B.J. LewisB.J. LewisRoyal Military College of CanadaRoyal Military College of Canada
Ottawa Chapter, Canadian Nuclear SocietyOttawa Chapter, Canadian Nuclear SocietyOttawa, OntarioOttawa, OntarioApril 16, 2009April 16, 2009
Aircrew and Spacecrew Radiation Exposure The Dangers of Getting High
Outline
Aircrew Radiation Exposure Assessment Measurements and Computer Code Development
Space Radiation Monitoring
Typical Annual Radiation Exposure
Total Average Annual Exposure 3.6 mSv
Impetus
ICRP-60 (1990) and ICRP-103 (2007): Reduce radiation exposure limits:
Nuclear Energy Worker (NEW): 50 to 20 mSv/year Public: 5 to 1 mSv/year
Recognize occupational exposure of aircrew to radiation
Aircrew Radiation Regulation
European Union (Basic Safety Standard Directive, May 2000)
Canada(Transport Canada, Commercial and Business Aviation Advisory Circular, April 2001) Account for exposure for >1 mSv/y (> 8 km)
Assess exposure Adjust working schedules (> 6 mSv action level) Inform workers Control doses during pregnancy (
P. Band et al., B.C. Cancer Foundation (Cdn/AC Pilots, 1950-1992) Excess AML and prostatic cancer
J. Grayson et al., Brooks AFB (USAF Pilots, 1975-1989) Excess cancer in all sites, testis & urinary bladder
E. Pukkala et al, Finnish Cancer Registry (FAs, 1967-1992) Excess female breast and bone cancer
European Study of Cancer Among flying PErsonnel (ESCAPE) (9 countries) (1960-1997) Scarce evidence for specific occupational cancer risk Revised interest with ESCAPE II (or COSMIC) study to include US PAN AM cohort
D. Irvine, British Airways Pilots, 1998 B. Grajewski, NIOSH Studies (FA (1998-2000), Pilots (2001))
FAs reproductive health effects Biomarker study of pilots
Epidemiological Studies
Radiation Exposure to Aircrew
Complex mixed-radiation field
Galactic Cosmic Rays (GCR)
Solar Particle Events(SPE)
Galactic Cosmic Ray (GCR) Exposure Conditions
Relatively constant field dependent upon: Solar Activity Latitude Altitude
Complicated field Many particle types, large energy range Greater uncertainty in biological risk
Solar Magnetic Field Shielding (When)
GCR intensity GCR intensity anticoincidentanticoincident with solar cyclewith solar cycle
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
1953 1958 1963 1968 1973 1978 1983 1988 1993 1998 2003 2008
Year
Suns
pot N
umbe
r
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
4500
Clim
ax H
ourly
Cou
nt R
ate
/100
19 20 21 22 23
Earth Magnetic Field Shielding(Where)
Greater shielding at equator than geomagnetic poles (factor of ~3)
Atmospheric Shielding(How High)
Satellite
Balloon
Supersonic
Subsonic
High Peaks
AtmosphericNucleus
40 km
20 km
10 km
1 km
MNS
LET Chamber
NE213 Scintillator
Anthropomorphic Phantomwith TLDs and BDs
BGOScintillators
Detector NIMs, Computers, UPS
LLRM
Equipment Suite Development
Commercial Aircraft Measurement
TEPCTEPC SWENDISWENDIEberlineEberline
NRDNRD
SWENDISWENDI Ionization Ionization ChamberChamber
Aircrew Radiation Studies
Experimentation ~250 Flights (Portable Instruments)
Ionization Counter/Al2O3 TLDs (low-LET) SWENDI Remmeter/Bubble Detectors (high-LET) Liulin-4N and 4SN (Si-based) LET Spectrometers Tissue Equivalent Proportional Counter (Hawk TEPC)
