zoology botany

8/10/2019 zoology botany

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Biology Notes of First Year

IntroductionCHAPTER 1

DEFINITIN F BI!"YBiology is t#e study of li$ing organis%s& It is deri$ed fro% "ree'(ords&C!A))IFICATIN F !I*IN" R"ANI+ATIN

According to t#e %odern classification gi$en ,y R&H&-#itta'er in1./.0 li$ing organis%s are di$ided into fi$e %aor 'ingdo%s0 (#ic#are23IN"D4 4NERAIt includes all 5ro'aryotes0 unicellular organis%s& For e6a%5leBacteria and Cyan ,acteria&

3IN"D4 PRTCTI)TA7PRTI)TA8It includes unicellular Eu'aryotic organis%s0 (#ic# are in ,et(een5lants and ani%als& e&g& C#la%ydo%onas0 Euglena0 Para%eciu%& etc1& 3IN"D4 F9N"IIt includes non:c#loro5#yllus %ulti:cellular0 t#allo5#ytic organis%s#a$ing cell (all& For e6a%5le all ty5es of fungi0 unicellular to %ulti:cellular li'e 4us#roo%s and Yeast etc&;& 3IN"D4 P!ANTAEIt includes all c#loro5#yllus %ulti:cellular Eu'aryotic li$ing organis%s

#a$ing cellulose cell (all& For e6a%5le a55le0 red (ood etc&


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1& 4!EC9!AR BI!"YIt is a recent ,ranc# of ,iological science t#at deals (it# t#e structureand function of t#e %olecules t#at for% structure of cell andorganelles t#at ta'e 5art in t#e ,iological 5rocesses of a li$ing

organis% 7Nucleic acid Protein %olecule8;& 4ICR BI!"YIt deals (it# t#e study of %icro:organis%s 7$iruses0 ,acteria05roto=oan etc8


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DED9CTI*E REA)NIN"Accurate e65eri%entation0 true conclusions or results regarding t#e,iological 5ro,le%s&;& B)ER*ATINEPERI4ENT)

T#e gi$en #y5ot#esis is c#ec'ed (it# t#e #el5 of o,ser$ation ande65eri%ents and t#en on t#e ,asis of it a t#eory or rule is esta,lis#ed&


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(orld 5o5ulation&C!NIN"Production of du5licate co5ies of genetic %aterial0 cells or entire%ulticellular li$ing organis%s0 occurring naturally in 5lants or ani%als&

Du5licate co5ies are 'no(n as clones&NAT9RA! C!NIN"Identical t(in0 tri5let in #u%ans&

Ase6ual re5roduction in 5lants and ani%al&Regeneration and (ound #ealing&"ro(t# of tu%or cells or cancers&

ARTIFICIA! C!NIN"Cloning of #u%an cells suc# as li$er cells0 s'in cells0 ,lood cells areuite #el5ful to de$elo5 #u%an organs in la,oratories&T#ere are also enor%ous ad$antages of cloning in t#e field of

%edicine and agriculture& E6a%5les are $egetati$e re5roduction offruits and nuts ,y grafting&Artificial cloning is also used for treating disease0 5roduction of%edically significant su,stances suc# as Insulin0 gro(t# #or%ones0interferon and anti:t#ro%,in etc&!E*E! F BI!"ICA! R"ANI+ATIN!ife is ,uilt on c#e%ical foundation and t#e life of all li$ing organis%se%erges on t#e le$el of cell& T#e foundation of cell is ,ased onele%ents& Ato%s of different ele%ents unite to for% %olecules& !i$ing

organis% usually for% e6tre%ely large and co%5le6 %olecules ,yli$ing %atter (#ic# is 5resent in t#eir ,odies& T#e %olecules of li$ingorganis%s are %ostly co%5osed of car,on and 5ro$ide ,uilding,loc's of li$ing %atter& 4ostly li$ing %atter of an organis% isco%5osed of organic %olecules along (it# inorganic co%5ounds7%inerals8 are also associated for e&g& Hu%an ,lood& )i%5le organic%olecules 5resent in li$ing organis%s are sugar0 glycerol and fattyacids0 a%ino acids0 5urine and 5yra%idines& )i%ilar ty5es of cellsfor%:tissues0 si%ilar tissues for% organs0 different organscoordinating (it# eac# ot#er for% syste% and different syste%s

co%,ine to for% a li$ing organis%&Cell Tissues organs )yste% An Indi$idualBiological organi=ation can ,e di$ided into t#e follo(ing le$els2)9B:AT4IC PARTIC!E)Particles t#at %a'e u5 an ato% are called su,:ato%ic 5articlesJ&For e&g& electron0 5roton and Neutron&

AT4


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T#e s%allest 5article of an ele%ent t#at retains t#e 5ro5erty of t#atele%entJ&For e6a%5le2 Hydrogen0 car,on and o6ygen etc&4!EC9!ET#e co%,ination of si%ilar and different ato%s are called %oleculesJ&

For e6a%5le Hydrogen and o6ygen co%,ines to for% (ater%olecules&R"ANE!!EA structure (it# in a cell t#at 5erfor%s a s5ecific functionJ&For e6a%5le2 4itoc#ondria0 c#loro5last etc&CE!!T#e s%allest structural and functional unit of lifeJ&For e6a%5le2 A ner$e cellTI))9EA grou5 of si%ilar cells t#at 5erfor%s a s5ecific functionJ&

For e6a%5le2 Ner$ous tissue&R"ANA structure (it# in an organis% usually co%5ose of se$eral tissuety5es t#at for%s a functional unitJ&For e6a%5le2 T#e ,rainR"AN )Y)TE4T(o or %ore organs (or'ing toget#er in t#e e6ecution of a s5ecific,odily functionJ&For e6a%5le2 T#e ner$ous syste%&49!TICE!!9!AR R"ANI)4An indi$idual li$ing t#ing co%5osed of %any cells are called

