, Asiago, provolone
(center)
INGREDIENT IDENTIFICATION 17
EggsEggs are graded by the USDA based on appearance and freshness. The top grade, AA, indi-
cates a very fresh egg (if they have been properly stored and recently purchased) with a white
that will not spread unduly once the egg is broken and a yolk that rides high on the whites
surface.
Eggs come in a number of sizes: jumbo, extra-large, large, medium, small, and peewee.
Large or extra-large eggs are used in most baking formulas.
Rotate stock as necessary to ensure that only fresh eggs are used. Upon delivery, look
for shells that are clean and free of cracks. Discard any eggs with broken shells; they are at a
high risk for contamination.
Dried eggs are available in various forms: whole eggs, yolks, or whites. Pasteurized
eggs are sold as whole eggs (which may be forti ed), yolks, or whites. They can be purchased
in refrigerated or frozen liquid form, as well as dried and powdered. Once thawed, frozen pas-
teurized eggs are perishable and must be stored and handled like fresh eggs.
Egg substitutes may be entirely egg-free or may be made with egg whites, with dairy
or vegetable products substituted for the yolks. Egg substitutes are used for speci c types of
dietary baking and cooking.
Oils, shortenings, and other fatsFats and oils provide many functions in baked goods. They tenderize, add avor, have leaven-
ing strength, add moisture, and can create a aky texture, among many other things.
Oils and shortenings
Vegetable and other similar oils are produced by pressing a high-oil-content food, such as
olives, nuts, corn, avocados, or soybeans. The oil may then be ltered, clari ed, or hydroge-
nated, depending on its intended use. All oils and shortenings should be stored in a dry place
away from light and extremes of heat.
VEGETABLE OILS are often neutral in avor and color and have relatively high smoking points.
If the label does not specify a source, the oil is usually a blend of oils. Canola oil (or rapeseed
oil) is a light, golden-colored oil extracted from rapeseeds; it is low in saturated fat. Corn oil is a
mild- avored re ned oil, medium yellow in color, inexpensive, and versatile. Soybean oil has a
pronounced avor and aroma; it is found primarily in blended vegetable oils and margarines.
OLIVE OILS vary in heaviness and may be pale yellow to deep green, depending on the par-
ticular fruit and the processing method. Cold-pressed olive oil is superior in avor to thermally
re ned oil. The nest olive oil available is extra-virgin olive oil, with a naturally low level of
acid, typically less than 1 percent. Virgin olive oil, also known as pure olive oil, is the next best
grade. Both extra-virgin and virgin olive oils are prized for their avor. For this reason they are
often used in preparations where the oil is not cooked, and in or on products after they have
been cooked or baked, to preserve and take advantage of their avor. A blend of re ned olive
oil (virgin oil that has been thermally treated to remove its undesirable characteristics) and
virgin olive oil is commonly used for baking and cooking.
18 BAKING AND PASTRY
NUT OILS have rich aromas. They are usually more perishable than vegetable or olive oils. Store
them under refrigeration to keep them fresh, and use them within a few weeks of opening for the
best avor. Most peanut oils are a pale yellow re ned oil, with a very subtle scent and avor, but
some less-re ned types are darker and have a more pronounced peanut avor.
OIL SPRAYS are vegetable oils (usually blended) packaged in pump or aerosol spray contain-
ers. They are used for lightly coating pans and griddles.
HYDROGENATED SHORTENINGS are produced from liquid fats that have been chemically al-
tered under pressure with puri ed hydrogen to make them solid at room temperature. Short-
ening may contain some animal fats unless speci cally labeled as vegetable shortening.
EMULSIFYING SHORTENING or HIGH-RATIO SHORTENING is a hydrogenated shortening
that contains monoglycerides and other agents so that it better absorbs and retains moisture
in baked goods. Emulsifying shortening is used in recipes where the amount of sugar and
liquids is proportionally greater than the our.
Other fats
MARGARINE is a solid fat made with hydrogenated vegetable oils and milk, either liquid or
milk solids. Regular margarines contain 80 percent fat. Margarine may also contain salt, arti-
cial avorings, and preservatives. A wide variety of margarines is available, from regular to
whipped to reduced-fat and cholesterol-lowering blends, in sticks, blocks, or tubs.
