Abt Associates | pg 1
An Overview of U.S. Efforts to Combat Demand For Prostitution and Trafficking Sex
Abt Associates | pg 2
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Abt Associates | pg 3
www.justiceclearinghouse.com
• Introductions• Session is Recorded• Listen Only Event• Post Webinar Survey• Type in Questions using GoTo Webinar
Abt Associates | pg 4
Overview
Prostitution and sex trafficking markets
U.S. domestic law and policy assumption: prohibition
Approaches to combating markets: Supply, demand, distribution
Anti-demand initiatives and legislation in U.S.
Tool for accessing information about demand tactics: Demand Forum website
Abt Associates | pg 5
Definitions & Parameters
Complex legal & political environment– Federal law, state law, and local ordinances
Abt Associates | pg 6
Definitions & Parameters
Complex legal & political environment– Federal law, state law, and local ordinances
Human trafficking – basic elements
Abt Associates | pg 7
Definitions & Parameters
Complex legal & political environment– Federal law, state law, and local ordinances
Human trafficking – basic elements
Prostitution vs sex trafficking
Abt Associates | pg 8
Definitions & Parameters
Complex legal & political environment– Federal law, state law, and local ordinances
Human trafficking – basic elements
Prostitution vs sex trafficking
Human trafficking as criminal enterprises, markets
Abt Associates | pg 9
What Do We Mean by “Prevention”
Criminal Justice– Deterrence – certainty, swiftness, severity of punishment
– Target hardening; environmental design
Abt Associates | pg 10
What Do We Mean by “Prevention”
Criminal Justice– Deterrence – certainty, swiftness, severity of punishment
– Target hardening; environmental design
Public Health– Primary: Prevent problem from occurring in the first place,
by attacking (and shielding against) causes.
– Secondary: Find and treat problem early.
– Tertiary: Developing treatments, managing symptoms of those afflicted
Abt Associates | pg 11
Model of Prostitution & Sex Trafficking Markets
Consumers ofCommercial Sex
Providers ofCommercial Sex
Source: Lederer, 2006
DemandSupply
Traffickers, pimps
Distribution
Abt Associates | pg 13
Combating Demand = Primary Prevention
Opportunities seized and missed:
– Central PA, Upstate NY – domestic sex trafficking circuit
Abt Associates | pg 14
Combating Demand = Primary Prevention
Opportunities seized and missed:
– Central PA, Upstate NY – domestic sex trafficking circuit
– Belmont, MA – child sex trafficking case
Abt Associates | pg 15
Current Policy Emphasis
Reactive, rather than preventive
– Victim Rescue & Support
– Trafficker/Pimp investigation, arrest, prosecution, punishment
At local level, more interest in prevention
Abt Associates | pg 16
Challenges & Limitations of Focus on Supply & Distribution Heavy reliance on victims to arrest and prosecute
traffickers
– Limited effectiveness, unfair burden on victims to solve problem
Abt Associates | pg 17
Challenges & Limitations of Focus on Supply & Distribution Heavy reliance on victims to arrest and prosecute
traffickers
– Limited effectiveness, unfair burden on victims to solve problem
With strong demand and huge $$ incentives, arrested traffickers soon replaced
– “A game of whack-a-mole”
Abt Associates | pg 18
Challenges & Limitations of Focus on Supply & Distribution Heavy reliance on victims to arrest and prosecute
traffickers
– Limited effectiveness, unfair burden on victims to solve problem
With strong demand and huge $$ incentives, arrested traffickers soon replaced
– “A game of whack-a-mole”
Virtually endless supply of victims:
– Survivor: “We can never rescue our way out of the problem, or ever build enough shelters.”
Abt Associates | pg 19
Exchange with a Survivor In coverage of the July 2013, FBI-led “Operation Cross Country”
(arresting over 100 pimps/traffickers) CNN spoke with Asia Graves, a trafficking survivor:
CNN:
“Do you think these arrests will do anything to slow down the problem of sexual exploitation and
human trafficking in this country?”