4ulticellular organis%sJ&For e6a%5le2 Prong#o% antelo5e&)PECIEA grou5 of $ery si%ilar inter ,reeding organis%s constitutes as5eciesJ&For e6a%5le Herd of 5rong#o% antelo5e&PP9!ATIN4e%,ers of sa%e s5ecies in#a,iting t#e sa%e area are consideredas 5o5ulationJ&For e6a%5le2 Herd of 5rong#o% antelo5e&C449NITYPo5ulation of se$eral s5ecies li$ing and interacting in t#e sa%e areafor% a co%%unityJ&For e6a%5le2 )na'e0 antelo5e and #a('&

EC:)Y)TE4A co%%unity (it# its en$iron%ent including land0 (ater andat%os5#ere0 constitute an eco:syste%J&BI)PHERET#e 5art of eart# in#i,ited ,y li$ing organis%s0 ,ot# li$ing and non:li$ing co%5onents&J


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Biological 4oleculesCHAPTER ;BICHE4I)RTYBioc#e%istry is a ,ranc# of ,iology0 (#ic# deals (it# t#e study of

c#e%ical co%5onents and c#e%ical 5rocesses in li$ing organis%s&-ATER 7H;84AIN CHARACTERI)TIC) F -ATERC#e%ically it is Di#ydrogen o6ideJIt is t#e %ost a,undant co%5onent in li$ing cell&Its a%ount $aries a55ro6i%ately fro% @K to .KL and life acti$itiesoccur in t#e cell due to t#e 5resence of (ater&It is a 5olar %olecule0 %eans t#at it #as a $ery slig#tly negati$e end7t#e o6ygen ato%8 and a $ery slig#tly 5ositi$e end 7t#e #ydrogenato%8&

Due to its 5olarity0 H; %olecules for% #ydrogen ,onds&I4PRTANT BI!"ICA! PRPERTIE) F -ATER718 BE)T )!*ENT-ater is an e6cellent sol$ent for 5olar su,stances0 (#en ionicsu,stances dissol$ed in (ater0 dissociate into 5ositi$e and negati$eions&Non:ionic su,stances0 #a$ing c#arged grou5s in t#eir %olecules0 aredis5ersed in (ater&Because of sol$ent 5ro5erty of (ater0 al%ost all reactions in cells

occur in aueous %edia&7;8 HI"H HEAT CAPACITY-ater #as great a,ility of a,sor,ing #eat due to its #ig# s5ecific #eatca5acity&T#e s5ecific #eat ca5acity of (ater is t#e nu%,er of calories reuiredto raise t#e te%5erature of 1g (ater t#roug# 1MC&T#e t#er%al sta,ility 5lays an i%5ortant role in (ater ,ased5roto5las% of indi$iduals %eta,olic acti$ities&7


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ions&H; HO O H:It acts as ,uffer and 5re$ents c#anges in t#e 5H of li$ing ,ody&7?8 PRTECTIN

-ater is an effecti$e lu,ricant t#at 5ro$ides 5rotection againstda%age resulting fro% friction&It also for%s a fluid cus#ion around organs t#at #el5s to 5rotect t#e%fro% trau%a&7/8 A) REA"ENT T9R"IDITY-ater acts as a reagent in %any 5rocesses suc# as 5#otosynt#esisand #ydrolysis reactions&It also 5ro$ides turgidity to t#e cells&R"ANIC C4P9ND)T#ose co%5ounds containing car,on 7ot#er t#an car,onates8 are

called organic co%5ounds& E&g2 car,o#ydrates0 Proteins0 !i5ids andNucleic acid&INR"ANIC C4P9ND)T#ose co%5ounds0 (#ic# are (it#out car,on0 are called inorganicco%5ounds& E&g2 (ater0 car,ondio6ide0 acids 0 ,ases and salts&4ACR4!EC9!E)Huge and #ig#ly organi=ed %olecules (#ic# for% t#e structure andcarry out t#e acti$ities of cells are called 4acro%oleculesJ4acro%olecules can ,e di$ided into four %aor grou5s&

ProteinsCar,o#ydrates!i5idsNucleic acids&4N4ER)4acro%olecules are co%5osed of large nu%,er of lo( %olecular(eig#t ,uilding ,loc's or su,units called 4ono%ersJ E&g2 A%ino:acids 7Protein8&CNDEN)ATINT#e 5rocess ,y (#ic# t(o %ono%ers are oined is called

CondensationJ&In t#is 5rocess t(o %ono%ers oin toget#er (#en a #ydro6yl7H8grou5 is re%o$ed fro% one %ono%er and a #ydrogen 7:H8 is re%o$edfro% ot#er %ono%er&T#is ty5e of condensation is called De#ydration )ynt#esisJ ,ecause(ater is re%o$ed 7de#ydration 8 and a ,ond is %ade 7synt#esis8&HYDR!Y)I)


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A 5rocess during (#ic# 5oly%ers are ,ro'en da(n into t#eir su,units7%ono%ers8 ,y t#e addition of H; called Hydrolysis & It is ustre$erse of t#e condensation&F9NCTINA! "R9P)

T#ese are 5articular grou5 of ato%s t#at ,e#a$e as a unit and gi$eorganic %olecules t#eir 5#ysical0 c#e%ical 5ro5erties and solu,ility inaueous solution& E&g4et#yl grou5 7CH


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RJ %ay ,e a HJ as in glycine0 or CH< as in alanine0 or any ot#ergrou5& )o a%ino acids %ainly differ in t#e R:grou5&P!YPEPTIDE)

A%ino Acids are lin'ed toget#er to fro% 5oly5e5tides of 5roteins& T#e

a%ino grou5 of one a%ino acids %ay react (it# t#e car,o6yl grou5 ofanot#er releasing a %olecule of (ater& E&g2 "lycine and analine %ayco%,ine to for% a di5e5tiedePEPTIDE !IN3A"E BNDT#e lin'age ,et(een t#e #ydro6yle grou5 of car,o6yl grou5 of onea%ino:acid and t#e #ydrogen of a%ino:grou5 of anot#er a%ino:acidrelease H; and C:N lin' to for% a ,ond called Pe5tide ,ondJ&TYPE) F PRTEIN) N THE BA)I) F )TR9CT9RET#ere are four ,asic structural le$els of 5roteins&7A8 PRI4ARY )TR9CT9RE

