Zoology introduction

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Integrated Principles of Zoology, 14/eIntegrated Principles of Zoology, 14/e

Cleveland P. Hickman, Jr. Cleveland P. Hickman, Jr. Larry S. Roberts Larry S. Roberts

Allan Larson Allan Larson Helen I'Anson Helen I'Anson

David EisenhourDavid Eisenhour

Integrated Principles of Zoology, 14/eIntegrated Principles of Zoology, 14/e

Cleveland P. Hickman, Jr. Cleveland P. Hickman, Jr. Larry S. Roberts Larry S. Roberts

Allan Larson Allan Larson Helen I'Anson Helen I'Anson

David EisenhourDavid Eisenhour

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CHAPTER 1CHAPTER 1CHAPTER 1CHAPTER 1Life: Biological Life: Biological

Principles and the Principles and the Science of ZoologyScience of Zoology

Life: Biological Life: Biological Principles and the Principles and the Science of ZoologyScience of Zoology

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Zoology:Zoology: The scientific study of animal lifeThe scientific study of animal life

Knowledge of the animal world is Knowledge of the animal world is gained by actively applying gained by actively applying important important guiding principlesguiding principles to our to our investigationsinvestigations

Exploration of the animal world Exploration of the animal world depends critically on our depends critically on our questionsquestions, , methodsmethods, and , and principlesprinciples

The Uses of PrinciplesThe Uses of Principles

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Principles of modern zoology are derived Principles of modern zoology are derived from:from: Laws of Laws of physicsphysics and and chemistrychemistry Scientific methodScientific method

Because life shares a common Because life shares a common evolutionary origin, principles learned evolutionary origin, principles learned from the from the study of one group often pertain study of one group often pertain to other groupsto other groups as well as well

The Uses of PrinciplesThe Uses of Principles

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General Properties of General Properties of Living SystemsLiving Systems

Complexity and Hierarchical Complexity and Hierarchical Organization:Organization:Living systems demonstrate a unique Living systems demonstrate a unique and complex hierarchical organizationand complex hierarchical organization

In living systems there exists a In living systems there exists a hierarchy of levels that includes:hierarchy of levels that includes:

MacromoleculesMacromoleculesCellsCells

OrganismsOrganismsPopulationsPopulations

SpeciesSpecies

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Metabolism:Metabolism:

Living organisms maintain Living organisms maintain themselves by acquiring nutrients themselves by acquiring nutrients from their environmentsfrom their environments Metabolic processes include:Metabolic processes include:

DigestionDigestion Energy production (Respiration)Energy production (Respiration) Synthesis of required molecules and Synthesis of required molecules and

structures by organismsstructures by organisms

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Development:Development:

All organisms pass through a All organisms pass through a characteristic life cyclecharacteristic life cycle Development describes the Development describes the

characteristic changes that an organism characteristic changes that an organism undergoes from its origin to its final undergoes from its origin to its final adult formadult form

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Environmental Interaction:Environmental Interaction:

All animals interact with their All animals interact with their environmentsenvironments EcologyEcology: The study of organismal : The study of organismal

interaction with an environmentinteraction with an environment All organisms respond to environmental All organisms respond to environmental

stimuli, a property called stimuli, a property called irritabilityirritability

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General Properties General Properties of Living Systemsof Living Systems

MovementsMovements even at the cellular level even at the cellular level are are required for:required for:

ReproductionReproductionGrowthGrowthResponses to stimuliResponses to stimuliDevelopmentDevelopment in multicellular organisms in multicellular organisms

On a larger scale:On a larger scale:Entire populations or species may Entire populations or species may dispersedisperse from one geographic location to from one geographic location to another over timeanother over time

Movement of nonliving matter “moves” the Movement of nonliving matter “moves” the livingliving::

Not precisely controlled by the moving objects Not precisely controlled by the moving objects Often involves external forces Often involves external forces

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Zoology As Part of Zoology As Part of BiologyBiology

Animals originated in the Precambrian Animals originated in the Precambrian seas over 600 million years agoseas over 600 million years ago

Characteristics of Animals:Characteristics of Animals: EukaryotesEukaryotes: : cells contain membrane-cells contain membrane-

enclosed nucleienclosed nuclei HeterotrophsHeterotrophs: : Not capable of Not capable of directlydirectly

manufacturing their own foodmanufacturing their own food and must and must rely on external food sourcesrely on external food sources

Cells lack cell wallsCells lack cell walls

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Principles of SciencePrinciples of Science Nature of scienceNature of science::

Science is Science is guided by natural lawguided by natural law Science has to be Science has to be explained by reference to explained by reference to

natural lawnatural law Science is Science is testable against the observable testable against the observable

worldworld The The conclusions of science are tentativeconclusions of science are tentative and and

therefore not necessarily the final wordtherefore not necessarily the final word Science is Science is falsifiablefalsifiable

