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Backgrounder:Glyphosate:UbiquitousandWorrisomeGlyphosate,betterknownunderitsfirsttrademark,RoundUpTM(Monsanto),isawide-spectrumherbicideoftenassociatedwithgeneticallymodifiedcrops(RoundUpReadyTM),butalsousedtoclearallvegetationforothercropsorroadmaintenance.

Today, it is the most widely sold herbicide in the world,1-4including in the province of Québec (Figure 1).5, 6 Increasedcultivationofgeneticallymodifiedcropsisassociatedwithbothincreased sales of glyphosates7 and increased detection ofglyphosates in the water of rivers flowing through Québec’scornandsoyregions.8Glyphosateswerefoundinnearlyall—upto97.5%—ofthestreamssampledin2014.8

Glyphosate,BacteriaandHumanHealth

Glyphosatekillsplantsbypreventingthesynthesisofaromatic amino acids which are essential for plants(Figure2).9 Initially, thismodeofactionwas thoughtto be restricted to plants, meaning that glyphosatewas deemed to be a safe herbicide for all other lifeforms.9 However, we now know that fungi, bacteriaand animals can also be affected by glyphosate.10Because it can affect soil bacteria, glyphosate couldplayaroleinthenutritionanddiseasesofplantsthatarenottargeted.10-14Becauseitaffectsbacterialivingin the digestive tract, glyphosate could also have anadverseimpactonhumanhealth.15Monsantoholdsapatent for theuseofglyphosateasawide-spectrumantibiotic.16

WidespreadUseofGlyphosate

Early on in its use, glyphosate was considered a safer alternative for human health and the environmentcompared to the herbicides it replaced.17, 18Nearly 200 commercial formulations containing different salts ofglyphosate are registered for use in Canada,19whilemore than 400 formulations exist in theUSA for use onmore than 100 food crops.20 Themajority of grain corn (88%) and soy (59%) sown in Québec is geneticallymodified,oftentoresistglyphosate;thistrendiscontinuouslyincreasing.21Glyphosateisusedasapre-harvestdrying-agent for cereals.22, 23 It is also used in apple orchards, and in fields where grapes, blueberries,

Figure1:GlyphosatesalesinQuébec.

Figure2:Glyphosatemodeofactioninnormalplants,andresistancemechanismingeneticallymodifiedplants.

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cranberries, strawberries, sugar beets and asparagus grow.24 In the USA, 90% of orange groves and 80% ofpistachios,almondsandgrapefruitorchards,aretreatedwithglyphosateeachyear.20Finally,glyphosateisalsoused in awide varietyof commercial, industrial and residential applications, for instance, toeliminateweedsalong roadsides, railroads, in flower beds, on golf courses, at airports, and even for landscaping purposes inschoolyardsandparks.24-26

NuisanceforCropsandWildFlora

Glyphosateaffectsallplants,not just thetargetedweeds.27-29Below lethaldoses,glyphosatemayaffectplantnutrition by immobilizing certain soil nutrients, limiting nitrogen fixation in soy root nodules,14, 30 or limitingassociationsbetweenplantsandbeneficialfungi.31Inaddition,itsuspectedthatthereisanindirectlinkbetweenglyphosateandcertainplantdiseasessuchasfusariumwiltinwheat.32,33

Glyphosate also impacts agricultural ecosystems. For example,milkweed populations,whichwere historicallyabundant, are declining due to glyphosate; this coincides with the decline of the monarch butterfly whichdependsonmilkweedforitssurvival.34

WeedResistancetoGlyphosates

In the long term, repeateduseofglyphosateencouragesnatural selectionofplants resistant toglyphosate inbothagriculture35-39andforestry.40Thiscanforcefarmerstoincreasethedosageorrepeatthetreatmentswithglyphosate.Itcanalsoforcethemtocombineglyphosateswithmoretoxicherbicidesthathadbeenabandonedpreviously.8,35-39ResistantweedshavebeenfoundinOntarioandareexpectedshortlyinQuébec.8

EnvironmentalPersistenceandContaminationofWater

Whenglyphosate is applied, a fractionmaydriftwith thewind, andanother fractionmaydirectly reach soilswhereitstronglyattachestoparticles(Figure3).10,41,42Mainlyundertheinfluenceofsoilbacteria,glyphosateisprimarilydegradedintoaminomethylphosphonicacid(AMPA),atoxicmetabolite.41Whileglyphosatenormallydecomposesrapidly(1dayto6monthsinsoils),10,43acoldclimate—suchasthewintersofQuébec—canextendthetimerequiredforthebreakdownofhalfoftheconcentrationpresentupto9oreven24months.44-48ThisenvironmentalpersistenceisnotbeingtakenintoaccountinHealthCanada’sre-evaluationforglyphosate.49