Abt Associates | pg 20
Exchange with a Survivor
Asia Graves:
“Actually, no. It’s maybe making a dent, but you have to go after the
johns.”
http://www.cnn.com/2013/07/29/justice/child-prostitution-arrests/index.html
Abt Associates | pg 21
Abt Research on Commercial Sex & Human Trafficking
1. National Survey of State and Local Police in US: Transnational Crime (for the U.S. Department of Justice - NIJ)
2. Evaluation of San Francisco’s First Offender Prostitution Program FOPP (for the U.S. Department of Justice - NIJ)
3. National Assessment of Demand-Reduction Tactics in the U.S.(NIJ)
4. Feasibility Assessment: Evaluating South Korea’s National John School Program (Office to Monitor and Combat Human Trafficking in Persons, U.S. Department of State)
5. Human Trafficking Organizations and Facilitators: A Detailed Profile and Interviews with Convicted Traffickers in the United States (NIJ)
6. Transnational Organized Crime and Facilitators: A Detailed Profile and Interviews with Convicted Offenders in the United States (NIJ)
7. Creating and exploring a new data platform for research on human trafficking: Preliminary results on prosecution, sentencing, time served, and recidivism (NIJ)
8. Advancing Human Trafficking Prevalence Estimation (NIJ)
Abt Associates | pg 22
Overview of National Assessment of Tactics Targeting Demand
Funded by National Institute of Justice
Designed to provide descriptive overview and specific information about implementation, useful to practitioners.
Develop typology, site contacts
Data collection
– Screening survey: 500+ sites
– More in-depth survey: 150 sites
– Site visit 20 sites
Products
– Website
– Report
Abt Associates | pg 23
U.S. Sites Employing Anti-Demand Tactics
Demand Reduction TacticU.S. Sites Identified
Any Anti-Demand Tactic 1,122
Neighborhood Action 154
Surveillance Cameras & Video Evidence 102
Public Education 73
“Dear John” Letters 56
Arrest and Post-Arrest Tactics Reverse Stings (street-level or web-based) 1,109
Reverse Stings (web-based) 509
Shaming (Arrestee identities publicized) 762
Auto seizure 167
Geographic exclusion zones (“SOAP” orders) 93
Community service 76
John schools 53
Driver’s license suspension 24
Abt Associates | pg 24
Selected Traits of U.S. Cities and Counties Employing Anti-Demand Tactics
Demand Reduction TacticU.S. Sites Identified
Any Anti-Demand Tactic 1,167
Neighborhood Action 155
Surveillance Cameras & Video Evidence 102
Public Education 76
“Dear John” Letters 57
Arrest and Post-Arrest Tactics Reverse Stings (street-level or web-based) 1,158
Reverse Stings (web-based) 552
Shaming (Arrestee identities publicized) 784
Auto seizure 174
Geographic exclusion zones (“SOAP” orders) 93
Community service 76
John schools 55
Driver’s license suspension 24
Abt Associates | pg 26
Reverse Stings
Street-level operations: common, established strategyo Women decoys elicit offers to buy sex
Web-basedo False online ad, with police decoy in hotel
Variations/Innovationso Police replace brothel staff, continue illusion of normal operations to catch
buyers
o Police respond to actual online ad, replace prostituted person with decoy, continue making appointments
o Police departments exchange staff – method used by small departments w/limited number of women officers to serve as decoys
o Using non-sworn staff as decoys
Abt Associates | pg 27
Shaming
• Publicizing identities• News outlets – web, print, TV• Police websites• Billboards• Community efforts – online (e.g., “JohnTV”)
• “Dear John” Letters• To arrestee home address• To home of registered owner of autos used to loiter or
solicit sex
• Pros & Cons• Possibly effective• Due process concerns• Negative impact on families of johns
Abt Associates | pg 29
John Schools – Basic Structure
Police conduct “reverse stings,” courts process arrestees. Diversion: Case is dismissed if eligible men volunteer and:
• Pay a fee – range from $0 to $1,500; national average is approximately $450• Attend class or classes – Most involve 1 class; others up to 10 sessions• Sometimes other conditions - Avoid rearrest, community service, etc.
Sentence: Men are required to attend as condition of sentence. Single class, versus multiple sessions. Typical Curriculum:
• Health consequences• Impact on communities• Impact on “providers”• Victimization risks and impact on johns• Legal consequences-------------------------------------------• Other topics: Pimping & sex trafficking; sexual addiction; healthy
relationships; anger management; impact on families.