SCIENCE DOES NOT PROVESCIENCE DOES NOT PROVE

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Principles of SciencePrinciples of Science The scientific methodThe scientific method may be may be

summarized as a series of steps:summarized as a series of steps:1.1. ObservationObservation2.2. QuestionQuestion3.3. Hypothesis FormationHypothesis Formation4.4. Empirical TestEmpirical Test

Controlled ExperimentControlled ExperimentIncludes at least 2 groupsIncludes at least 2 groups

Test GroupTest Group Control GroupControl Group

5.5. ConclusionsConclusionsAccept or reject your hypothesisAccept or reject your hypothesis

6.6. PublicationsPublications

Your project could follow this format !

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CHAPTER 2CHAPTER 2CHAPTER 2CHAPTER 2

The Origin and The Origin and Chemistry of LifeChemistry of Life

The Origin and The Origin and Chemistry of LifeChemistry of Life

Organic Molecular Organic Molecular Structure of Living SystemsStructure of Living Systems Living things are composed of the Living things are composed of the

following organic macromolecules:following organic macromolecules:

CarbohydratesCarbohydrates

LipidsLipids

ProteinsProteins

Nucleic AcidsNucleic Acids

O

C6H12O6

CH2OH

5

6

H

HO

C4

CC

C

OH

H

H

OHH

3 2

OH

H

C1

Recall your prior knowledge baseWhat biomolecule of life is the this ?How do you know that you know ?

Figure not from text, but

What is this ?

What is this ?

How do you know that you know ?

What atom identifies this as newly synthesizing protein ?In the text box, what information is there that gives clues ?What type of chemical reaction is occurring ?Reactions are reversible, what is the name of the reverse reaction ?

GUANINE(C)

base with a double-ring

structureWhat is this ?Better answers ???

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CHAPTER 3 CHAPTER 3 CHAPTER 3 CHAPTER 3 Cells as Units Cells as Units

of Life of LifeCells as Units Cells as Units

of Life of Life

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Cell TheoryCell Theory All living organisms are composed of All living organisms are composed of

cellscells All cells come from pre-existing cells All cells come from pre-existing cells - -

remember this is a theoryremember this is a theory

Cell Cell ConceptConcept

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All cells arise from the division of All cells arise from the division of preexisting cellspreexisting cells

Cell division - KARYOKINESIS & Cell division - KARYOKINESIS & CYTOKINESISCYTOKINESIS Division of the nucleus (Division of the nucleus (karyokinesiskaryokinesis))

MitosisMitosis (somatic cells) (somatic cells) Fig 3.65Fig 3.65 MeiosisMeiosis (sex cells) (sex cells)

Division of the cytoplasm (Division of the cytoplasm (cytokinesiscytokinesis)) In In mostmost multicellular organisms, all cells multicellular organisms, all cells

originate from the originate from the zygotezygote Single cell resulting from union of an egg and a Single cell resulting from union of an egg and a

sperm (gametes)sperm (gametes)

Mitosis and Cell DivisionMitosis and Cell Division

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CHAPTER 4 CHAPTER 4 CHAPTER 4 CHAPTER 4 Cellular Cellular

MetabolismMetabolismCellular Cellular

MetabolismMetabolism

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First Law of ThermodynamicsFirst Law of Thermodynamics Energy cannot be created nor destroyedEnergy cannot be created nor destroyed Energy can change from one form to Energy can change from one form to

anotheranother Total amount of energy remains the Total amount of energy remains the

samesame

Energy and the Laws of ThermodynamicsEnergy and the Laws of Thermodynamics

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Second Law of ThermodynamicsSecond Law of Thermodynamics Concerned with the transformation of Concerned with the transformation of

energyenergy A closed system moves toward A closed system moves toward

increasing disorderincreasing disorder (entropy)(entropy) as as energy is dissipated from the systemenergy is dissipated from the system

Living systems are open systemsLiving systems are open systems Maintain organization and increase it Maintain organization and increase it

during developmentduring development

Energy and the Laws of ThermodynamicsEnergy and the Laws of Thermodynamics

What is “entropy” ?

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Cellular MetabolismCellular Metabolism The The chemical processes that occur chemical processes that occur

within living cellswithin living cells Concept of Concept of energy fundamental to all energy fundamental to all

life processeslife processes Energy cannot be seenEnergy cannot be seen

Can be identified only by how it affects Can be identified only by how it affects mattermatter

Energy and the Laws of Energy and the Laws of ThermodynamicsThermodynamics

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Chemical Energy Chemical Energy Transfer by ATPTransfer by ATP

Endergonic reactionsEndergonic reactions are are coupledcoupled with with exergonic reactionsexergonic reactions by the by the energy rich molecule, energy rich molecule, ATPATP..