Model/Code Development Predictive Code AIrcrew Radiation Exposure (PCAIRE)
0
20
40
60
TEPC IC TLD SWENDI BD
TOTAL = NEUTRONIONIZING +
Ambient Dose Equivalent Distribution (Sv)
GammaGamma
XX--RayRay
ElectronElectron
Ionizing Ionizing (low(low--LET)LET)
NeutronsNeutrons(high(high--LET)LET) 2020
11
11
11
Quality Factor
Aircrew
Q=138%
Q>162%
US Atomic Radiation Workers
Q=20 Lung4%
Q=193%
Q>1 Other3%
Global Flight Group FlightTime (h)
Total DoseEq. (Sv)
Trans-Pacific (CYVR-KIX)Trans-Atlantic (CYYZ-LHR)Trans-Canada (CYYZ-CYVR)Caribbean (BGI-CYYZ)Northwest/Yukon (CYOW-CYFBCYRB-CYSR-CYFB-CYOW)
10.2 6.5 5.0 5.710.2
57 939 635 527 4
54 28
2.2 0.42.5 0.42.4 0.42.2 0.43.4 0.6
TEPC Data from Selected Flight Routes
Q
Data Coverage
HNL
LP PDDIAP
PGUA
TEPC Count Rate
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
0:00 1:00 2:00 3:00 4:00 5:00 6:00 7:00Time (Z)
Cou
nt R
ate
(Cou
nts/
Min
)
19:00 20:00 21:00 22:00 23:00 0:00 1:00 2:00Time (Z)
0
5000
10000
15000
20000
25000
30000
35000
40000
Altit
ude
(ft)
Heading North
Constant Latitude
YGK-YYZ-HGK Polar Flight (2005)
YGK-YYZ YYZ-HGK (polar) HGK HGK-YYZ YYZ-YGK
Toronto to Hong Kong Hong Kong to Toronto
4/18/05 9:00 4/18/05 21:00 4/19/05 9:00 4/19/05 21:00 4/20/05 9:00 4/20/05 21:00
Date and Time
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
Alti
tude
(m)
IC+SWENDIHAWKFH41BLiuLinFH41B CorrectedFlight Altitude
0.1
1
10
Am
bien
t Dos
e E
quiv
alen
t Rat
e (u
Sv/
h)
TEPC Data Analysis
Geomagnetic latitude calculated from geographic latitude & longiGeomagnetic latitude calculated from geographic latitude & longitudetude
Geomagnetic Latitude, Bm (deg)
-45 -30 -15 0 15 30 45 60 75 90
Ambi
ent T
otal
Dos
e E
quiv
alen
t Rat
e, H
(S
v/h)
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
169.4 km10.0 km (+2 Sv/h)10.6 km (+4 Sv/h)11.2 km (+6 Sv/h)11.8 km (+8 Sv/h)Best Fit at 10.6 km
.
Latitude Dependence:Dose Rate Vs Cutoff Rigidity
Ambient dose equivalent rate (35000 ft)
Cutoff Rigidity, Rc (GV)0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Am
bien
t Dos
e E
quiv
alen
t Rat
e (
Sv/
h)
0
2
4
6
8
10
NorthSouthBest Fit
.
GCR ability to penetrate magnetic GCR ability to penetrate magnetic fieldfield
Global CutoffRigidity Contours
Altitude Effect (Balloon Flights)
Satellite
Balloon
Supersonic
Subsonic
High Peaks
AtmosphericNucleus
40 km
20 km
10 km
1 km
Atmospheric Depth h (g / cm2)
0 200 400 600 800 1000f A
lt0.01
0.1
1
10
Balloon Data (July 14, 2001)Balloon Data (July 23, 2001)Model
Solar Cycle Effect (10.7 km)
Vertical cutoff rigidity Rc (MV)0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Ambi
ent d
ose
equi
vale
nt ra
te (
Sv/
h)no
rmal
ized
to 1
0.6
km
0
2
4
6
8
RMC IC+SWENDI (Climax = 3744 counts/h/100, = 984 MV)ACREM IC+NMX (Climax = 4277 counts/h/100, = 498 MV) Best Fit ACREM IC+NMXBest Fit RMC IC+SWENDI
Poles Equator
IC + SWENDI
PCAIRE Code
Visual_PCAIRE.exe
PCAIRE Code vs Concorde/ER-2 (NASA) (High-Altitude)
15.2 -18 km (Concorde)15.2 - 21 km (ER-2)
PCAIRE Predicted Route Dose (Sv)0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
TEPC
Mea
sure
d R
oute
Dos
e (u
Sv)
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160Heliocentric Potential (FAA)Deceleration Parameter (NASA)
Concorde Flights