LARD is made from rendered pork fat. It is processed and hydrogenated to make it solid. It
may also be treated to neutralize its avor.
ChocolateThe extraction and processing of chocolate from cacao beans is a lengthy and complex pro-
cess. The rst stage involves crushing the kernels into a paste; at this point it is completely
unsweetened and is called chocolate liquor. The liquor is then further ground to give it a
smoother, ner texture, and sweeteners and other ingredients may be added. The liquor may
also be pressed to force out most of the cocoa butter. The solids that are left are ground into
cocoa powder. Cocoa butter is combined with chocolate liquor to make baking and eating
chocolates, or it may simply be avored and sweetened to make white chocolate. Cocoa but-
ter also has numerous pharmaceutical and cosmetic uses.
Chocolate keeps for several months if wrapped and stored in a cool, dry, ventilated area
away from sunlight. Ordinarily it should not be refrigerated, since this could cause moisture
to condense on the surface of the chocolate. Under particularly hot and humid kitchen condi-
tions, however, it may be preferable to refrigerate or freeze chocolate to prevent loss of avor.
Sometimes stored chocolate develops a white bloom. Bloom merely indicates that some
of the cocoa butter has melted and then recrystallized on the surface, and chocolate with a
bloom can still be safely used. Cocoa powder should be stored in tightly sealed containers in
a dry place. It will keep almost inde nitely.
INGREDIENT IDENTIFICATION 19
Types of chocolate
COCOA POWDER is a powdered chocolate product with a cocoa butter content ranging from
10 to 25 percent. Dutch-process cocoa powder, which is 22 to 24 percent cocoa butter, has
been treated with an alkali to reduce its acidity. Dutch-process cocoa powder is darker in color
than natural cocoa powder.
UNSWEETENED CHOCOLATE (also known as bitter or baking chocolate) contains no sugar. It
is approximately 95 percent chocolate liquor and 5 percent cocoa butter.
BITTERSWEET CHOCOLATE typically contains at least 50 percent chocolate liquor, 15 per-
cent cocoa butter, and 35 to 50 percent sugar.
SEMISWEET CHOCOLATE usually contains at least 35 percent chocolate liquor, 15 percent
cocoa butter, and 40 percent sugar. This chocolate may be used interchangeably with bitter-
sweet in most recipes.
COUVERTURE CHOCOLATE contains 15 percent chocolate liquor, 35 percent cocoa butter, and
50 percent sugar. Its high fat content makes it ideal for coating candy, pastries, and cakes.
MILK CHOCOLATE is 10 percent chocolate liquor, 20 percent cocoa butter, 50 percent sugar,
and 15 percent milk solids.
SWEET CHOCOLATE is 15 percent chocolate liquor, 15 percent cocoa butter, and 70 percent
sugar. Both milk and sweet chocolates often contain other added ingredients and avors.
WHITE CHOCOLATE is made from cocoa butter, sugar, avorings, and milk. Since 2004, white
chocolate has had its own standards set by the Food and Drug Administration.
CONFECTIONERY COATING is a chocolate product containing no cocoa butter. Confectionery
coating is made with vegetable fats and requires no tempering prior to use. It is also referred
to as summer coating or compound chocolate. Confectionery coating is available in a range of
avors such as milk chocolate and bittersweet chocolate.
TOP ROW:
Milk chocolate, Dutch-process cocoa powder, couverture, white chocolate, milk chocolate
BOTTOM ROW:
Cocoa powder, semisweet chocolate, bittersweet chocolate, unsweetened chocolate
20 BAKING AND PASTRY
LeavenersThere are many different ways in which a baked product may be leavened. Some are leavened
through the use of a technique or method, others by the addition of an ingredient, and others
still by a combination of the two. (For more information on leavening, see Chapter 4, Leaven-
ers, pages 5962.) Ingredients that are added to provide leavening fall into one of two cat-
egories, biological (yeast) or chemical (baking soda or baking powder).