ATP (adenosine triphosphateATP (adenosine triphosphate)) Drives energetically unfavorable reactionsDrives energetically unfavorable reactions Formed primarily in mitochondriaFormed primarily in mitochondria Most free energy in ATP resides in two Most free energy in ATP resides in two

phosphoanhydride (high-energy) bonds phosphoanhydride (high-energy) bonds between the three phosphate groupsbetween the three phosphate groups

There are four biomolecule types of life.What type of biomolecule of life is ATP ?

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CHAPTER 5 CHAPTER 5 CHAPTER 5 CHAPTER 5 Genetics: A ReviewGenetics: A ReviewGenetics: A ReviewGenetics: A Review

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Chromosomal Basis of Chromosomal Basis of InheritanceInheritance

Meiosis: Reduction Division of Meiosis: Reduction Division of GametesGametes Sex cellsSex cells ( (gametesgametes) transmit genetic ) transmit genetic

information from parents to offspring in information from parents to offspring in sexually reproducing organismssexually reproducing organisms

Chromosomes occur in pairs: Chromosomes occur in pairs: homologshomologs One member or the pair is donated by the One member or the pair is donated by the

mother, the other by the fathermother, the other by the father HomologsHomologs

Contain similar genes encoding the same Contain similar genes encoding the same set of characteristicsset of characteristics

Usually have the same size and shapeUsually have the same size and shape

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MeiosisMeiosis Fig 5.12Fig 5.12 Special type of nuclear divisionSpecial type of nuclear division

Associated with Associated with gametegamete production production Genetic material replicates once followed Genetic material replicates once followed

by 2 successive nuclear divisionsby 2 successive nuclear divisions ProducesProduces 4 4 daughter cellsdaughter cells

Each with only 1 member of each Each with only 1 member of each homologous chromosome pair or 1 set of homologous chromosome pair or 1 set of chromosomes (chromosomes (haploidhaploid))

Chromosomal Basis of Chromosomal Basis of InheritanceInheritance

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Sources of Phenotypic VariationSources of Phenotypic Variation The The creative force of evolution is creative force of evolution is

natural selection acting on natural selection acting on biological variationbiological variation

Without variationWithout variation No continued adaptationNo continued adaptation to a to a

changing environmentchanging environment No evolutionNo evolution

Sources of Phenotypic Sources of Phenotypic VariationVariation

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CHAPTER 6 CHAPTER 6 CHAPTER 6 CHAPTER 6 Organic EvolutionOrganic EvolutionOrganic EvolutionOrganic Evolution

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Evolutionary TrendsEvolutionary Trends Trends are directional changes in featuresTrends are directional changes in features

and diversity of organisms and diversity of organisms Fossil recordFossil record allows observation of allows observation of

evolutionary change over broad periods of evolutionary change over broad periods of time.time.

Animals species arise and become Animals species arise and become repeatedly extinctrepeatedly extinct..

Animal species typically survive 1–10 million years Animal species typically survive 1–10 million years

Darwinian Evolutionary Darwinian Evolutionary Theory: The EvidenceTheory: The Evidence

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What are some take home messages ? What would the insect graph look like ?

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CHAPTER 7CHAPTER 7CHAPTER 7CHAPTER 7The Reproductive The Reproductive

ProcessProcessThe Reproductive The Reproductive

ProcessProcess

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Nature of the Nature of the Reproductive ProcessReproductive Process

ReproductionReproduction is one of the is one of the ubiquitous ubiquitous propertiesproperties of life of life

EvolutionEvolution is inextricably is inextricably linked to linked to reproductionreproduction

Two modes of reproduction are Two modes of reproduction are recognizedrecognized AsexualAsexual SexualSexual

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Asexual ReproductionAsexual Reproduction Involves Involves only one parentonly one parent No special reproductive organs or No special reproductive organs or

cellscells Genetically identical offspring are Genetically identical offspring are

producedproduced Production of offspring is simple, Production of offspring is simple,

direct, and rapiddirect, and rapid Widespread in bacteria, unicellular Widespread in bacteria, unicellular

eukaryotes and many invertebrate phylaeukaryotes and many invertebrate phyla Ensures rapid increase in numbersEnsures rapid increase in numbers


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Asexual Reproductive MethodsAsexual Reproductive Methods

Binary FissionBinary Fission Common among bacteria and protozoaCommon among bacteria and protozoa The parent divides by mitosis into two partsThe parent divides by mitosis into two parts Each grows into an individual similar to the parentEach grows into an individual similar to the parent Binary fission can be lengthwise or transverseBinary fission can be lengthwise or transverse

