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In the grasslands,somewhere on the African continent,
success can be defined in terms of life and death,
Survival is a strong motivator.
Heres a short story
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When the light comes in the Eastern sky and you sense that thesun will soon steal the comfort and security of the night, thegazelle starts to stir. He knows that if, during this day, hedoes not run faster than the fastest cheetah, he may becaught and then he will be killed.
Not far away, the cheetah stretches out this powerful musclesand thinks of the day ahead, He knows that if he does notrun faster than the slowest gazelle, he will surely starve.
The moral of this story
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It doesnt matter whether you are a gazelle or a
cheetah when the sun is up
you had better be running.
*
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Outline
Skip over Needs Theories of Motivation
Drives
Learned Needs Process Theories of Motivation
Responses to the Reward System
Motivating Employees Through Reinforcement
Goal Setting
Workplace justice
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Theories of Motivation
1. What is motivation
2. How do needs motivate people?
3. Are there other ways to motivate people?
4. Do equity and fairness matter?
5. What role does reinforcement play in motivation?
6. What are the ethics behind motivation theories?
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MARS Model of Behaviour
Personality
Emotions
Perceptions
Values
Attitudes
Stress
Behaviour
and
Results
Motivation
Ability
Role
perception
Situational
factors
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Its all about the people
"The success of your organization doesn't depend onyour understanding of economics, or organizationaldevelopment, or marketing. It depends, quite simply,on your understanding of human psychology: howeach individual employee connects with yourcompany and how each individual employee connectswith your customers."
Curt Coffman and Gabriela Gonzalez-Molina, Ph.D. inFollow This Path: How the World's GreatestOrganizations Drive Growth by Unleashing Human
Potential, Warner Books, 2002.
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What Is Motivation?
Motivation
The intensity, direction, and persistence of effort
a person shows in reaching a goal:
Intensity: How hard a person tries
Direction: Where effort is channelled
Persistence: How long effort is maintained
skip
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Theory X and Theory Y
Theory X
Assumes that employees dislike work, will attempt toavoid it, and must be coerced, controlled, or threatened
with punishment if they are to perform. Theory Y
Assumes that employees like work, are creative, seekresponsibility, and can exercise self-direction and self-control.
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Motivators
Intrinsic Motivators
A persons internal desire to do something, due
to such things as interest, challenge, and personalsatisfaction.
Extrinsic Motivators
Motivation that comes from outside the person
and includes such things as pay, bonuses, and
other tangible rewards.
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Needs Theories of Motivation
Basic idea
Individuals have needs that, when unsatisfied,
will result in motivation
Maslows Hierarchy of Needs Theory.
Motivation-Hygiene Theory
ERG Theory
McClellands Theory of Needs
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Maslows Hierarchy of Needs
Physiological
Includes hunger, thirst, shelter, sex, and other
bodily needs
Safety
Includes security and protection from physical
and emotional harm
SocialIncludes affection, belongingness, acceptance,
and friendship
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Maslows Hierarchy of Needs
Esteem
Includes internal esteem factors such as self-
respect, autonomy, and achievement; andexternal esteem factors such as status,recognition, and attention
Self-actualization
The drive to become what one is capable ofbecoming; includes growth, achieving onespotential, and self-fulfillment
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Exhibit 4-1
Physiological
Safety
Social
Esteem
Self-
actualization
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Herzbergs Motivation-Hygiene Theory
Hygiene factorsthe sources of dissatisfaction
Extrinsic factors (context of work)
Company policy and administration
Unhappy relationship with employees supervisor
Poor interpersonal relations with ones peers
Poor working conditions
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Herzbergs Motivation-Hygiene Theory
Motivatorsthe sources of satisfaction
Intrinsic factors (content of work) Achievement Recognition
Challenging, varied, or interesting work
Responsibility
Advancement
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Comparison of Satisfiers and Dissatisfiers
Source: Reprinted by permission
ofHarvard Business Review. An
exhibit from Frederick
Herzberg, One More Time:
How Do You Motivate
Employees?Harvard Business
Review 81, no. 1 (January 2003),
p. 90. Copyright 1987 by the
President and Fellows of
Harvard College; all rights
reserved.