ER-2 South 1 & 2
ER-2 East
ER-2 North 2
ER-2 North 1
Aircrew Annual Exposure
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
Flight Attendants Pilots
PC-A
IRE
Pred
ictio
n of
Ann
ual
Dos
e Eq
uiva
lent
(mSv
)
ICRP 60 Public Limit
99-EHD-239
0
2
4
6
Ave
rage
Exp
osur
e (m
Sv/y
ear)
Occupation
Nuclear FuelHandlerIndustrialRadiographerUranium Miner
Nuclear MedicineTechnologistCommercialAircrew
Canadian Annual Occupational Exposures
Health Impact
~25% of population will develop fatal cancer If aircrew exposed to 6 mSv/y over 30 years, risk of
developing a fatal cancer: 6 mSv/y x 30 y x 4 x10-5 cancers/mSv = 0.7%
Radiation Exposure from Solar Particle Events (SPE)
Highly sporadic events associated with solar flares and coronal mass ejection
Additional exposure to aircrew
Aircrew Exposure from SPEs
Propagate GCR and GOES-11 spectra (p, He) through atmosphere with Monte Carlo Code (MCNPX)
Prot
on F
lux
(n/M
eV/s
r/cm
2 )
Proton energy (MeV)
SPE
GCR
Dose and NM Count Rate Prediction
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
=
= =+
=
= =+
=
=
=
=
m
ii
primEiNM
m
i
n
j
primiEijjii
m
ii
primEiA
m
i
n
j
primiEijjii
EEPh
sPREcC
EEPPKEcH
1,
1 1,1,
1
1,
1 1,1,
1
3600)hcount (
hs3600)h Sv(,E
&&&
&&&&
NM Count Rate
Dose Rate
Energy bin width
NM Response Function
MCNPX matrix coefficients
Primary GOES spectrum
Dose Conversion Coefficient
Global Cut-off Rigidity Contours
Noisy Sun Effects
Solar Storm Effects and Solar Flare Anisotropy
"SOHO (ESA & NASA)"
Neutron monitor peak count rate - April 15th, 2001
1.E-01
1.E+00
1.E+01
1.E+02
1.E+03
1.E+04
100 1000 10000
Effective Cutoff Rigidity (MV)
Cou
nt R
ate
(C/s
)
RMC Model (0 km) Thule OuluCape Schmidt Lomniky Stit MagadanIrkutsk Alma Ata ApatityJungfraujoch Kiel NewarkRome Yakutsk RMC Model (3 km)South Pole
RMC Model (0 km)
RMC Model (3 km)
Neutron Monitor Analysis
SPE Aircrew Exposure (GLE 60)
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
GCR (background)(PCAire v7.2)
SPE Model
Measurements (MDU)
Prague JFK International, NY
Start of Solar Flare
Am
bien
t Dos
e R
ate
(Sv
/hr)
Universal Time (UTC) * Spurny et al
(April 2001)
Commercial Code Development: PCAIRESys Operational environment:
Not for Research Monitoring system for large number of personnel and flights
AirlineHuman
resourcesdatabase
AirlineHuman
resourcesdatabase
PCAIREPCAIRESysSysDose databasedose by flightdose by crew
Interface
Pcairesystem
administrator
Employees
Employer
National Dose Registry
Databaseadministrator
Sources of Space Radiation (Manned Missions in Low-Earth Orbit)*
S
N
SOUTH ATLANTIC ANOMALY(Protons)
INNER RADIATION BELT(Protons)
OUTER RADIATION BELT(Electrons)
OUTER RADIATION BELT(Electrons)
GALACTIC COSMIC RADIATION (GCR)(Protons to Iron Nuclei) Magnetic
AxisSpinAxis
* Adapted from: M. Golightly, Radiation Familiarization, CSA Training with SRAG, NASA, JSC, January 27-31, 2003.
SOLAR PARTICLE EVENT(Protons to Iron Nuclei)
Nominal In-flight Radiation EnvironmentElectrons in outer radiation beltGalactic Cosmic Rays
Protons in South Atlantic Anomaly
Space Weather Radiation Enhancements
Outer electron belt enhancement--electrons
Solar particle event (SPE)--protons
Additional radiation belts-- high energy electrons, protons (?)