A 5oly5e5tide c#ain #a$ing a linear seuence of a%ino:acids&Disul5#ide 7):)8 ,ond is ot#er i%5ortant c#aracteristic of t#e 5ri%ary5rotein&E&g2 Insulin Poly5e5tide c#ain&B8 )ECNDARY )TR9CT9REIn t#is ty5e 5oly5e5tide c#ain of a%ino:acids ,eco%e s5irally coiled&T#is coiling results in t#e for%ation of a rigid and tu,ular structurecalled Heli6JC8 TERTIARY )TR9CT9RE

Poly5e5tide c#ain ,ends and folds u5on it self for%ing a glo,ulars#a5e&It is %aintained ,y t#ree ty5es of ,onds& Na%ely ionic0 #ydrogen anddisulfide 7):)8&7D8 9ATERNARY )TR9CT9RET#is ty5e is usually 5resent in #ig#ly co%5le6 5roteins in (#ic#5oly5e5tide tertiary c#ains are aggregated and #eld toget#er ,y#ydro5#o,ic interactions0 #ydrogen and ionic ,onds&E&g2 Hae%oglo,in %olecule&F9NCTIN) F PRTEIN

T#ey Build %any )tructures of t#e cell E&"2 Plas%a 4e%,rane&All en=y%es are 5roteins and in t#is (ay t#ey control t#e (#ole%eta,olis% of t#e cell&)'in0 nails0 #air0 feat#er0 #orn etc& contain 5ortion called 'eratin&Casein is t#e %il' 5ortion and o$al,u%in is t#e egg (#ite 5rotein&Collagen 5resent in ,ones0 cartilage0 etc& is t#e %ost a,undant5rotein in #ig#er $erte,rates&


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Protein acts as anti,odies0 antigens and fi,rin etc&CARBHYDRATE)It is a grou5 of organic co%5ounds #a$ing car,on0 o6ygen and#ydrogen0 in (#ic# #ydrogen and o6ygen are %ostly found in t#e

sa%e ratio as in (ater i&e& ;21 and t#us called Hydrated car,onsJT#ey are found a,out 1L ,y (eig#t and generally called )ugars orsacc#aridesJ due to t#eir s(eet taste e6ce5t 5olysacc#arides&C!A))IFICATIN F CARBHYDRATE)T#e car,o#ydrates can ,e classified into follo(ing grou5s on t#e,asis of nu%,er of %ono%ers&1& 4onosacc#aride;& ligosacc#arides


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T#ey are tasteless and only s5aringly sou,le in H;&E&g2 )trac#0 cellulose "lycogen 0 De6trin Agar0 5ectin and C#itin etc&F9NCTIN) F CARBHYDRATE)Car,o#ydrates are t#e 5otential source of energy&

T#ey act as storage food %olecules and also (or' as an e6cellent,uilding0 5rotecti$e and su55orting structure&T#ey also for% co%5le6 conugated %olecules&T#ey are needed to synt#esi=e lu,ricants and are also needed to5re5are t#e nectar in so%e flo(ers&!IPID)T#ese are naturally occurring co%5ounds0 (#ic# are insolu,le in(ater ,ut solu,le in organic sol$ents& T#ey contain car,on0 #ydrogenand o6ygen li'e car,o#ydrates rate ,ut in %uc# lesser ratio of o6ygent#an car,o#ydrates& T#ese ,io%olecules are (idely distri,uted

a%ong 5lants and ani%als&C!A))IFICATIN F !IPID)Follo(ing are t#e i%5ortant grou5s of li5ids&1& Acylglycerol 7fats and oil8;& -a6es& Ter5enoids&718 ACY!"!YCER! 7FAT) AND I!8T#ese are found in ani%als and 5lants0 5ro$ide energy for different

%eta,olic acti$ates and are $ery ric# in c#e%ical energy&T#ey are co%5osed of glycerol and fatty acids& T#e %ost (idelys5read acylglycerol is triacyl glycerol0 also called triglycerides ornatural li5ids&T#ere are t(o ty5es of acylgycerol7A8 )AT9RATED ACY!"!YCER!T#ey contain no dou,le ,ond&T#ey %elt at #ig#er te%5erature t#an unsatured acylglycerols&!i5ids containing saturated acylgycerol are solid and 'no(n as)aturated li5ids&

E&g2 Butter and Ani%al fat& etc&7B8 9N)AT9RATED ACY!"!YCER!T#ey contain unsaturated fatty acids i&e t#ey contain one or %oret#an one dou,le ,ond ,et(een car,on ato%7CQC:8&T#ey are liuid at ordinary te%5erature &T#ey are found in 5lant also called ilJE&g2 linolin found in cotton seeds etc&


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7;8 -AE)C#e%ically (a6es are %i6tures of long c#ain al'anes and alco#ols&3etones and esters of long c#ain fat#y acids-a6es are (ides5read as 5rotecti$e coatings of fruits and lea$es

so%e insects also secrete (a6&-a6es 5rotect 5lants for% (ater loss and a,rasi$e da%age&T#ey also 5ro$ide (ater ,arrier for insects0 ,irds and ani%als etc&78 TERPENID)It is large and i%5ortant class of li5ids containing Iso5renoid unit7C?H8&T#ey #el5 in o6idation reduction 5rocess0 act as co%5onents ofessential oils of 5lants and also found in cell %e%,rances asc#olesterol

)9B:C!A))E) F !IPID)1& Ter5enes;& )teroids&


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N9C!EIC ACID)Nucleic Acids -ere First Isolated In 1@K By an Austrian P#ysicianFridric# 4icsc#er fro% t#e nuclei of 5us cells& T#ese ,io %oleculesare acidic in nature and 5resent in t#e nucleus&