Yeast
ACTIVE DRY YEAST is dehydrated, dormant yeast granules. It requires a warm liquid to activate
it. Active dry yeast should be stored in an airtight container in the refrigerator or freezer.
RAPID RISE YEAST is a type of dehydrated yeast formulated to provide a quick rise. It is
extremely active once rehydrated and dies quickly. Rapid rise yeast should be stored in an
airtight container in the refrigerator or freezer.
INSTANT DRY YEAST is derived from cultures that can ferment using both beet sugar and
malt sugar, guaranteeing fermentation activity through all phases of the dough. It can be used
without rehydration. When working with instant dry yeast, very cold or ice water should be
used in the mixing process.
COMPRESSED FRESH YEAST is a highly perishable yeast product. It should have a moist, rm
texture and show no discoloration or dry, crumbly spots. Store it under refrigeration.
Chemical leaveners
BAKING POWDER is a mixture of bicarbonate of soda and an acid (the leavening agents)
and a starch. It may be double- or single-acting. (For more information on baking powder, see
Chemical Leaveners in Chapter 4, page 60.)
BAKING SODA is sodium bicarbonate. It requires both an acid and moisture in order to leaven
a product. (For more information on baking soda, see Chemical Leaveners in Chapter 4,
page 60.)
SaltTABLE SALT may be iodized, meaning it contains added iodine, a preventive against goiter,
or noniodized. Its small, dense, grains adhere poorly to food, dissolve slowly in solution, and
are dif cult to blend.
KOSHER SALT is a coarse salt that weighs less by volume than table salt. It dissolves more
readily and adheres better to food.
SEA SALT is collected through the evaporation of natural saltwater. The salts thin, aky lay-
ers adhere well to food and dissolve quickly. Sea salt also contains various trace minerals that
occur naturally in the waters from which they are collected. As a result, sea salts from differ-
ent areas of the world taste different. All are generally more complex in avor than table and
kosher salt. Sea salt can be purchased in ne-grain and coarser crystal forms.
INGREDIENT IDENTIFICATION 21
ROCK SALT, also known as bay salt, is a very coarse salt used in crank ice cream makers. It
may have a gray tint from the impurities it contains. Rock salt is generally not manufactured
for consumption.
Herbs, spices, and avoringsHerbs may be used either fresh or dried; note that dried herbs have increased potency. Spices
may be used whole or ground. They maintain freshness better if they are stored whole. Ex-
tracts are commonly derived from herbs, spices, and nuts. They are prepared in an alcohol-
based solution. Extracts can lose their potency with prolonged exposure to air, heat, or light.
Herbs
Fresh herbs should appear fresh and rm, with no evidence of wilting or bruising. Store them
under refrigeration, loosely wrapped in dampened paper towels and then plastic. Some herbs
such as basil and mint, whose leaves are easily bruised, are best stored as if they were bou-
quets of owers, with the stems in cool water, if space permits.
BASIL belongs to the mint family. It has green pointed leaves and a pungent licorice avor. It
may be used fresh or dried.
CHIVE belongs to the onion family and has a mild onion avor. It has long, slender light green
stems and lavender-colored owers, both of which are edible and used commonly in culinary
applications. It is available fresh or dried but is most commonly used as a fresh herb.
CLOCKWISE FROM
TOP LEFT:
Rosemary, chives, oregano, thyme, mint, at-leaf parsley, curly parsley, cilantro, basil (center)
22 BAKING AND PASTRY
DILL has blue-green thread-like foliage and yellow feathery owers that produce small brown
seeds, all of which are edible; the seeds have the most pungent avor.
MINT comes in many varieties. Peppermint has a strong avor. It is available fresh, dried, or as
an extract. Spearmint has gray-green leaves and a milder avor than peppermint.
OREGANO belongs to the mint family. It has small oval leaves. Oregano and marjoram are
similar in avor, but oregano is stronger. Both may be used fresh or dried.
PARSLEY has a mild, peppery avor. Its leaves may be curly or at (also called Italian parsley),
depending on the variety. It is available fresh or dried, but is primarily used as a fresh herb.