Parameters that Affect Exposure or Susceptibility
Mission Factors Space Weather Orbit Inclination South Atlantic Anomaly (SAA) Passage Altitude Shielding Length of Mission
Individual Factors Sex Age Health Status Nutritional Status Ethnicity
IV-CPDSTEPCRAMsCPDs
TEPCPRDsCPDs
EV-CPDSEV-CPDS: Extra-Vehicular Charged Particle Spectrometer
IV-CPDS: Intra-Vehicular Charged Particle Spectrometer
TEPC: Tissue Equivalent Proportional Counter
RAM: Radiation Area Monitors(TLDs)
PRD: Passive Radiation Dosimeter(TLDs)
CPD: Crew Passive Dosimeter (TLDs, PNTD)
Active instrument real-time telemetry
Active instrumentno real-time telemetry
Passive instrument
Space Radiation Monitoring
* Adaped from: M. Golightly, Initial Briefing to Astronauts Radiation Exposure During Space Missions, 1998 Astronaut Candidate Class, NASA-JSC, June 10, 1999.
Space Dosimetry* Type Program Measurements
Crew Personnel Dosimetry:TLD-100 All Programs Absorbed doseTLD-300, 600, 700 STS, and ISS Absorbed doseCR-39 or other Nuclear plastic track detectors
Apollo, Skylab, STS, STS, Mir Fluence vs. LET or Z
Fission Foils Apollo, STS Neutrons
Area dosimetry:TLD-100 STS, Mir, ISS Absorbed doseTLD-300, 600, 700 STS, ISS Absorbed doseCR-39 or other Nuclear plastic track detectors Fluence vs. LET or ZFission Foils Apollo, STS NeutronsActive Ionization Chambers Apollo, Skylab Absorbed doseTEPC STS, Mir, ISS Lineal energy, dose, dose equivalentZ,E Telescope Mir, STS, ISS Fluence vs. Z and EBonner Spheres STS, ISS NeutronsBubble detectors STS Neutrons
*Adapted from: F. Cucinotta, Organ Dose Estimates for Astronauts, CSA Training with SRAG, NASA-JSC, January 27-31, 2003.
Typical Exposures Daily Exposures
150 200 Gy/d (solar max) (2 x greater at solar minimum)
25 mGy or ~ 60 mSv for 140 days (CNSC terrestrial limits are 20 mSv/y)
Dependent upon where you spend your time/sleep/timing/altitude etc.
SPE Doses (IVA) Highly variable
Small events ~100 200 Gy ( ~ 300 Gy @ TEPC/Lab Fwd)
Large events ~ 10 20+ mGy (Jul 2000 estimate ~6 mGy @ Node1)
Radiation Exposure ComparisonsType of Exposure Limit: Annual Canadian Public Limit: Annual Canadian Radiation Worker
Average annual exposure to natural background Average annual occupational exposure (US) (ground) Living one year in Kerala, India
Airline Flight Crew
Apollo 14 Highest Skin Dose Average Shuttle Skin Dose STS 82 Highest Skin Dose STS-57 (473 km, 28.5) STS-60 (352 km, 57) 140 day mission on ISS (400 km, 51.56) 1 year in deep space (5 g cm-2 Al shielding) 1 year deep space (5 g cm-2 polyethylene shielding) Mars mission BFO Dose (GCR+SPE: behind 10 g cm-2 shielding) (3-year)
Dose Equivalent1 mSv/y
20 mSv/y
2.94 mSv/y2.10 mSv/y13 mSv/y
1-6 mSv/y
14 mSv~4.33 mSv76.3 mSv19.1 mSv
4 mSv~60 mSv1140 mSv870 mSv
800 to 2000 mSv
Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation
Ionizing radiation causes atoms and molecules to become ionized or excited: Produce free radicals Break chemical bonds Produce new chemical bonds and cross-linkage between macromolecules Damage molecules that regulate vital cell processes (e.g. DNA, RNA, proteins).