TYPE) F N9C!EIC ACID)Nucleic acids are of t(o ty5es&1& Deo6yri,onucleic acid or DNA;& Ri,onucleic acid or RNACHE4ICA! NAT9RE F N9C!EIC ACIDNucleic acids are co%5le6 su,stances& T#ey are 5oly%ers of unitscalled nucleotides& DNA is %ade u5 of deo6yri,onucleotides0 (#ileRNA is co%5osed of ri,o nucleotides&)TR9CT9RE F N9C!ETIDEEac# nucleotide is %ade of t#ree su,units

a8 ?:car,on %onosacc#aride 7a 5entose sugar8,8 Nitrogen containing ,ase&c8 P#os5#oric acid&7A8 PENT)E )9"ARPentose sugar in RNA is ri,ose0 (#ile in DNA it is deo6yri,ose&7B8 NITR"EN9) BA)ENitrogenous ,ases are of t(o ty5es7I8 PYRI4IDINE) 7)IN"!E RIN"ED82 T#ese are cytosine7a,,re$iated as C80 t#y%ine 7a,,re$iated as T80 and uracil

7a,,re$iated as 98&7II8 P9RINE) 7D9B!E RIN"ED82 T#ese are adenine 7a,,re$iatedas A8 and guanine7a,,re$iated as "8&C8 PH)PHRIC ACIDP#os5#oric acid 7H8 #as t#e a,ility to de$elo5 ester lin'age (it#H grou5 of 5entose sugar&FR4ATIN F N9C!ETIDEFor%ation of nucleotide ta'es 5lace in t(o ste5s& First t#e%itrogenous ,ase co%,ines (it# 5entose sugar at its first car,on tofor% a NucleosideJ& In second ste5 t#e 5#os5#oric acid co%,ines

(it# t#e ?t# car,on of 5entose sugar to for% a NucleotideJ&7A8 4NN9C!ETIDE)T#ey e6ist singly in t#e cell or as a 5art of ot#er %olecules&T#ese are not t#e 5art of DNA or RNA and so%e of t#ese #a$e e6tra5#os5#ate grou5s e&g ATP&B8 DINC9!ETIDE)T#ese nucleotides are co$alently ,ounded toget#er and usually act


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as co:en=y%esE&g NAD 7Nicotina%ide dinucleotide 8&7C8 P!YN9C!ETIDE)Nucleotides are found in t#e nucleic acid as PolynucleotideJ and t#ey

#a$e a $ariety of role in li$ing organis%s&T#ey usually 5erfor% t#e function of trans%itters of geneticinfor%ation&CNU9"ATED 4!EC9!E)T(o different %olecules0 ,elonging to different categories0 usuallyco%,ine toget#er to for% Conugated %oleculesJ&T#ese conugated %olecules are not only of structural0 ,ut also are offunctional significance&T#ey 5lay an i%5ortant role in regulation of gene e65ression&7A8 "!YCPRTEIN AND "!YC!IPID)

Car,olydrates %ay co%,ine (it# 5roteins to for% glyco5rotein or (it#li5ids to for% glycoli5id&F9NCTIN)a8 4ost of cellular secretions are glyco5roteins in nature&,8Bot# glyco5roteins and glycoli5ids are integral structuralco%5onents of 5las%a %e%,ranes&7B8 !IPPRTEIN)Co%,ination of li5ids and 5roteins for% li5o5roteins&F9NCTIN

T#ey are ,asic structural fra%e(or' of all ty5es of %e%,ranes in t#ecells&7C8 N9C!EPRTEIN)Nucleic acids #a$e s5ecial affinity for ,asic 5roteins & t#ey areco%,ined toget#er to for% nucleo5roteins&F9NCTIN)T#e nucleo5roteins 7Histone8 are 5resent in c#ro%oso%es&THIN") T BE RE4E4BERProteins:Ber=elius and "&U %urlder&!i5ids:Bloor in 1.>


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EN+Y4E)7BI:CATA!Y)T)8En=y%es are ,io:catalyst (#ic# s5eed u5 t#e c#e%ical reactions ,ylo(ering Energy of acti$ationJ&ENER"Y F ACTI*ATIN

A%ount of energy (#ic# is reuired to start a c#e%ical reaction& REnergy reuired to ,rea' a 75articular co$alent8 ,ond 5resent inreactant&N4ENC!AT9RE F EN+Y4E)En=y%e is a "ree' (ord %eans:En7in8 and +y%e7yeast8&DI)C*ERY F EN+Y4ETer% En=y%eJ (as coined ,y F&- 3u#ne in 1.@&NAT9RE F EN+Y4E

Al%ost all en=y%es are 5rotein in nature e6ce5t fe( (#ic# arenitrogenous acids li'e RNA:DNA7Ri,o=y%es8& Ri,o=y%es cataly=e

reactions in genetic infor%ations&CHARACTERI)TIC) F EN+Y4E)Protein in nature and are for%ed ,y li$ing cells&4ay ,e intracellular or e6tra cellular&Re%ains unc#anged during and after t#e reaction&)5eed u5 t#e rate of reaction ,y decreasing energy of action&)5ecific in t#eir nature&Heat sensiti$e and act on 5articular 7o5ti%u%8 te%5&Eac# #as s5ecific su,strate 5H for its acti$ity&

Action can ,e alter ,y acti$ators and in#i,itors&C!A))IFICATIN F EN+Y4E 7N THE BA)I) F )TR9CT9RE8Pure or )i%5le En=y%e consist of only 5rotein 7e&g&A%ylase andPe5sin8 Conugated or Holoen=y%es2 4ay contain a non:5rotein 5artProst#etic grou5J as (ell 7e&g& P#os5#atase and Pe5tidase8Holoen=y%e Q A5oen=y%e O Prost#etic grou5VVVVV&7Protein 5art8V&7Non:5rotein 5art8C!A))IFICATIN F EN+Y4E 7N THE BA)I) F F9NCTIN)8718 IDRED9CTA)ECataly=e reactions in (#ic# one su,strate is o6idi=ed (#ile ot#er is

reduced& )u, classes are2De#ydrogenases7con$ert single ,ond to dou,le ,ond86idases 7use o6ygen as o6idant8Pero6idases 7use H;K; as o6idant8Hydro6ylases 7introduce #ydro6yl grou586ygenases 7introduce %ol& 6ygen in 5lace of dou,le ,ond8&7;8 TRAN)FERA)E)


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Transfer one car,on grou5 7e&g& %et#yl8 fro% one su,strate toanot#er su,strate&7


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En=y%e ,rea's su,strate to 5roductFI"9RE Fro% Te6t Boo' / 7T#e cycle of En=y%e su,strate Interaction8IND9CE FIT 4DE!