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Exhibit 4-3 Contrasting Views of Satisfaction and
Dissatisfaction
Dissatisfaction Satisfaction
Traditional view
No Satisfaction Satisfaction
Herzberg's view
DissatisfactionNo Dissatisfaction
Hygiene Factors
Motivators
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Criticisms of Motivation-Hygiene Theory
The procedure that Herzberg used is limited by its
methodology.
The reliability of Herzbergs methodology isquestioned.
Herzberg did not really produce a theory of motivation.
No overall measure of satisfaction was used. The theory is inconsistent with previous research.
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Alderfers ERG Theory
Existence
Concerned with providing basic material
existence requirements.
Relatedness
Desire for maintaining important interpersonalrelationships.
Growth
Intrinsic desire for personal development.
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McClellands Theory of Needs
Need for achievement
The drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of
standards, to strive to succeed
Need for power
The need to make others behave in a way that they would
not have behaved otherwise
Need for affiliation
The desire for friendly and close interpersonal
relationships
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Relationship of Various Needs Theories
HygieneFactors
Need for Achievement
Need for Power
Need for Affiliation
Self-Actualization
Esteem
Affiliation
Security
Physiological
Motivators
Relatedness
Existence
Growth
Maslow Alderfer Herzberg McClelland
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Summary: Hierarchy of Needs
Maslow: Argues that lower-order needs must be satisfiedbefore one progresses to higher-order needs.
Herzberg: Hygiene factors must be met if person is not to be
dissatisfied. They will not lead to satisfaction, however.Motivators lead to satisfaction.
Alderfer: More than one need can be important at the sametime. If a higher-order need is not being met, the desire tosatisfy a lower-level need increases.
McClelland: People vary in the types of needs they have. Theirmotivation and how well they perform in a work situation arerelated to whether they have a need for achievement, affiliation,or power.
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Summary: Impact of Theory
Maslow: Enjoys wide recognition among practising managers. Mostmanagers are familiar with it.
Herzberg: The popularity of giving workers greater responsibility for
planning and controlling their work can be attributed to his findings.Shows that more than one need may operate at the same time.
Alderfer: Seen as a more valid version of the need hierarchy. Tells usthat achievers will be motivated by jobs that offer personalresponsibility, feedback, and moderate risks.
McClelland: Tells us that high need achievers do not necessarily make
good managers, since high achievers are more interested in how theydo personally.
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Summary: Support and Criticism of Theory
Maslow: Research does not generally validate the theory. Inparticular, there is little support for the hierarchical nature ofneeds. Criticized for how data were collected and interpreted.
Herzberg: Not really a theory of motivation: Assumes a linkbetween satisfaction and productivity that was not measured ordemonstrated.
Alderfer: Ignores situational variables.
McClelland: Mixed empirical support, but theory is consistent
with our knowledge of individual differences among people.Good empirical support, particularly on needs achievement.
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Four Drives Theory
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4 Drives Theory
Reflect contemporary thinking
Out of Harvard Business School
Professors Lawrence and Nohria
There are 4 innate and independent drives that
we all have.
Both holistic and humanistic.
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Four-Drive Theory.
Drive to Bond
Drive to Curiosity
/ Learn
Need to form relationships andsocial commitments
Basis of social identity
Need to satisfy curiosity and
resolve conflicting information
Basis of self-actualization
Drive to Defend Need to protect ourselves
A reactive (not proactive) drive
Basis of fight or flight
Drive to Acquire Need to take/keep objects and
experiences
Basis of hierarchy and status
Driven: How Human Nature Shapes Our Choices, by Paul R. Lawrence and Nitin Nohria (Jossey Bass, 2001
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Features of Four Drives
Innate and hardwired -- everyone has them
Independent of each other (no hierarchy of
drives)
Complete set -- no drives are excluded from
the model.