ROSEMARY is another member of the mint family, with leaves shaped like pine needles. It has
a resin-like aroma and avor and is available fresh, dried, or ground.
Spices
ALLSPICE is the dried berry of the pimiento tree. Its avor is reminiscent of cinnamon, nut-
meg, and cloves. It is available whole or ground.
ANISE and CARAWAY SEEDS are both derived from herbs in the parsley family. Anise seeds
have a distinct licorice avor. Anise is available as whole seeds, ground, or as an extract. Cara-
way seeds are sometimes labeled kimmel. They are available whole or ground.
CARDAMOM is a plant in the ginger family. Each of its pods contains fteen to twenty small
seeds. Cardamom has a pungent aroma and a sweet and spicy avor. It is available as whole
pods or ground.
CINNAMON is the stripped dried bark of an evergreen in the laurel family. It is sold whole (in
sticks) or ground.
CLOVES are the dried unopened buds of a tropical evergreen tree. They have a strong avor.
Cloves are available whole or ground.
MACE is the lacy membrane covering the nutmeg seed. It has a pungent nutmeg avor and is
available ground or whole.
NUTMEG is the seed of the nutmeg tree. It has a sweet and spicy avor and is available either
whole or ground.
PEPPERCORNS may be black, white, green, or pink. Black peppercorns are picked when not
quite ripe and then dried; the Tellicherry peppercorn is one of the most prized black pep-
percorns. White peppercorns are allowed to ripen before they are picked, then the husks are
removed and they are dried. Black and white pepper is available as whole berries, cracked, or
ground. Mignonette, or shot pepper, is a combination of coarsely ground or crushed black and
white peppercorns. Green peppercorns are picked when underripe, then packed in vinegar or
brine or freeze-dried. Drain and rinse brine-packed peppercorns before using; reconstitute
freeze-dried peppercorns in water before use. Pink peppercorns are the dried berries of the
baies rose plant, not a true peppercorn. They are usually available freeze-dried.
22
Flavorings
VANILLA BEANS are the pods of a delicate orchid ower. Vanilla has a distinct aromatic avor.
Vanilla is available as whole beans and as an extract. Vanilla is also available commercially in
powder and paste forms.
GARLIC is the bulb of the garlic plant; each bulb is made up of seven to twelve cloves. It is
available fresh, powdered, or granulated.
GINGER is the rhizome of the ginger plant. It has a pungent, hot avor. It is available fresh, in
dried pieces, ground, or crystallized.
NutsNuts have a number of uses, adding avor and texture to many dishes. Nuts that have not
been roasted or shelled will keep longer than those that have. Shelled nuts can be stored in
the freezer or refrigerator, if space allows. In any case, they should be stored in a cool, dry,
well-ventilated area and checked periodically to be sure they are still fresh.
ALMONDS are teardrop-shaped nuts, part of a fruit that resembles an apricot. They have
a pale tan, woody shell. Sweet almonds are sold whole, in the shell or shelled, blanched or
unblanched, roasted, sliced, or slivered, and as almond paste and other products. The sale of
bitter almonds is illegal in the United States; however, once processed, they are used to avor
extracts and liquors that are readily available.
INGREDIENT IDENTIFICATION 23
TOP ROW:
Vanilla beans, vanilla extract, ginger root, orange blossom water, rose water, cinnamon sticks
MIDDLE ROW:
Allspice, star anise, whole nutmeg
BOTTOM ROW:
Cardamom pods, ground cloves, whole cloves, black peppercorns
24 BAKING AND PASTRY
BRAZIL NUTS are among the largest nuts. They grow in segmented clusters; each segment
contains a hard, wrinkled, three-sided brown seed. Brazil nuts are sold whole, in the shell or
shelled.
CASHEWS are kidney-shaped nuts that grow as the appendage of an apple-like fruit (the fruit
is not eaten). The shell of the cashew contains toxic oils, so cashews are always sold shelled,
raw or toasted, whole or in pieces, or as a nut butter.
CHESTNUTS have hard glossy brown shells covering the round or teardrop-shaped nuts.