Pro5osed ,y 'os#land 71.?.80 it states t#atEn=y%e ,inds (it# a su,strateT#is ,inding induce c#anges in en=y%e structureDue to t#is c#ange en=y%e acts and for%s 5roductFACTR) AFFECTIN" EN+Y4E ACTI*ITYT#e acti$ity of en=y%es de5end on follo(ing factors01& )9B)TRATE CNCENTRATINIncreases (it# increase in su,strate concentration 7u5 to a li%it8

At $ery #ig# concentration0 acti$ity again decreases due to saturationof en=y%e (it# su,strate and saturation of 5roduct i&e& #ig#er

concentration of 5roduct&;& TE4PERAT9REIncreases (it# in te%5erature7u5 to li%its84a6i%u% acti$ity at o5ti%u% te%5erature&Hig#ly acti$e at


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7Allosteric site8& T#is ,inding cause c#ange in t#e en=y%e %olecules#a5e and decrease in en=y%e acti$ity&FEED BAC3 INHIBITINCo%%on ,iological control %ec#anis% of ,rain in order to regulate

en=y%e acti$ity&PR)THETIC "R9PNon:5rotein 5art of en=y%e 7Co:en=y%e or Co:factor8C:EN+Y4E-#en 5rost#etic grou5 consist of organic %olecules 7li'e FADNAD8C:FACTR)ACTI*ATR)-#en 5rost#etic grou5 consist of inorganic %olecules 7li'e CaOO0NaO etc8&

APEN+Y4EProtein 5art of en=y%e&

T#e CellCHAPTER >CE!!It is t#e ,asic structural and functional unit of life0 (#ic# is a,le tocarry out all t#e life 5rocesses&CE!! THERYT#e cell t#eory (as collecti$ely 5ro5osed ,y )c#leiden71


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Electron ,ea% is used as source of illu%ination&T#ere are furt#er t(o su,:ty5es of electron %icrosco5e (#ic# are27A8TRAN)4I))IN E!ECTRN 4ICR)CPEIn t#is ty5e resultant i%age is o,tained on a fluorescent screen or

5#otogra5#ic fil%&7B8)CANNIN" E!ECTRN 4ICR)CPEIn t#is ty5e resultant i%age is o,tained on a tele$ision screen&4A"NIFICATIN F 4ICR)CPE

A,ility of %icrosco5e to increase t#e s#a5e and si=e of t#e o,ectsi%age& It can ,e calculated ,y %ulti5lying t#e 5o(er of its eye 5ieces(it# its %agnifying 5o(er of its o,ecti$e&RE)!9TIN F 4ICR)CPET#e ca5acity of %icrosco5e to se5arate adacent for%s or o,ect& Also'no(n as 4ini%u% Resol$ed DistanceJ&

CNTRA)TIt is i%5ortant to distinguis#ing one 5art of cell fro% anot#er&7Difference ,et(een lig#t and electron %icrosco5e Fro% Te6t 5ageX?@8Pro'aryotes and eu'aryotes Fro% Te6t 5age X?8CE!! 4E4BRANEEac# cell is co$ered ,y an asy%%etrical0 5orous0 t#in0 se%i5er%ea,le s#eet called cell %e%,rane or 5las%ale%%a&CHARACTERI)TIC) F CE!! 4E4BRANE

!i$ing 5art of t#e cell0 consist of li5id O 5rotein&1&? %icron in t#ic'ness&Consist of t(o layers of li5id&!i5id of 5las%a %e%,rane are01& P#os5#o:li5ids;& "lycoli5ids& C#olesterol&)TR9CT9RE F CE!! 4E4BRANECell %e%,rane %ade u5 of 5#os5#o:li5ids ,ilayer and eac# layer

consists of 01& Head 7#ydro5#ilic end8;& Tail 7#ydro5#o,ic end81& HEAD 7HYDRPHI!ICP!AR END8Present to(ards t#e surface and for%ed of 5#os5#ates&;& TAI! 7HYDRPHBICNN:P!AR END8Present to(ards t#e center and for%ed of fatty acids&


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T#e non:5olar ends of 5#os5#o li5ids face eac# ot#er0 (#ereas t#eir5olar ends are in association (it# 5rotein or car,o#ydrates ,et(eene$ery t(o 5#os5o li5ids %olecule lies a %olecule of C#olesterolJ&F!9ID 4)AIC 4DE!

INTRD9CTINT#e fluid %osaic0 ,ilayer %odel (as 5ro5osed ,y )inger andNicolson 71.@;8&P)T9!ATE) F F!9ID 4)AIC 4DE!I%5ortant 5ostulates of t#is %odel are07a8 T#e cell %e%,rane consists of li5id ,ilayer0 in (#ic# a $ariety of5roteins are 5resent&7,8 T#ese 5roteins float in t#e fluid %atri6 of li5id 7as ice ,ergs in t#esea87FI"9RE >&> Page X/18

ARRAN"E4ENT F PRTEIN)According to t#e fluid %osaic %odel 5roteins are21& INTRIN)ICINTE"RA! PRTEIN)T#ese 5roteins 5eneterate t#e %e%,rane surface and enter t#e li5idlayers 75artially or (#olly8;& ETRIN)ICPERIPHERA! PRTEIN)T#ese are located adacent to outer and inner surface of %e%,raneand float li'e ice:,erg in t#e sea&

ARRAN"E4ENT F !IPID)