Never satisfied.
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How Four Drives Affect Needs
1. Four drives determine which emotions are
automatically tagged to incoming information
2. Drives generate independent and often
competing emotions that demand our
attention
3. Social skill set determines how to translatedrives into needs and effort.
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Four Drive Theory of Motivation
Mental skill set uses social norms, personalvalues, and experience to translate competing
drives into needs and effort
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Learned Needs Theory
Some needs can be learned.
Need for achievement
Desire for challenging and somewhat risky goals,
feedback, recognition Need for affiliation
Desire to seek approval, conform, and avoid
conflict
Try to project a favourable self-image
Need for power
Desire to control ones environment
Personalized versus socialized power
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Implications of Needs/Drives Theories
Four drive theory
provide a balanced opportunity for employees to fulfill
drives
employees continually seek fulfillment of drives
avoid having conditions support one drive over others
Maslow
allow employees to self-actualize power of positive experiences
Offer employees a choice of rewards
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Expectancy Theory of Motivation
Look at the actual process of motivation
Share information from your readings about
the expectancy theory.
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Expectancy Theory (Vroom et al. 1964)
The theory that individuals act depending on whether
their effort will lead to good performance, whether
good performance will be followed by a givenoutcome, and whether that outcome is attractive to
them.
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E-to-PExpectancy
P-to-OExpectancy
Outcomes& Valences
Outcome 1+ or -
Effort Performance
Outcome 3+ or -
Outcome 2+ or -
Expectancy Theory of Motivation
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Choosing to act
When deciding among behavioural options,
individuals select the option with the greatest
motivation forces (MF). The motivational force for a behaviour, action, or task
is a function of three distinct perceptions: Expectancy,
Instrumentality, and Valance. The motivational force
is the product of the three perceptions:
MF = Expectancy x Instrumentality x Valence
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VIE .
Expectancy probability: based on the perceivedeffort-performance relationship. It is the expectancythat one's effort will lead to the desired performanceand is based on past experience, self-confidence, and
the perceived difficulty of the performance goal. Instrumentality probability: based on the
perceived performance-reward relationship. Theinstrumentality is the belief that if one does meet
performance expectations, he or she will receive a
greater reward. Valence: refers to the value the individual
personally places on the rewards. This is a functionof his or her needs, goals, and values.
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Increasing E-to-P Expectancy
Train employees
Select people with required competencies
Provide role clarification / agree goals
Provide sufficient resources
Provide coaching and feedback
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Increasing P-to-O Expectancy
Measure performance accurately
Describe outcomes of good and poor
performance
Explain how rewards are linked to past
performance
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Increasing Outcome Valences
Ensure that rewards are valued
Individualize rewards
Minimize countervalent outcomes
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Discussion of Expectancy Theory
If it is in the organizations interest to put
people first and allow them to fulfill all four
drives; then why dont managers simply do
that? Use expectancy theory to explain the
managers behaviour.
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Expectancy Theory Discussion
Identify three activities you really enjoy and
three activities you really dislike.
Using the expectancy model, analyze each of
your answers to assess why some activities
stimulate your effort while others dont.
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Goal-Setting Theory
The theory that specific and difficult goals lead
to higher performance.
Goals tell an employee what needs to be done and how
much effort will need to be expended. Specific goals increase performance.
Difficult goals, when accepted, result in higher performance than do
easy goals.
Feedback leads to higher performance than does nonfeedback.
Specific hard goals produce a higher level of output
than does the generalized goal of do your best.
The specificity of the goal itself acts as an internal stimulus.