Chestnuts are sold whole, in the shell or shelled, canned, packed in syrup or water, candied,
frozen, in vacuum-sealed packages, or as pure.
COCONUTS are the fruits of a type of palm tree. The nut is composed of a woody brown
outer shell covered with hairy bers surrounding a layer of rich white nutmeat. Coconuts are
sold whole, and coconut meat is sold shredded or in akes (sweetened or unsweetened),
frozen, or dried (desiccated). Coconut milk, coconut cream, coconut oil, and other coconut-
based products are also available.
HAZELNUTS (also called lberts) are small, nearly round nuts, rich and delicately avored.
Their shiny, hard shells have a matte spot where they were attached to the tree. Hazelnuts are
sold whole, in the shell or shelled, or chopped.
MACADAMIA NUTS are extremely rich, sweet nuts native to Australia. They are pale in color
and nearly round. Macadamia nuts are sold shelled and roasted in coconut oil.
PEANUTS are sold in the shell or shelled, raw (or natural), roasted, or dry-roasted, or as a
butter.
PECANS have two lobes and a rich avor. The shell is medium brown, smooth, and glossy.
They are sold in the shell or shelled as halves or pieces.
TOP ROW:
Walnuts, pecans, macadamias
MIDDLE ROW:
Sliced almonds, slivered almonds,
whole almonds
BOTTOM ROW:
Pine nuts, hazelnuts, pistachios
INGREDIENT IDENTIFICATION 25
PISTACHIO NUTS naturally have cream-colored shells; the nutmeat is green, with a distinc-
tive sweet avor. Pistachios are usually sold whole in the shell, raw or roasted (usually salted),
natural or dyed red. Occasionally they are sold shelled, whole or chopped.
WALNUTS are mild, tender, oily nuts. They grow in two segments inside a hard shell and are
typically light brown with deep ridges patterning the surface. White walnuts (or butternuts) and
black walnuts are two North American varieties. Butternuts are richer, while black walnuts have
a stronger avor. Walnuts are sold whole in the shell, shelled as halves or pieces, or pickled.
SeedsSome of the seeds used in the kitchen are considered spices (celery or fennel seeds, for ex-
ample), but others, including sun ower and pumpkin seeds, are treated more like nuts. These
seeds, and the pastes made from them, should be stored in the same manner as nuts.
ANISE SEEDS are small gray to gray-green almond-shaped seeds that have an intense licorice
avor. They are used whole or ground.
CARAWAY SEEDS are small, light brown, crescent-shaped seeds with an intense avor. They
are commonly used in rye bread.
POPPY SEEDS are tiny, round, blue-black seeds with a rich, slightly musty avor. They are sold
whole and as a paste.
PUMPKIN SEEDS are at, oval, cream-colored seeds. They have a semihard hull and a soft,
oily interior. They are sold whole in the shell (raw or roasted) and shelled (raw or roasted).
CLOCKWISE
FROM TOP LEFT:
Sun ower seeds, pumpkin seeds (pepitas), fennel, sesame seeds (hulled), sesame seeds (unhulled), caraway seeds, anise seeds, poppy seeds (center)
26 BAKING AND PASTRY
SESAME SEEDS are tiny at oval seeds. They may be black, tan, or ivory. They are somewhat
oily, with a rich, nutty avor. Sesame seeds are sold whole, hulled or unhulled, toasted, and as
a paste (also known as tahini).
SUNFLOWER SEEDS are at, teardrop-shaped, light tan, oily seeds with a woody black-and-
white shell. Sun ower seeds are sold whole in the shell or shelled.
Selecting and handling fresh produceFruits and vegetables should be free of bruises, mold, brown or soft spots, and pest damage.
They should be plump, not shriveled. Any attached leaves should be unwilted.
Since it is usually not possible to examine produce until it has been delivered to the
restaurant or bakery, one way to ensure quality is to buy according to grade. Grading is based
on USDA standards. Lower-grade items, particularly fruits, may be used successfully in prepa-
rations such as baked pies and puddings, where appearance is not a factor.