T#e non:5olar end face eac# ot#er (#ile t#eir 5olar ends are to(ardst#e surface&)I"NIFICANCE F 4DE!Cell %e%,rane is fle6i,le&Can c#ange s#a5e 7,ecause t#e 5rotein and li5id of t#e %e%,ranecan %o$e8&F9NCTIN F 4E4BRANE PRTEINCertain 5roteins t#e%sel$es act as en=y%es&)o%e 5rotein act as carrier for acti$e trans5ort&Pro$ide elasticity to %e%,rane&

Pores are lined ,y t#e 5roteins&F9NCTIN F !IPID) PRE)ENT IN 4E4BRANET#e li5ids gi$e rigidity to cell %e%,rane&T#ey lo(er t#e surface tension&F9NCTIN) F CE!! 4E4BRANEIt 5erfor%s t#e t(o %ain function&Protection of Proto5las%&


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Regulation of %aterial 7In and ut of cell8 t#roug# its 5er%ea,ality&PER4EABI!ITY F 4E4BRANET#e 5er%ea,ility of %e%,rane is regulated ,y t(o 5rocesses&718 Passi$e Trans5ort 7s%osis and Diffusion8

7;8 Acti$e Trans5ort 7Endocytosis0 E6ocytosis81& PA))I*E TRAN)PRT)uc# ty5e of %olecules trans5ort (#ic# does not reuire energy& It isfurt#er di$ided into0DIFF9)IN)5reading and free %o$e%ent of %olecules 7or ions8 fro% t#e regionof #ig#er concentration to t#e region of lo(er concentration 7tilleuili,riu% state8)I"NIFICANCE4o$e%ent of o6ygen and digested food 7glucose0 a%ino acids0 fatty

acids8 into t#e cell&4o$e%ent of e6cretory (aste out of cell&)4)I)Diffusion of (ater ,y se%i5er%ea,le %e%,rane or t#e %o$e%ent ofsol$ent %olecules fro% #ig#er to lo(er concentration across se%i5er%ea,le %e%,rane&)I"NIFICANCE!iuids0 5ri%arily (ater %olecules enter and lea$e t#e cell ,ys%osis&

It #el5s to %aintain a ,alance 7os%otic 5ressure8 in and out of cell&;& ACTI*E TRAN)PRT)uc# ty5e of %olecule trans5ort (#ic# reuire energy& r 4o$e%entof %olecules against t#e concentration ,y t#e e65enditure of energyt#roug# a carrier 7i&e& %o$e%ent of %olecules fro% t#e region oflo(er concentration to #ig#er concentration ,y 5rotein using ATP asenergy&)I"NIFICANCE

A,sor5tion of e6cess food 7glucose80 ions 73O and NaO8 ta'es 5lace,y Acti$e trans5ort&

CNDITIN)It is unidirectional&

ATP 5ro$ides energy&Protein act as carrier&

Acti$e trans5ort is furt#er su,di$ided into0718 P#agocytosis and Pinocytosis 7Endocytosis8&7;8 E6ocytosis&


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PHA"CYT)I)Process of 5ic'ing and ingestion of large solid 5article ,y 5las%a%e%,rane 7(#ic# can not enter ,y diffusion0 os%osis or acti$etrans5ort8&

)I"NIFICANCEIngestion of solid food 5articles&-BCs 5ic' foreign 5articles 7certain ,acteria8PINCYT)I)Process of fluid inta'e0 for a,sor,ing fluid ,y for%ing 5inocytic $esicle7t#e fluid (#ic# cannot ,e a,sor,ed ,y os%osis0 enters t#roug# it8)I"NIFICANCEHel5s in a,sor5tion of #ar%ones0 li5ids etc&CE!! -A!!T#e cell (all is t#e outer %ost co$ering of a 5lant cell& It is co%5osed

of cellulose 7a car,o#ydrate8 and so%e ot#er c#e%ical su,stances&T#is #ard co$ering gi$es for%0 fir%ness and strengt# to t#e 5lant cell&In a young cell it is t#in and delicate ,ut in a %ature cell it ,eco%est#ic' due to t#e de5osition of $arious c#e%ical su,stances on itsinner surface&T#ere are t#ree layer of cell (all&1& 4IDD!E 7!A4E!!A8First for%ed cell 5late&Ce%enting layer ,et(een t(o daug#ter cells&

Co%5osed of CaOO and 4gOO 5ectate&Cells are se5arated (#en t#is layer is dissol$ed&;& PRI4ARY -A!!First 5roduct of cell synt#esi=ed ,y 5roto5last&In young cells it is t#in and elastic (#ile it ,eco%es t#ic' and rigid on%aturity&4ade u5 of He%icellulose 7?KL80 cellulose 7;?L8 and 5ectatesu,stances&


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718 Nuclear 4e%,rane&7;8 Nucleo5las% or 3aryo5las%&78 C#ro%atin Net(or'&

1& N9C!EAR 4E4BRANET#e nucleus is ,ounded ,y a dou,le layered %e%,rane (#ic# ,ears5ores and is 'no(n as Nuclear 4e%,raneJ;& N9C!EP!A)4Inside t#e nuclear %e%,rane is a structure less fluid calledNucleo5las%J and #ig#ly ric# (it# 5roteins&


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T#ese are t#in0 5late li'e structures and are usually located near t#enucleus& T#ese are t#e site of for%ation of lysoso%es and alsoconugate 5rotein0 %odify structure of su,stances0 synt#esi=ed ,yEPR to for% lysoso%es and secretary $esides& "olgi ,odies of 5lants

and lo(er ani%als 7%ostly in$erte,rates8 are 'no(n asDictyoso%esJ&7>8 !Y))4E)T#ey are large0 so%e (#at irregular structure for%ed in t#e cyto5las%for%ed ,y golgi:,odies& T#ey contain #ydrolytic en=y%es (#ic#destroys foreign 5articles& T#ey are also 'no(n as )uicide )acsJ,ecause after secreting t#e en=y%es t#ey digese t#eir o(n 5roteins7Auto5#agy8&NTE27!ysoso%al )torage Diseases Fro% Te6t Page X @187?8 P!A)TID)