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Goal Difficulty and Performance
High
Ta
skPerforma
nce
Low Moderate Challenging Impossible
Area ofOptimal
GoalDifficulty
Goal Difficulty
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Lockes Model of Goal Setting
Regulating effort
Increasing persistence
Encouraging the developmentof strategies and action plans
Taskperformance
Directing attention
Goals
motivateby . . .
Regulating effort
Increasing persistence
Encouraging the developmentof strategies and action plans
Taskperformance
Directing attention
Goals
motivateby . . .
Source: Adapted from E. A. Locke and G. P. Latham, A Theory of Goal Setting and Task
Performance (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1980). Reprinted by permission of Edwin A.
Locke.
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Management by Objectives
A program that encompasses:
Specific goals
Participative decision-making
Explicit time period
Performance feedback
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Goals Should Be SMART
For goals to be effective, they should be
SMART:
Specific
Measurable
Attainable
Results Oriented
Time bound
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Characteristics of Effective Feedback
Effective
Feedback
Specific
Relevant
Timely
Credible
Sufficientlyfrequent
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Multisource (360-degree) Feedback
Evaluated
EmployeeCo-worker
Customer
Subordinate
Project
leader
Supervisor
Co-worker
Subordinate
Subordinate
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Preferred Feedback Sources
Depends on the situation
Nonsocial sources (gauges, printouts)
Better for goal progress
Considered more accurate, less damaging
Social sources (supervisor, co-workers)
Better for good news feedback
Improves self-image and esteem
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Elements of Equity Theory
Outcome/input ratio
inputs -- what employee contributes (e.g., skill)
outcomes -- what employee receives (e.g., pay)
Comparison other
person/people against whom we compare our ratio
not easily identifiable
Equity evaluation
compare outcome/input ratio with the comparison other
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Equity Sensitivity
Benevolents
Tolerant of being underrewarded
Equity Sensitives
Want ratio to be equal to the comparison other
Entitleds
Prefer receiving proportionately more than others
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Emotions
Attitudes
Behaviours
DistributionPrinciples
Distributive
Justice
Perceptions
Procedural
JusticePerceptions
StructuralRules
SocialRules
Organizational Justice Components
ManagementInterface
InteractionalJustice
Perceptions
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Procedural Justice Structural Rules
Voice
Bias-Free
Knowledgeable
Consistent
Listens to all
Appealable
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Responses to the Reward System
Equity Theory
Fair Process and Treatment
Cognitive Evaluation Theory
Increasing Intrinsic Motivation
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Equity Theory
Main points:
Individuals compare their job inputs and
outcomes with those of others and then respond
so as to eliminate any inequities.Equity theory recognizes that individuals are
concerned not only with the absolute amount of
rewards for their efforts, but also with the
relationship of this amount to what othersreceive.
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Equity Comparisons
Self-inside
Self-outside
Other-inside
Other-outside
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Correcting Inequity Feelings
Reduce out inputs Less organizational citizenship
Increase our outcomes Ask for pay increase
Increase others inputs Ask coworker to work harder
Reduce others outputs Ask boss to stop giving other
preferred treatment
Change our perceptions Start thinking that others perksarent really so valuable
Change comparison other Compare self to someone closer to
your situation
Leave the field Quit job
Actions to correct inequity Example
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Equity Theory Propositions
When paid by time worked, over-rewarded
employees will produce more than will
equitably paid employees.
When paid by number of units produced, over-
rewarded employees will produce fewer, but
higher-quality, units than will equitably paidemployees.
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Equity Theory Propositions
When paid by time worked, under-rewarded
employees will produce less or poorer-quality
output.
When paid by number of units produced,
under-rewarded employees will produce a
large number of low-quality units incomparison with equitably paid employees.
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Fair Process and Treatment
Historically, equity theory focused on
Distributive justice However, equity should also consider
Procedural justice
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Fair Process and Treatment
Distributive Justice
Perceived fairness of the amountand allocation of
rewards among individuals.