Abt Associates | pg 30
Evidence of Effectiveness: Combating Demand 40% to 80% reductions in prostitution/sex trafficking markets
achieved through demand-focused or comprehensive approaches:
o Wilkes-Barre, PA: 75% reduction in number of women known to engage in street prostitution; city removed from domestic trafficking circuit through arresting johns + shaming.
o Jersey City, NJ: 75% reduction in observed and reported prostitution from comprehensive approach including demand tactics.
o Sweden: Reported 70% reduction in street prostitution through focusing on demand through arrest. Possibly displaced indoors.
o Buffalo, Fresno, Memphis (e.g.): Reduction in police calls for service
Approaches featuring John Schoolso Ipswich, Bolton, and Northampton, England: 40% to 80% reductions in
calls for police service, number of persons involved in prostitution.
o San Francisco: FOPP john school produced at least 40% reduction in recidivism.
Abt Associates | pg 31
Model of FOPP Impact on Rearrests
0.00
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.10
0.12
0.14
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999
Pred
icte
d Pr
opor
tion
Re-
arre
sted
San FranciscoCalifornia excluding San Francisco
Change in Re-arrest Rate, San Francisco = -0.067
Change in Re-arrest Rate, CA excluding San Francisco = -0.014
Change in Re-arrest Rate attributable to FOPP:
A - B = -0.054A
B
Abt Associates | pg 32
Law Enforcement Interventions with Associated Fees and Fines
Demand Reduction Tactic $Range
Arrest $250 – $5000
Auto seizure $150 - $2,500
Geographic exclusion zones (“SOAP” orders) $250 – 2,500
Community service $25 to $60 per day
John schools $0 to $1,500
Abt Associates | pg 33
Benefits of Adding Demand Tactics
Necessary for truly comprehensive attack on the problem
Demand is primary driver; combating demand = primary prevention
No solid evidence prevention occurs when demand is ignored
Relatively strong evidence demand tactics produce results
Abt Associates | pg 34
Opportunities: Seized & Missed
Johns provide revenue stream for all sex trafficking
– Could starve the system
Abt Associates | pg 35
Opportunities: Seized & Missed
Johns provide revenue stream for all sex trafficking
– Could starve the system
Using johns as source of intel about trafficking networks, pimps
Abt Associates | pg 36
Opportunities: Seized & Missed
Johns provide revenue stream for all sex trafficking
– Could starve the system
Using johns as source of intel about trafficking networks, pimps
Using johns to prosecute traffickers
– “flipping” - confidential informants, pimp stings
– Phone evidence
– Advantages – “3rd way;” eases burden on victims
– Revisiting Belmont
Abt Associates | pg 37
Opportunities: Seized & Missed
Johns provide revenue stream for all sex trafficking
– Could starve the system
Using johns as source of intel about trafficking networks, pimps
Using johns to prosecute traffickers
– “flipping” - confidential informants, pimp stings
– Phone evidence
– Advantages – “3rd way;” eases burden on victims
– Revisiting Belmont
St. Petersburg (1970s) & West Palm Beach (1990s)
Abt Associates | pg 38
Key Role of Police & Prosecutors: Pursuing Comprehensive Approaches
Most tactics are post-arrest, conducted by police, affected by prosecution.
Arrests affected by prosecution willingness to accept and pursue cases.
Being on the same page is critical.
– Interpreting law
– Establishing what is a “good case”
– Deciding what cases are “worth it” and why
– Keeping score (e.g., valuing misdemeanors vs felonies)
– Politics & resources
Abt Associates | pg 39
Federal Legislation Focusing on Demand 2005 re-authorization of the 2000 Trafficking Victims
Protection Act: Title 2, End Demand Act
– Major provisions
– Appropriations and implementation
2015 Justice for Victims of Trafficking Act (JVTA)
– Major provisions
– Opposition to the JVTA
– Speculation about appropriations and implementation
Abt Associates | pg 49
Contact Information & Acknowledgements
Michael Shively, Ph.D.Senior Associate
Center on Crime, Drugs, and JusticeAbt Associates, Inc.
55 Wheeler St.Cambridge, MA 02138
(617)[email protected]
Support for Abt Associates research presented was provided by:
• Grant #2005‐DD‐BX‐0037 from the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention and the National Institute of Justice.
• Grant #2008‐IJ‐CX‐0010 from the National Institute of Justice.• Grant #2011‐IL‐CX‐0017 from the National Institute of Justice.