T#ey are s5eciali=ed organelles of 5lant cell t#at contain 5ig%ent ort#ey synt#esi=e reser$e su,stances&T#ey are of t#ree 'inds07A8 !E93P!A)Tleuco Q (#ite!eu'o5last are colourless and store nutrient %aterial&7B8CH!RP!A)TC#loro5last are green #a$ing c#loro5#yll t#at 5erfor%s5#otosynt#esis&

7C8 CHR4P!A)TC#ro%o Q ColourC#ro%o5last contain different coloured 7red0 yello(0 orange or ot#ert#an green8 5ig%ents& T#ey are found in t#e cells of different colouredflo(ers and fruits&7/8 4ICR BDIE)It includes 5ero6iso%e and glyo6yso%e&7A8 PERI)4ET#ese are t#e single %e%,rane ,ounded %icro,odies containen=y%es for transferring #ydrogen ato% to o6ygen i&e& for%ing

#ydrogen 5ero6ide&Hydrogen 5ero6ide is $ery to6ic to t#e cell t#erefore it is i%%ediately,rea' do(n to (ater ,y en=y%e catalyst&T#ese %icro,odies #el5 in deto6yfication of alco#al and %ostly5resent in li$er cells&7B8 "!YY)4EIt is a single layered %e%,rane ,ound structure containing en=y%es


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(#ic# %eta,oli=e so%e %olecules in 5#otosynt#esis and res5iration&T#ey also cause o6idation of fatty acids&CYT)3E!ETNCytos'eleton %eans s'eleton of t#e cell0 (#ic# is %ostly co%5osed

of %icrotu,ules0 %icrofila%ents and inter%ediate fila%ents&7A8 4ICR T9B9!E)4icrotu,ules are #ollo( cylinders (it# an outerdia%eter of ;?n%&T#ey are %ade u5 of a s5ecial ty5e of glo,ular 5rotein tu,ulin&In single %icrotu,ule consist of #undredt# of t#ousands of tu,ulin su,units0 (#ic# are usually arranged in 1< colu%ns calledProtofila%ents&4icrotu,ules are arranged in asse%,le and disasse%,le %anner&In ani%al cells and lo(er 5lants t#ey also for% centriole0 cilia andflagella&

7B8 4ICRFI!A4ENT)4icrofila%ents are solid structures0 t#read li'e (it# a dia%eter of@n%&T#ey are also co%5osed of glo,ular 5roteins&Eac# %icrofila%ent consist of t(o actin 7Protein8 c#ains t#at inter(ing in a #elical fas#ion&7C8 INTER4EDIATE FI!A4ENT)T#ey are inter%ediate in si=e #a$ing a dia%eter of n% to 11n%&T#ey are ro5e li'e 5oly%ers of Fi,rous 5rotein&

In s'in and #air t#ese fila%ents are %ade u5 of 5rotein 'eratin&T#ey 5ro$ide %ec#anical strengt# to t#e cell and su55ort t#e nuclearen$elo5e&NN 4E4BRANE B9ND CYTP!A)4IC R"ENE!!E718RIB)4E)T#ese are s%all structures concerned (it# 5rotein synt#esis in allty5e of t#e cells i&e& Pro'aryotic as (ell as Eu'aryote&T#ey are freely dis5ersed in cyto5las% of Pro'aryotic cell ,ut inEu'aryotic cells t#ey %ay ,e free or attac#ed (it# endo5las%icreticulu%&

4ore t#an ?K ty5e of 5roteins are 5resent in ri,oso%e structure andt#ey contain #ig# uantity of RNA&9nder t#e direction of Nucleus ri,oso%e 5roduce t#e 5rotein %ade it,y t#e cell&Eac# Ri,oso%e consist of t(o uneual 5arts&T#ese are t#e s%allest and %ost $ital cellular co%5onents0%anufactured in t#e nucleolus&


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7;8 CENTRI!ET#ey are only 5resent in ani%al cells and certain lo(er 5lants&4ostly near t#e nucleus&Eac# centriole consist of t(o cylinders lying 5er5endicular to one

anot#er&Eac# cylinder consist of nine 5arallel tri5lets of #ollo( cylindrical%icrotu,ules&During t#e cell di$ision t#ey re5licate and %o$e to(ards o55osite5oles of t#e cell&In %itosis and %eiosis t#ey for% t#read li'e fi,ers (#ic# rediate fro%eac# centriole are 'no(n as %itotic a55aratus&7


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of c#ro%atogra5#y and electro5#oresis (e can co%5are t#e a%inoacid seuence in t#e 5rotein of different organis%s or t#e order of,ases in t#eir DNA&7C8CYT!"Y

4icrosco5ic o,ser$ations of cell structure are also used to %a'e afunda%ental s5lit in t#e classification of li$ing t#ings& T#ey can ,euseful at t#e le$el of generic and s5ecies le$el& T#is sort of tec#niuecan s#o( delicate difference ,et(een s5ecies or su,:s5ecies0 (#ic#are identical in %any ot#er res5ects& )5ecie "enus Fa%ily rder Class Di$ision 3ingdo%7D8"ENETIC)

All t#e %or5#ological0 Bio:c#e%ical 5ro5erties and cytologicalas5ects of an indi$idual0 or of a s5ecies de5end on its geneticconstitution& Hence t#e final tool #el5ing in classifying an organis% is