Procedural Justice
Perceived fairness of theprocess used to determine the
distribution of rewards.
Interactional Justice
The quality of the interpersonal treatment received from a
manager.
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Discussion
Expectancy theory argues that for people to be
motivated, they have to value the rewards that
they will receive for their effort. This suggeststhe need for recognizing individual differences.
Does this view contradict the principles of equity
theory? Discuss.
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Cognitive Evaluation Theory
The introduction of extrinsic rewards for work
effort that was previously rewarded
intrinsically will tend to decrease the overalllevel of a persons motivation.
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Motivators
Intrinsic
A persons internal desire to do something, due
to such things as interest, challenge, and personalsatisfaction.
Extrinsic
Motivation that comes from outside the person,such as pay, bonuses, and other tangible rewards.
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Four Key Rewards to Increase Intrinsic Motivation
1.Sense of choice
2.Sense of competence
3.Sense of meaningfulness
4.Sense of progress
Managers can act in ways that will build theseintrinsic rewards for their employees.
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Building Blocks for Intrinsic Rewards
Source: Reprinted with permission of the publisher. FromIntrinsic Motivation at Work: Building Energy and
Commitment. Copyright K. Thomas. Berrett-Koehler Publishers Inc., San Francisco, CA. All rights reserved.
www.bkconnection.com.
Delegated authority
Trust in workers
Security (no punishment) for honest mistakes
A clear purpose
Information
A noncynical climate
Clearly identified passions
An exciting vision
Relevant task purposes
Whole tasks
Knowledge
Positive feedback
Skill recognition
Challenge
High, non-comparative standards
A collaborative climate
Milestones
Celebrations
Access to customers
Measurement of improvement
Leading for Choice Leading for Competence
Leading for Meaningfulness Leading for Progress
Delegated authority
Trust in workers
Security (no punishment) for honest mistakes
A clear purpose
Information
A noncynical climate
Clearly identified passions
An exciting vision
Relevant task purposes
Whole tasks
Knowledge
Positive feedback
Skill recognition
Challenge
High, non-comparative standards
A collaborative climate
Milestones
Celebrations
Access to customers
Measurement of improvement
Leading for Choice Leading for Competence
Leading for Meaningfulness Leading for Progress
http://www.bkconnection.com/http://www.bkconnection.com/http://www.bkconnection.com/http://www.bkconnection.com/7/31/2019 2167 Drives and Motivation
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Motivating Employees Through Reinforcement
Skinner suggested that people learn how to
behave to get something they want or to avoid
something they dont want.
This idea is known as operant conditioning.
Behaviour is influenced by the reinforcement or
lack of reinforcement brought about by theconsequences of the behaviour.
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Methods of Shaping Behaviour
Positive reinforcement Following a response with something pleasant.
Negative reinforcement Following a response by the termination or withdrawal of
something unpleasant. Punishment
Causing an unpleasant condition in an attempt toeliminate an undesirable behaviour.
Extinction Eliminating any reinforcement that is maintaining abehaviour.
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Schedules of Reinforcement
The two major types of reinforcement schedulesare continuous and intermittent.
Continuous reinforcement: reinforces desiredbehaviour each and every time it isdemonstrated.
Intermittent reinforcement: ratio or interval
The individual is reinforced after giving a certain number ofspecific types of behaviour.
The individual is reinforced on the first appropriatebehaviour after a particular time has elapsed.
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Fixed and Variable Reinforcements
A reinforcement can also be classified as
fixed or variable.
Fixed-interval schedule
Variable-interval schedule
Fixed-ratio schedule
Variable-ratio schedule
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Types of Reinforcement
Reinforcement Type Example
Positive reinforcement A manager praises an employee for a job well done.
Negative reinforcement An instructor asks a question and a student looks through the notes to avoid beingcalled on. She has learned that looking through her notes prevents the instructorfrom calling on her.