Multiple FissionMultiple Fission Nucleus divides repeatedlyNucleus divides repeatedly Cytoplasmic division produces many daughter Cytoplasmic division produces many daughter

cellscells


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SporogonySporogony (Spore Formation) (Spore Formation) Form of multiple fissionForm of multiple fission in in

parasitic protozoa (like parasitic protozoa (like PlasmodiumPlasmodium / / malaria)malaria)

BuddingBudding Unequal division of an organismUnequal division of an organism Bud is an outgrowth of the parent Bud is an outgrowth of the parent Develops organs and then detachesDevelops organs and then detaches Occurs in cnidarians and several Occurs in cnidarians and several

other animal phylaother animal phyla


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Fragmentation Fragmentation Multicellular animal breaking Multicellular animal breaking into many fragmentsinto many fragments that become a that become a new animalnew animal

Many anemones and hydroidsMany anemones and hydroids StarfishStarfish examples are known examples are known


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Sexual ReproductionSexual Reproduction

Generally Generally involves involves two parentstwo parents Special Special germ cellsgerm cells unite to form a unite to form a zygotezygote SSexual reproduction recombines exual reproduction recombines

parental charactersparental characters A richer, more diversified population resultsA richer, more diversified population results

In In haploid asexual organismshaploid asexual organisms Mutations are expressed and selected quicklyMutations are expressed and selected quickly

In In sexual reproductionsexual reproduction Normal gene on the homologous chromosome Normal gene on the homologous chromosome

may mask a gene mutationmay mask a gene mutation


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Hermaphroditism Hermaphroditism Both male and female organs in the same individual Both male and female organs in the same individual

(monoeicious, hermaphrodites)(monoeicious, hermaphrodites) Many sessile, burrowing and/or endoparasitic Many sessile, burrowing and/or endoparasitic

invertebrates and some fish invertebrates and some fish Most Most avoid self-fertilizationavoid self-fertilization

Exchange gametes with member of same speciesExchange gametes with member of same species Each individual produces eggsEach individual produces eggs

Hermaphroditic species could potentially produce Hermaphroditic species could potentially produce twice as many offspringtwice as many offspring as dioecious species as dioecious species

Sequential HermaphroditismSequential Hermaphroditism A A genetically programmed sex change occurs genetically programmed sex change occurs

with an individual organism - clownfish with an individual organism - clownfish example !example !


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ParthenogenesisParthenogenesis Development of an embryo from an Development of an embryo from an

unfertilized eggunfertilized egg Male and female nuclei fail to unite after Male and female nuclei fail to unite after

fertilizationfertilization Avoids the energy and dangers of bringing Avoids the energy and dangers of bringing

two sexes togethertwo sexes together Narrows the diversity available for Narrows the diversity available for

adaptationadaptation to new conditions to new conditions

Ameiotic ParthenogenesisAmeiotic Parthenogenesis No meiosis occurs No meiosis occurs Egg forms by Egg forms by mitosismitosis


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Meiotic ParthenogenesisMeiotic Parthenogenesis Haploid ovum formed by Haploid ovum formed by meiosis meiosis Develops without fusion with male Develops without fusion with male

nucleusnucleus Sperm may be absent Sperm may be absent

or or May only serve to activate developmentMay only serve to activate development

In some species, the haploid egg In some species, the haploid egg returns to a diploid conditionreturns to a diploid condition by by chromosomal duplicationchromosomal duplication or or autogamyautogamy (rejoining of haploid nuclei) (rejoining of haploid nuclei)


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Haplodiploidy - Haplodiploidy - can determine can determine sexsex Occurs in bees, wasps and antsOccurs in bees, wasps and ants Queen controls whether the eggs are Queen controls whether the eggs are

fertilized or unfertilizedfertilized or unfertilized Fertilized eggs Fertilized eggs

Become female workers or queensBecome female workers or queens Unfertilized eggs become dronesUnfertilized eggs become drones


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CHAPTER 8CHAPTER 8CHAPTER 8CHAPTER 8Principles of Principles of DevelopmentDevelopmentPrinciples of Principles of DevelopmentDevelopment

“Equal” Hemispheres of Yolk- also in most mammals

“Meso” = secodary, orlittle bit

“Telo” = at the end

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Vertebrate DevelopmentVertebrate Development The Common Vertebrate HeritageThe Common Vertebrate Heritage

All vertebrate embryos share chordate All vertebrate embryos share chordate hallmarkshallmarks Dorsal neural tubeDorsal neural tube NotochordNotochord Pharyngeal gill pouches with aortic Pharyngeal gill pouches with aortic

archesarches Ventral heart Ventral heart Post-anal tailPost-anal tail

Zoology introduction

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