Findings, interpretations, and conclusions are those of the presentation author and do not represent those of any sponsoring agency or Abt Associates Inc.
________________________________________________________
Website:
http://www.demandforum.net/
Abt Associates | pg 50
Overview
Prostitution and sex trafficking markets
U.S. domestic law and policy assumption: prohibition
Approaches to combating markets: Supply, demand, distribution
Anti-demand initiatives and legislation in U.S.
Tool for accessing information about demand tactics: Demand Forum website
Abt Associates | pg 51
Definitions & Parameters
Complex legal & political environment– Federal law, state law, and local ordinances
Abt Associates | pg 52
Definitions & Parameters
Complex legal & political environment– Federal law, state law, and local ordinances
Human trafficking – basic elements
Abt Associates | pg 53
Definitions & Parameters
Complex legal & political environment– Federal law, state law, and local ordinances
Human trafficking – basic elements
Prostitution vs sex trafficking
Abt Associates | pg 54
Definitions & Parameters
Complex legal & political environment– Federal law, state law, and local ordinances
Human trafficking – basic elements
Prostitution vs sex trafficking
Human trafficking as criminal enterprises, markets
Abt Associates | pg 55
What Do We Mean by “Prevention”
Criminal Justice– Deterrence – certainty, swiftness, severity of punishment
– Target hardening; environmental design
Abt Associates | pg 56
What Do We Mean by “Prevention”
Criminal Justice– Deterrence – certainty, swiftness, severity of punishment
– Target hardening; environmental design
Public Health– Primary: Prevent problem from occurring in the first place,
by attacking (and shielding against) causes.
– Secondary: Find and treat problem early.
– Tertiary: Developing treatments, managing symptoms of those afflicted
Abt Associates | pg 57
Model of Prostitution & Sex Trafficking Markets
Consumers ofCommercial Sex
Providers ofCommercial Sex
Source: Lederer, 2006
DemandSupply
Traffickers, pimps
Distribution
Abt Associates | pg 59
Combating Demand = Primary Prevention
Opportunities seized and missed:
– Central PA, Upstate NY – domestic sex trafficking circuit
Abt Associates | pg 60
Combating Demand = Primary Prevention
Opportunities seized and missed:
– Central PA, Upstate NY – domestic sex trafficking circuit
– Belmont, MA – child sex trafficking case
Abt Associates | pg 61
Current Policy Emphasis
Reactive, rather than preventive
– Victim Rescue & Support
– Trafficker/Pimp investigation, arrest, prosecution, punishment
At local level, more interest in prevention
Abt Associates | pg 62
Challenges & Limitations of Focus on Supply & Distribution Heavy reliance on victims to arrest and prosecute
traffickers
– Limited effectiveness, unfair burden on victims to solve problem
Abt Associates | pg 63
Challenges & Limitations of Focus on Supply & Distribution Heavy reliance on victims to arrest and prosecute
traffickers
– Limited effectiveness, unfair burden on victims to solve problem
With strong demand and huge $$ incentives, arrested traffickers soon replaced
– “A game of whack-a-mole”
Abt Associates | pg 64
Challenges & Limitations of Focus on Supply & Distribution Heavy reliance on victims to arrest and prosecute
traffickers
– Limited effectiveness, unfair burden on victims to solve problem
With strong demand and huge $$ incentives, arrested traffickers soon replaced
– “A game of whack-a-mole”
Virtually endless supply of victims:
– Survivor: “We can never rescue our way out of the problem, or ever build enough shelters.”
Abt Associates | pg 65
Exchange with a Survivor In coverage of the July 2013, FBI-led “Operation Cross Country”
(arresting over 100 pimps/traffickers) CNN spoke with Asia Graves, a trafficking survivor:
CNN:
“Do you think these arrests will do anything to slow down the problem of sexual exploitation and
human trafficking in this country?”