Punishment A manager gives an employee a two-day suspension from work without pay for showingup drunk.
Extinction An instructor ignores students who raise their hands to ask questions. Hand-raisingbecomes extinct.
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Schedules of Reinforcement
Reinforcement
Schedule Effect on Behaviour Example
Continuous Reward given after each
desired behaviour
Fast learning of new behaviour Compliments
but rapid extinction
Fixed-interval Reward given at fixed Average and irregular performance Weekly paycheques
time intervals with rapid extinction
Variable-interval Reward given at variable Moderately high and stable Pop quizzes
time intervals performance with slow extinction
Fixed-ratio Reward given at fixed amounts High and stable performance attained Piece-rate pay
of output quickly but also with rapid extinction
Variable-ratio Reward given at variable Very high performance with Commissioned sales
amounts of output slow extinction
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Putting It All Together
What we know about motivating employees in organizations:
Recognize individual differences.
Employees have different needs.
Dont treat them all alike.
Spend the time necessary to understand whats important to each
employee.
Use goals and feedback.
Allow employees to participate in decisions that affect them. Link rewards to performance.
Check the system for equity.
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Summary and Implications
1. What is Motivation?
Motivation is the process that accounts for an
individuals intensity, direction, and persistenceof effort toward reaching the goal.
2. How do needs motivate people?
All needs theories of motivation propose asimilar idea: individuals have needs that, when
unsatisfied, will result in motivation.
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Summary and Implications
3. Are there other ways to motivate people?
Process theories focus on the broader picture of how
someone can set about motivating another individual.
Process theories include expectancy theory and goalsetting theory (and its application, management by
objectives).
4. Do equity and fairness matter?
Individuals look for fairness in the reward system.Rewards should be perceived by employees is related to
the inputs they bring to the job.
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Summary and Implications
5. What role does reinforcement play in motivation?
B. F. Skinner suggested that behaviour is influenced bywhether or not it is reinforced. Managers might consider,
then, how their actions towards employees reinforce (or donot reinforce) employee behaviour.
6. What are the ethics behind motivation theories?
There is a debate among theorists about whether motivationtheories are used for the employees benefit or to just
improve productivity.
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HR Implications
Performance Evaluation
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What Gets Evaluated?
Individual Task Outcomes
Behaviours
Traits
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Who Should Evaluate?
Immediate Manager
Peers
Self-Evaluation
Immediate Subordinates
Comprehensive Approach: 360-Degree
Evaluations
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Methods of Performance Evaluation
Written Essays A narrative describing an employees strengths, weaknesses,
past performance, potential, and suggestions for improvement
Critical Incidents Evaluating those behaviours that are key in making the
difference between executing a job effectively and executing itineffectively
Graphic Rating Scales An evaluation method where the evaluator rates performance
factors on an incremental scale
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Methods of Performance Evaluation
Behaviourally Anchored Ratings Scales (BARS)
An evaluation where actual job-related behaviours are rated along
a continuum
Multiperson Comparisons
Group: employees placed into particular classifications, such as
quartiles
Individual: rank-order employees from best to worst
Paired: compare each employee with every other employee, andthen assign summary ranking
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Potential Problems
Single Criterion Errors
Recency Errors
Leniency/strictness Errors
Halo Errors
Similarity Errors
Low Differentiation Errors Forcing Information to Match Nonperformance
Criteria
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Improvements
Use Multiple Criteria
Emphasize Behaviours Rather Than Traits
Document Performance Behaviours in a Diary
Use Multiple Evaluators
Evaluate Selectively
Train Evaluators Provide Employees With Due Process
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Why Organizations Fail at Performance Appraisal
Time consuming
Difficult to establish, communicate expectations
Don't do it often enough (usually annually)
Fail to consider the dynamic aspects of the job
Hard to define levels of performance
No rewards for being skilled at performance appraisal
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Assignment
Read Chapter 5, Motivation in Action
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