Most produce has a noticeably better quality and avor the closer it is to its source.
Fruits that have been shipped, such as apricots, peaches, and strawberries, for example, may
require special handling that can drive up their cost, despite continued efforts to develop
strains that combine good shipping qualities with superior avor.
More and more vegetables are being grown hydroponically; that is, in nutrient-enriched
water rather than soil. Hydroponic growing takes place indoors under regulated temperature
and lighting conditions, so any growing season may be duplicated. Hydroponically grown let-
tuces, spinach, herbs, and tomatoes are all readily available. Although they have the advan-
tage of being easy to clean, these products may have less avor than conventionally grown
fruits and vegetables.
With a few exceptions (including bananas, potatoes, tomatoes, and dry onions), ripe
fruits and vegetables should be refrigerated. Unless otherwise speci ed, produce should be
kept at a temperature of 40 to 45F/4 to 7C, with a relative humidity of 80 to 90 percent.
Keep fresh produce dry; excess moisture can promote spoilage. Likewise, most pro-
duce should not be peeled, washed, or trimmed until just before use. The outer leaves of
lettuce, for example, should be left intact; carrots should remain unpeeled. The exceptions to
this rule are the leafy tops on vegetables such as beets, turnips, carrots, and radishes: They
should be removed, and either discarded or used as soon as possible, because even after
harvesting, these leaves absorb nutrients from the vegetable and increase moisture loss.
Fruits and vegetables that need further ripening, notably peaches and pears, should be
stored at room temperature, 65 to 70F/18 to 21C. Once the produce is ripe, refrigerate it
to keep it from overripening.
Apples
The most commonly available apple varieties include Golden and Red Delicious, McIntosh,
Granny Smith, Rome Beauty, Fuji, and Gala. There are, however, hundreds of other varieties
grown in orchards throughout the country.
Multipurpose apple varieties, good as table fruit, in baking, for sauces, and for freezing,
include Red and Golden Delicious ( rm, sweet, and aromatic), Granny Smith (tart, extremely
INGREDIENT IDENTIFICATION 27
crisp, and ne-textured), McIntosh (sweet and very juicy, with a crisp texture), Rome Beauty
( rm esh with a mild tart-sweet avor), and Winesap ( rm, tart-sweet, and aromatic).
Baking varieties include Greening (mild, sweet-tart avor; good for pies and sauces; also
freezes well), Jonathan (tender, semitart esh), and Northern Spy (crisp, rm-textured, and
juicy, with a sweet-tart taste).
Fresh apples can be held in climate-controlled cold storage for many months without sig-
ni cant loss of quality. This makes it possible to get good fresh apples throughout the year.
Pears
Pears, like apples, are grown in many varieties, the most common being Bartlett, Bosc, Comice,
dAnjou, and Seckel. Because the esh of pears is extremely fragile, they are picked for shipping
before they have fully ripened. The fruit continues to soften at room temperature. In addition to
being eaten out of hand, pears are often poached whole or used in sorbet and tarts.
ASIAN PEARS are apple-shaped fruit with a smooth skin that ranges in color from green to
yellow-brown. The white esh has a juicy, mildly sweet avor.
BARTLETT PEARS, also known as Williams pears, have green skin that turns yellow as the fruit
ripens. Red Bartlett pears have a brilliant scarlet-colored skin.
BOSC PEARS have a long neck and dark, russeted skin that turns brown when the fruit is ripe.
COMICE PEARS are round with a short neck and stem and a greenish-yellow skin, sometimes
with a reddish blush. They are very sweet and juicy.
DANJOU PEARS have green skin that becomes yellow as they ripen and may have brown
scarring.
SECKEL PEARS are small and crisp, with green skin and a red blush. They are usually eaten fresh.
FROM LEFT TO RIGHT:
Red dAnjou pear, green dAnjou pear, Bosc pear, Asian pear, Forelle pear, Granny Smith apple, Golden Delicious apple, McIntosh apple, Red Delicious apple, Gala apple
28 BAKING AND PASTRY
Berries
The season for fresh berries varies from region to region, though many berries are widely
available as imports from other regions or countries at virtually any time of the year. But even
with improved handling and shipping methods, some specialty berries are still only available
fresh in season from local purveyors. A variety of processed forms are also available: frozen
(individually quick frozen, or IQF, with or without sugar), pures, concentrates, and dried.