Abt Associates | pg 66
Exchange with a Survivor
Asia Graves:
“Actually, no. It’s maybe making a dent, but you have to go after the
johns.”
http://www.cnn.com/2013/07/29/justice/child-prostitution-arrests/index.html
Abt Associates | pg 67
Abt Research on Commercial Sex & Human Trafficking
1. National Survey of State and Local Police in US: Transnational Crime (for the U.S. Department of Justice - NIJ)
2. Evaluation of San Francisco’s First Offender Prostitution Program FOPP (for the U.S. Department of Justice - NIJ)
3. National Assessment of Demand-Reduction Tactics in the U.S.(NIJ)
4. Feasibility Assessment: Evaluating South Korea’s National John School Program (Office to Monitor and Combat Human Trafficking in Persons, U.S. Department of State)
5. Human Trafficking Organizations and Facilitators: A Detailed Profile and Interviews with Convicted Traffickers in the United States (NIJ)
6. Transnational Organized Crime and Facilitators: A Detailed Profile and Interviews with Convicted Offenders in the United States (NIJ)
7. Creating and exploring a new data platform for research on human trafficking: Preliminary results on prosecution, sentencing, time served, and recidivism (NIJ)
8. Advancing Human Trafficking Prevalence Estimation (NIJ)
Abt Associates | pg 68
Overview of National Assessment of Tactics Targeting Demand
Funded by National Institute of Justice
Designed to provide descriptive overview and specific information about implementation, useful to practitioners.
Develop typology, site contacts
Data collection
– Screening survey: 500+ sites
– More in-depth survey: 150 sites
– Site visit 20 sites
Products
– Website
– Report
Abt Associates | pg 69
U.S. Sites Employing Anti-Demand Tactics
Demand Reduction TacticU.S. Sites Identified
Any Anti-Demand Tactic 1,122
Neighborhood Action 154
Surveillance Cameras & Video Evidence 102
Public Education 73
“Dear John” Letters 56
Arrest and Post-Arrest Tactics Reverse Stings (street-level or web-based) 1,109
Reverse Stings (web-based) 509
Shaming (Arrestee identities publicized) 762
Auto seizure 167
Geographic exclusion zones (“SOAP” orders) 93
Community service 76
John schools 53
Driver’s license suspension 24
Abt Associates | pg 70
Selected Traits of U.S. Cities and Counties Employing Anti-Demand Tactics
Demand Reduction TacticU.S. Sites Identified
Any Anti-Demand Tactic 1,167
Neighborhood Action 155
Surveillance Cameras & Video Evidence 102
Public Education 76
“Dear John” Letters 57
Arrest and Post-Arrest Tactics Reverse Stings (street-level or web-based) 1,158
Reverse Stings (web-based) 552
Shaming (Arrestee identities publicized) 784
Auto seizure 174
Geographic exclusion zones (“SOAP” orders) 93
Community service 76
John schools 55
Driver’s license suspension 24
Abt Associates | pg 72
Reverse Stings
Street-level operations: common, established strategyo Women decoys elicit offers to buy sex
Web-basedo False online ad, with police decoy in hotel
Variations/Innovationso Police replace brothel staff, continue illusion of normal operations to catch
buyers
o Police respond to actual online ad, replace prostituted person with decoy, continue making appointments
o Police departments exchange staff – method used by small departments w/limited number of women officers to serve as decoys
o Using non-sworn staff as decoys
Abt Associates | pg 73
Shaming
• Publicizing identities• News outlets – web, print, TV• Police websites• Billboards• Community efforts – online (e.g., “JohnTV”)
• “Dear John” Letters• To arrestee home address• To home of registered owner of autos used to loiter or
solicit sex
• Pros & Cons• Possibly effective• Due process concerns• Negative impact on families of johns
Abt Associates | pg 75
John Schools – Basic Structure
Police conduct “reverse stings,” courts process arrestees. Diversion: Case is dismissed if eligible men volunteer and:
• Pay a fee – range from $0 to $1,500; national average is approximately $450• Attend class or classes – Most involve 1 class; others up to 10 sessions• Sometimes other conditions - Avoid rearrest, community service, etc.
Sentence: Men are required to attend as condition of sentence. Single class, versus multiple sessions. Typical Curriculum:
• Health consequences• Impact on communities• Impact on “providers”• Victimization risks and impact on johns• Legal consequences-------------------------------------------• Other topics: Pimping & sex trafficking; sexual addiction; healthy
relationships; anger management; impact on families.