Overtime,glyphosateadsorptionsites insoilmaybecomesaturated.50Consequently,subsequentapplicationsofglyphosate,orevenphosphorusamendmentswhichcompeteforthesamesoiladsorptionsites,maycauseglyphosatetoleachthroughsoil intowater.46,51Becauseitishighlysolubleinwater,52afractionofglyphosatecaneventuallyleachfromsoilsexposedtorainandendupinsurfacewaters.53Glyphosateisdetectedin88%to97.5% of agricultural rivers monitoring in Québec.8 In parallel, traces of this herbicide have been found insubsurfacewatersaroundtheworld,includingintheUSAandEurope,50,54-59raisingconcernsamongresearchersabout thepotential foradverse impactsonhumanhealth.60, 61Contrary tocurrentknowledge,HealthCanadaholdsthatglyphosateinfiltrationingroundwaterisimprobable.49

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Figure3:Glyphosatemovementandenvironmentalpersistence.PeopleExposedviaDrinkingWaterandFood

Contaminatedwaterorfoodingestionistheprimarypathwayforexposureofthegeneralpopulation.Dermalorrespiratoryexposureismoreofaconcernforocupationalexposureofworkers.62

InQuébec,agriculturalactivitiesareconcentratedintheSt-LawrenceRivervalley,asourceofdrinkingwaterfor45%oftheprovince’spopulation.63Intributariesofthisriver,aroundwhichcornandsoyareintensivelyfarmed,glyphosate concentrations up to 4.8 and 18 μg/l have beenmeasured.8 At the same time, water treatmentplants appear to be ineffective in removing glyphosate from urban effluents.64 Fortunately, drinking watertreatment plants, which rely on chlorination or ozonation, can effectively decrease levels of glyphosate.65-67GlyphosatewasbelowthedetectionlimitinMontréal’sdrinkingwaterdistributionnetworkbetween2010and201468-70anddetectedonlyonce(maximumconcentrationof2.1μg·L-1)ina2005-2009studythattracked204water distributionnetworks in theprovince.71Although conforming toCanada’s andQuébec’s drinkingwatercriteria (< 280 μg/l),65, 72 these concentrations would not pass the more stringent European drinking watercriterion(<0.1μg/l).73BasedonthissameEuropeancriterion,UScitizenshaverequestedimprovedmonitoringafterfindingglyphosateconcentrationsupto0.33μg/lintheirdrinkingwaters.74

PeopleExposedviaFood

Glyphosate is also found at trace levels in our food.75 Studies by the United Nations Food and AgricultureOrganization (FAO) have found glyphosate residues inwheat, barley, lentils, soy, peas, sugar beets, corn andcereal-based products (such as beer).76-78 Glyphosate could also be present in fish andmeat.62 However, thepesticidemonitoringprogram runby theCanadian Food InspectionAgency (CFIA)doesnot regularlymonitorglyphosateinstudiestrackingcoffee,teaandfruit juices,79freshproducesoldbetweenprovinces,80or infooddestinedforbabies81despitetheirenhancedsensitivitytopesticides.82-84Thislackofmonitoringissurprisingandworrisomeconsideringthatglyphosate isused inseveral typesoforchards,vegetablecultivation intendedforhumanconsumption,andincropsgrownforlivestock.

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Besideswaterandfood,certaingroupsofthegeneralpopulationmayalsobeexposedtoglyphosatefromothermedia. For instance, children, especially those living on farms, may be exposed to glyphosate-contaminatedhouse dust,85 which can lead to exposurewhen they play on the ground or eat food that has fallen on it.84Glyphosate may also be present in low concentrations in medical or feminine hygiene products made ofcotton.86

InsidiousEffectsonAnimals

Glyphosate is consideredmoderately toxic to mammals,birds and aquatic animals(Figure 4).52On the other hand,it is considered highly toxic forrainbow trout.52 Independentresearchers have demonstratedthat it is toxic for amphibiansand phytoplankton at levelsbelow regulatory criteriadirected at the protection ofaquatic life.87, 88 For instance,glyphosate produces changes inphytoplanktonic communities atconcentrations below thecriterion for the chronicprotectionofaquaticlifeofQuébec(65μg/l).89ThatsamecriterionhasrecentlybeenincreasedbytheCanadianCouncilfortheMinistersoftheEnvironmentto800μg/l)26inareviewwhichdidnotseemtoconvinceQuébecspecialists.8Thosespecialistsworry thatonly theactive substance isbeingevaluated, in isolation fromall theother ingredients, including additives, that are found together in commercial formulations of glyphosate.90Additivescontained inglyphosateformulationsareknownto increasethetoxicityoftheactivesubstance.Forexample,RoundUpTMisconsidered125timesmoretoxictohumancelllinesthanglyphosatealone.91