With the exception of cranberries, fresh berries are highly perishable and are suscep-
tible to bruising, mold, and overripening in fairly short order. Juice-stained cartons or juice
leaking through the carton is a clear indication that the fruit has been mishandled or is old.
Berries (except for cranberries) can be eaten fresh. All can be used in baked items, syr-
ups, pures and sauces, cordials, jellies, jams, and syrups. Some classic berry preparations
include strawberry shortcake, fresh berry cobblers, pies, jams, jellies, and ice creams.
BLACKBERRIES, also known as bramble berries, resemble raspberries in form but are deep
purple in color. Their peak season is mid- to late summer.
BLUEBERRIES are bluish-purple berries with a dusty silver-blue bloom. Typically, smaller ber-
ries have a sweeter, more intense avor than larger berries.
BOYSENBERRIES are a hybrid of the raspberry, blackberry, and loganberry.
CRANBERRIES are shiny red (some have a white blush), rm, and sour.
CURRANTS are small round berries that may be red, black, or white. The red are generally the
sweetest.
ELDERBERRIES are small and purple-black. They are typically used in cooked applications, as
they have a very sour avor.
GOOSEBERRIES have a smooth skin and a papery husk that may still be attached when they
are sold. They can be green, golden, red, purple, or white. Some have fuzzy skins.
GRAPES are shiny, smooth skinned, and range in color from green to deep purple and in avor
from very sweet to sour. Dried, they are known as raisins. Dried seedless Zante grapes are
known as dried currants.
FROM LEFT TO RIGHT:
Blackberries, strawberries,
raspberries, blueberries
INGREDIENT IDENTIFICATION 29
RASPBERRIES are actually clusters of tiny fruits (drupes), each containing a seed; red, black,
and yellow (golden) or white varieties are available.
STRAWBERRIES are red, shiny, heart-shaped berries with their tiny seeds on the exterior.
They are available year-round, but their peak season is late spring to early summer. Generally
speaking, small berries have a sweeter, more intense avor than the larger berries.
Citrus fruits
Citrus fruits are characterized by their extremely juicy segmented esh, and skins that contain
aromatic oils. Grapefruits, lemons, limes, and oranges are the most common citrus fruits. They
range in avor from very sweet (oranges) to very tart (lemons).
GRAPEFRUITS all have yellow skin, sometimes with a rosy blush where the sun hit them. The
skin of white grapefruits may have a green blush, and the esh is pale yellow; seedless variet-
ies are available. Pink grapefruits have yellow skin with a pink blush; the esh is pink. The skin
of red grapefruits has a red blush, and the esh is deep red with a mellow sweet-tart avor.
Both the pink and red are juiced or eaten fresh.
KUMQUATS are small, oblong fruits with a golden orange peel. The esh contains small white
seeds. With a sweet-tart peel and tart juicy esh, kumquats are entirely edible.
LEMONS have yellow-green to deep yellow skin and extremely tart esh; they always have seeds.
Meyer lemons are not true lemons; they are a hybrid that was imported from China, most likely
a cross between an orange and a lemon. They are about the size of a large lemon, with smooth
skin. Their esh is a light orange-yellow color, and the juice is sweeter than regular lemon juice.
ORANGES come in four basic types; juice, eating, bitter, and mandarin. Juice oranges have
smooth skin that is somewhat dif cult to peel. They are usually plump and sweet, which makes
them ideal for juicing. Eating oranges include the navel, which is large, seedless, and easy to
peel. They may or may not have seeds. Blood oranges have orange skin with a blush of red.