Tissues that undergo rapid cell regeneration are most sensitive to radiation (e.g., blood-forming organs, reproductive organs, and lymphatic system)
U.S. Astronaut Exposure Limits
Exposure Duration
Blood Forming Organs Eye Skin
30 days 0.25 1.0 1.5
Annual 0.50 2.0 3.0
Career Limit: fatal cancer (3% for all ages and both sexes)
National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements (NCRP), Guidance on Radiation Received in Space Activities. NCRP Report No. 98, (July 31, 1989)
NCRP Report No. 132 (Dec 2000)
Career Exposure LimitsNCRP Report No. 98 (1989)
(Sv)
10 Year Career Exposure LimitsNCRP Report No. 132 (2000)
(Sv)
Age (yr) Male Female Male Female
25 1.5 1.0 0.7 0.4
35 2.5 1.75 1.0 0.6
45 3.25 2.5 1.5 0.9
55 4.0 3.0 3.0 1.7
Non-Stochastic (Deterministic) Effects: NCRP-98 (Sv) and NCRP-132 (Gy-Eq)*
*NCRP-132 uses relative biological effectiveness (RBE) in place of quality factor (Q)
Observed Astronaut Health Effects (Hamm & Al 2000)
Significant increase in lifelong risk of cataracts in astronauts Of 48 lens opacities in 295 astronauts, 39 of those occurred after space flight 90% of those 39 cataracts occurred after lunar missions and high inclination space flights
14 cases of cancer in 312 astronauts from 1959 to present (excluding non-melanoma skin cancers)
59% higher than the control group
No protection from Earths magnetic field
image from NASA/Viking
Interplanetary Travel
Summary
Aircrew RadiationPCAIRE Code Development (GCR and Solar Flares)
Experimentally-based - Only one!Commercial Airline Application (spin off) (PCAIRESys)
Space Radiation
AcknowledgementsRMC Research Team: Prof. L. Bennett, Research Associates and Assistants (A.R. Green, A. Butler, M. Boudreau, B. Bennett), Graduate Students (Dr. P. Tume, M. McCall, B. Ellaschuck, M. Desormeaux, Dr. M. Pierre, H. Al Anid) Air Canada, Canada 3000 Airlines, Canadian Airlines International, Canadian Regional Airlines, First Air, Aerolinas Argentinas, British Airways, Air Operations at 8 Wing Trenton, 437/436/429 SquadronsJ. Servant (Transport Canada),C. Thorp & S. Kupca (DGNS/DND), W. Friedberg (US Federal Aviation Administration), H. Goldberg (Air Transport Association of Canada), M. Pelliccioni & A. Zanini (INFN), E. Felsberger (U Graz), S. Roesler(CERN), A. Chee (Boeing), H.Schraube (GSF), W. Heinrich (U Siegen), K. OBrien (Northern Arizona U), U. Schrewe (FHH), D. Bartlett (NRPB), V. Ciancio (UNP), D. Irvine (British Airways), J. Lafortune and F. Lemay (PCAIRE Inc)G. Badhwar (NASA-JSC), F. Cuccinotta (NASA-JSC)H. Ing, M. Smith, K. Garrow (Bubble Technology Industries)
Aircrew and Spacecrew Radiation Exposure The Dangers of Getting HighOutlineTypical Annual Radiation Exposure ImpetusAircrew Radiation Regulation Epidemiological Studies Radiation Exposure to AircrewGalactic Cosmic Ray (GCR) Exposure ConditionsSolar Magnetic Field Shielding (When)Earth Magnetic Field Shielding(Where)Atmospheric Shielding(How High)Equipment Suite DevelopmentCommercial Aircraft Measurement Aircrew Radiation StudiesAmbient Dose Equivalent Distribution (Sv)Quality FactorTEPC Data from Selected Flight RoutesData CoverageTEPC Count RateTEPC Data AnalysisLatitude Dependence:Dose Rate Vs Cutoff RigidityAltitude Effect (Balloon Flights)PCAIRE CodePCAIRE Code vs Concorde/ER-2 (NASA) (High-Altitude)Aircrew Annual ExposureCanadian Annual Occupational ExposuresHealth ImpactRadiation Exposure from Solar Particle Events (SPE)Aircrew Exposure from SPEsDose and NM Count Rate PredictionSolar Storm Effects and Solar Flare AnisotropySPE Aircrew Exposure (GLE 60)Commercial Code Development: PCAIRESysNominal In-flight Radiation EnvironmentSpace Weather Radiation EnhancementsParameters that Affect Exposure or SusceptibilitySpace Dosimetry* Radiation Exposure ComparisonsBiological Effects of Ionizing RadiationU.S. Astronaut Exposure LimitsObserved Astronaut Health Effects (Hamm & Al 2000)Summary Acknowledgements
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