HumanHealthConcerns

Academicresearchershavefoundthatglyphosatesmaybe:endocrinedisruptors92, 93carcinogenic,94-98capableofincreasingtheriskofspontaneousabortions,92,99associatedwithcongenitalmalformations,100andharmfultohuman nervous systems.101, 102 Other scientists worry about its toxicity to fetuses (Figure 5).103 In 2015, theInternational Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) concluded that glyphosate was a probable humancarcinogen,basedonlimitedevidenceofincreasedriskofnon-Hodgkinlymphomainhumans,sufficientproofinanimals (kidney,pancreasandskincancers),andevidenceofacarcinogenicmechanism involvinggenotoxicityandoxidativestress.97,104

Figure4:Glyphosateecotoxicity.

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One epidemiologic study suggests that there is a highcorrelation between the increasing use of glyphosatesand several human health problems includinghypertension, heart attacks, diabetes, obesity,Alzheimer, senile dementia, Parkinson, multiplesclerosis,autism,inflammatorydiseasesofthedigestivesystem,intestinal infections,kidneypathologies,aswellas cancers of the thyroid, liver, bladder, pancreas,kidneyandleukemia.105Thesecorrelationsalonedonotprovethatglyphosateinducestheseeffects,butanotherstudy confirmed a metabolic pathway explaining thepotentialroleofglyphosateinthesepathologies.15

GlyphosateIsaHotTopic

Canada, theUSAandtheEuropeanUnionarecurrentlyreviewing glyphosate registration. This year, it is likelythat numerous scientific publications and legislativediscussions will be directed at the potential risks andbenefits associated with glyphosates. Among otherthings, it is expected thatnew findings inneurotoxicityandimmunotoxicity,andcumulativeorsynergisticeffects(interactionswithotherpesticidesorchemicals)willbebettercharacterizedinstudiesleadinguptothere-registrationofglyphosate.106,107

Theregulatoryagencies’registrationprocessesstronglydependonresultsgatheredbypesticidemanufacturers.Unfortunatelythiscastsdoubtontheobjectivityoftoxicologicalstudies.108Academicresearchresultspublishedin peer-reviewed journals are often excluded from registration files, restricting the potential of independentsciencetoinfluencedecision-making.109

Conclusions

Becauseglyphosateisthemostwidelysoldpesticideintheworld,itisimperativethatwepayattentiontothenumerous potential impacts on human health and the environment suggested by independent studies.Glyphosate isnotcurrently considered tobeahighly toxicpesticide. It isnot consideredhighlymobile in theenvironment,orstronglypersistent.However,itisomnipresentinourenvironment,oftenmovedinsurfaceandgroundwaters andmore persistent than expected.We suspect that itmay be linked tomore chronic healtheffectsinhumans(cancer,endocrinedisruption,neurotoxicity,fetotoxicity,etc.),aswellashaveamultitudeofdeleterious environmental effects (threats to plants or animals, aquatic and soil fauna; alteration to floracommunities;alterationofnutritivevalueanddiseaseresistanceofplants,etc.)thaniscurrentlybelieved.

In the light of current scientific knowledge, it is essential that Health Canada take into consideration thepersistence of glyphosate in cold climates and the risk of groundwater contamination during the registrationreview.Aprecautionaryapproachisessentialintheregistrationreviewconcerningtheprobablecarcinogenesisrecognized by IARC97, 104 as well as the potential negative effects associated with various co-formulants. In

Figure5:Glyphosatehumantoxicity.

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Québec,theriskofglyphosate’scarcinogenicityisacknowledgedbytheprovincialgovernmentwhichhasfoundglyphosate inalmostall thesurfacewaters intheSaint-Lawrence lowlands.8Thefederalgovernmentreliesonbufferzones−wheresprayingisprohibited−toprotectsurfacewatersandsensitivehabitats.Inaddition,theprovincialgovernment furtherpromotes,viaapolicy, the implementationofnarrowvegetatedriparianbufferstrips. However, this may not suffice to stop glyphosate from contaminating streams.110 Although severalQuébecmunicipalities restrict theuseofpesticides foraestheticpurposes, theproduct isnevertheless readilyavailablewithin their jurisdiction,meaning it canbeusedonprivateor institutionalproperties.Municipalitiescouldimposefurtherregulatoryconstraintstobetterpreventunwantedhealthandenvironmentalsideeffectsofglyphosate.

WritingandIllustrations:LouiseHénault-Ethier(PhDEnvironmentalSciences,UniversitéduQuébecàMontréal)

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