They are aromatic, with pockets of dark red or maroon esh, and are used for both juice and
eating. Bitter oranges are used almost exclusively to make marmalade. Mandarin oranges,
FROM LEFT TO RIGHT:
Grapefruit, navel orange, Mineola tangelo, Valencia orange, lemon, limes, kumquats
30 BAKING AND PASTRY
a category that includes mandarins, tangerines, and clementines, have loose, relatively thin
skins and peel very easily. Mandarins are seedless. Tangerines are juicy with a sweet-tart avor
and usually have many seeds. Clementines have less acid than most oranges and are as fra-
grant as they are avorful. Because of their dainty size, they are often featured as a garnish.
LIMES have dark green, smooth skin, and esh that is tart and seedless. Key limes are very
small and have light green skin. Their most famous use is in Key lime pie.
Melons
Melons are fragrant, succulent fruits related to squashes and cucumbers. The four major
types of melons are cantaloupes, muskmelons, watermelons, and winter melons (including
honeydew, casaba, and Crenshaw).
The ability to determine when a melon is ripe eludes some people. Depending upon the
type, you may look for a number of different signs, but aroma and heaviness for size are the
best general keys to determining ripeness, regardless of variety.
CANTALOUPES have coarse netting or veining over their surface and a yellow to buff back-
ground color; the stem end should have a smooth mark to show that the melon ripened on the
vine. Their esh is smooth, orange, juicy, and fragrant.
MUSKMELONS resemble cantaloupes except that they are deeply ridged.
WATERMELONS are most popular and best known in the large oval variety (15 to 30 lb/6.80 to
13.61 kg), with a light-and-dark-green striped rind and pink esh. Watermelons, however, come
in many different varieties with esh that may be white, yellow, or pink. All varieties have a thick,
hard rind and crisp, granular, juicy (or watery) esh. They are available in seedless varieties.
WINTER MELONS are a group of melons characterized by their late harvest. Casaba melons
have a light yellow to yellow-green skin that becomes smooth and velvety as the melons ripen.
Casabas have a rich melon aroma when ripe. Crenshaw melons have very fragrant, salmon-
colored esh and, when ripe, a slight softening near the stem. Honeydew melons are juicy with
vivid green esh; their skin loses any greenish cast and develops a velvety and slightly tacky
feel when they are ripe. Persian melons have dark green skin with yellow markings and yellow-
orange esh. When ripe, they feel heavy for their size and yield slightly when pressed.
FROM LEFT TO RIGHT:
Galia (halved with seeds removed),
honeydew (halved with seeds),
Carlencas (halved and whole), cantaloupe (wedge and
halved), watermelon
wedge
INGREDIENT IDENTIFICATION 31
Stone fruits
Peaches, nectarines, apricots, plums, and cherries are often referred to as stone fruits be-
cause they have one large central pit, or stone. In North America, they typically come into
peak season through the late spring and into summer. Stone fruits need to be handled deli-
cately because their esh has a tendency to bruise easily. In addition to their fresh form, they
are commonly available canned, frozen, and dried.
APRICOTS have slightly fuzzy skin, like peaches, but are smaller, with somewhat drier esh.
The skin ranges in color from yellow to golden orange, and some have rosy patches.
CHERRIES come in numerous varieties and many shades of red, from the light crimson Queen
Anne to the almost black Bing; some are yellow or golden, such as Royal Ann. They vary in
texture from rm and crisp to soft and juicy, and avors run the gamut from sweet to sour.
Cherries can be found fresh throughout their growing season, and they are also sold canned,
dried, candied, or frozen, and as prepared llings for Danish, pies, and other pastries. Cherry
syrups and cherry- avored cordials are also available; kirschwasser, a clear cherry cordial, is
often used in bakeshops and kitchens.
NECTARINES are similar in shape, color, and avor to peaches, but they have smooth skin.
Like peaches, they are classi ed as either clingstone or freestone; some varieties have esh
with a texture similar to that of plums.
PEACHES are sweet and juicy, with a distinctive fuzzy skin. They come in many varieties, but
all peaches fall into one of two categories: clingstone or freestone. Clingstone peaches have
CLOCKWISE
FROM TOP RIGHT:
Assortment of stone fruits in basket, nectarine, purple plum, red plum, apricots, peach, nectarines
32 BAKING AND PASTRY
esh th
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