Abt Associates | pg 76
Evidence of Effectiveness: Combating Demand 40% to 80% reductions in prostitution/sex trafficking markets
achieved through demand-focused or comprehensive approaches:
o Wilkes-Barre, PA: 75% reduction in number of women known to engage in street prostitution; city removed from domestic trafficking circuit through arresting johns + shaming.
o Jersey City, NJ: 75% reduction in observed and reported prostitution from comprehensive approach including demand tactics.
o Sweden: Reported 70% reduction in street prostitution through focusing on demand through arrest. Possibly displaced indoors.
o Buffalo, Fresno, Memphis (e.g.): Reduction in police calls for service
Approaches featuring John Schoolso Ipswich, Bolton, and Northampton, England: 40% to 80% reductions in
calls for police service, number of persons involved in prostitution.
o San Francisco: FOPP john school produced at least 40% reduction in recidivism.
Abt Associates | pg 77
Model of FOPP Impact on Rearrests
0.00
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.10
0.12
0.14
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999
Pred
icte
d Pr
opor
tion
Re-
arre
sted
San FranciscoCalifornia excluding San Francisco
Change in Re-arrest Rate, San Francisco = -0.067
Change in Re-arrest Rate, CA excluding San Francisco = -0.014
Change in Re-arrest Rate attributable to FOPP:
A - B = -0.054A
B
Abt Associates | pg 78
Law Enforcement Interventions with Associated Fees and Fines
Demand Reduction Tactic $Range
Arrest $250 – $5000
Auto seizure $150 - $2,500
Geographic exclusion zones (“SOAP” orders) $250 – 2,500
Community service $25 to $60 per day
John schools $0 to $1,500
Abt Associates | pg 79
Benefits of Adding Demand Tactics
Necessary for truly comprehensive attack on the problem
Demand is primary driver; combating demand = primary prevention
No solid evidence prevention occurs when demand is ignored
Relatively strong evidence demand tactics produce results
Abt Associates | pg 80
Opportunities: Seized & Missed
Johns provide revenue stream for all sex trafficking
– Could starve the system
Abt Associates | pg 81
Opportunities: Seized & Missed
Johns provide revenue stream for all sex trafficking
– Could starve the system
Using johns as source of intel about trafficking networks, pimps
Abt Associates | pg 82
Opportunities: Seized & Missed
Johns provide revenue stream for all sex trafficking
– Could starve the system
Using johns as source of intel about trafficking networks, pimps
Using johns to prosecute traffickers
– “flipping” - confidential informants, pimp stings
– Phone evidence
– Advantages – “3rd way;” eases burden on victims
– Revisiting Belmont
Abt Associates | pg 83
Opportunities: Seized & Missed
Johns provide revenue stream for all sex trafficking
– Could starve the system
Using johns as source of intel about trafficking networks, pimps
Using johns to prosecute traffickers
– “flipping” - confidential informants, pimp stings
– Phone evidence
– Advantages – “3rd way;” eases burden on victims
– Revisiting Belmont
St. Petersburg (1970s) & West Palm Beach (1990s)
Abt Associates | pg 84
Key Role of Police & Prosecutors: Pursuing Comprehensive Approaches
Most tactics are post-arrest, conducted by police, affected by prosecution.
Arrests affected by prosecution willingness to accept and pursue cases.
Being on the same page is critical.
– Interpreting law
– Establishing what is a “good case”
– Deciding what cases are “worth it” and why
– Keeping score (e.g., valuing misdemeanors vs felonies)
– Politics & resources
Abt Associates | pg 85
Federal Legislation Focusing on Demand 2005 re-authorization of the 2000 Trafficking Victims
Protection Act: Title 2, End Demand Act
– Major provisions
– Appropriations and implementation
2015 Justice for Victims of Trafficking Act (JVTA)
– Major provisions
– Opposition to the JVTA
– Speculation about appropriations and implementation
Abt Associates | pg 95
Contact Information & Acknowledgements
Michael Shively, Ph.D.Senior Associate
Center on Crime, Drugs, and JusticeAbt Associates, Inc.
55 Wheeler St.Cambridge, MA 02138
(617)[email protected]
Support for Abt Associates research presented was provided by:
• Grant #2005‐DD‐BX‐0037 from the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention and the National Institute of Justice.
• Grant #2008‐IJ‐CX‐0010 from the National Institute of Justice.• Grant #2011‐IL‐CX‐0017 from the National Institute of Justice.
Findings, interpretations, and conclusions are those of the presentation author and do not represent those of any sponsoring agency or Abt Associates Inc.
________________________________________________________
Website:
http://www.demandforum.net/
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