"enetics&TAN4IC HIERARCHYT#e ,asic unit of t#e ,iological classification is s5ecie& Closely relateds5ecies are grou5ed:toget#er into "enera& "enera are grou5ed intoFa%ilies0 fa%ilies into order0 orders into classes0 classes into 5#ylaand 5#yla or di$isions into 'ingdo%s& Eac# grou5ing of organis%s(it# in t#e #ierarc#y is called ta6on and eac# ta6on #as a ran' and ana%e& For e6a%5le class %a%%aliaJ or "enus Ho%oJ& T#isascending series of successi$ely larger0 %ore inclusi$e grou5s %a'e

u5 t#e Ta6ono%ic Hierarc#yJ&CHAN"E) PRP)ED BY 4AR"9I!E) AND )CH-ART+ IN THEFI*E:3IN"D4 )Y)TE44arguiles and sc#(art= (ere A%erican Biologist0 5ut for(ard a%odification of Ro,ert -#itta'ers sc#e%e& According to t#is%odification&T#e %ulticellular alga s#ould ,e re%o$ed fro% t#e 5lant 'ingdo% and5laced along (it# all unicellular organis%s0 in a ne( 'ingdo% calledPRTCTI)TJ (#ic# (ould re5lace -#itta'ers Protista 'ingdo%&T#is %odification %ade t#e 5lant 'ingdo% a %ore natural grou5&

Due to t#is %odification t#e 'ingdo% Protoctista ,eca%e a 'ingdo%t#at contains all t#ose organis%s0 (#ic# cannot ,e fitted into any oft#e ot#er 'ingdo%&*IR9)*irus are $ery %inute non cellular ,odies considered ,et(een li$ingand non:li$ing organis%s&DI)C*ERY F *IR9)


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T#e (ord $irus is deri$ed fro% a !atin (ord %eaning PoisonJ& ARussian Biologist I(anos'y in 1.; disco$ered *irus&CHARACTERI)TIC) F *IR9)1& *iruses are non:cellular 5arasitic entities 7o,ligate 5arasite8

;& *iruses cannot li$e and re5roduce outside t#e li$ing cells ,ecauset#ey lac' t#e %ac#inery to do so ,y t#e%sel$es&& *iruses are eit#er $irulent destroying t#e cell in (#ic# t#ey occur&-#ile te%5erate *iruses ,eco%e integrated into t#eir #ost geno%eand re%ain sta,le for long 5eriod of ti%e&)TR9CT9RE F *IR9)1& T#e $iruses %ay ,e s%all s5#ere li'e or golf ,alls0 li'e rod s#a5etad5ole and 5oly#edral&;& T#ey %ainly consist of $iral geno%e0 ca5sids0 en$elo5es and tail

Fi,ers&7A8"EN4E*iral geno%es %ay consist of a single or se$eral %olecules of DNA orRNA&7B8PRTEIN CAP)ID 7PRTEIN CRE8T#e 5rotein coat t#at encloses t#e $iral geno%e is called Proteinca5sid& It %ay ,e of different s#a5es and %ainly %ade u5 of 5roteinssu, units called ca5so%eresJ7C8*IRA! EN*E!PE)

In so%e $iruses accessory structure called *iral En$elo5es are5resent t#at #el5 t#e% in infecting t#eir #ost& T#ey are %e%,ranest#at enclose t#e 5rotein core&TAI!) AND TAI! FIBRE)4any $iruses 5ossesses t#read li'e long tail and tail fi,ers& T#esestructures #el5 in infecting t#e #ost& FI"9RE ?&? 7THE)TR9CT9RE F BACTERIPHA"E8 PA"E X .1C!A))IFICATIN F *IR9)E)7A8N THE BA)I) F 4RPH!"Y*iruses are generally classified on t#e ,asis of 4or5#ology and

nucleic acids t#ey contain& e&g& n t#e ,asis of %or5#ology0 *irusesare classified into rod s#a5e 7T4*80 s5#erical 7Polio *irus8 andTad5ole 7Bacterio5#age *irus8&7B8 N THE BA)I) F 4DE) F RI"IN*iruses can ,e classified on t#e ,asis of t#eir %ode of origin0 (#ic#5ro$ide a syste%atic idea of so%e of t#eir di$ersity& Follo(ing are t#e%ain c#aracteristics of t#ese grou5s2


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1& 9nen$elo5ed 5lus strand $iruses&;& En$elo5ed 5lus strand RNA*iruses&& *iroids

?& Dou,le strand RNA *iruses&/& )%all geno%e DNA *iruses&@& 4ediu% geno%e and large geno%e DNA *iruses&& Bacterio5#age&!IFE CYC!E F THE BACTERIPHA"ET#e $irus t#at infects t#e ,acteria 7%ostly E&coli8 is 'no(n asBacterio5#ageJBacterio5#age can re5roduce ,y t(o alternati$e %ec#anis%s&1&T#e lytic cycle;&T#e !ysogenic cycle&

718THE !YTIC CYC!ET#e life cycle of t#e ,acterio5#age t#at e$entually ends in deat# oft#e #ost cell is 'no(n as A !YTIC CYC!EJT#e follo(ing are t#e stages of lytic cycle&1& Initially t#e ,acterio5#age uses #is tail fi,ers to stic' to s5ecificrece5tor 5resent on t#e outer surface of E:coli ,acteria&;& T#e s#eat# of t#e $iral tail contracts0 t#rusting a #ollo( coret#roug# t#e ,acterial (all and %e%,rane of t#e ,acterial cell andt#en 5#age inects its DNA into t#e cell&

& T#e ,acterial cells DNA is destroyed 7#ydroly=ed8&?& T#e 5#age DNA ta'es control o$er t#e ,acterial %eta,olic%ac#inery and uses it to 5roduce 5#age 5roteins and $iral nucleotide&/& Co5ies of t#e 5#age geno%e are de$elo5ed and different 5arts oft#e 5#age co%e toget#er for%ing daug#ter 5#ages&@& In t#e last stage of lytic cycle t#e daug#ter 5#ages released0#ydrolytic en=y%es lyso=y%esJ0 (#ic# digest t#e ,acterial cell (all&& Due to os%osis0 ,acterial cell s(ells and finally ,urst releasing1KK:;KK daug#ter 5#age 5articles&

FI"9RE ?&/ 7THE !YTIC CYC!E F PHA"E:T>8 PA"E X .>;& THE !Y)"ENIC CYC!ET#e life cycle of t#e Bacterio5#age in (#ic# t#e $iral geno%ere5licates (it#out destroying t#e #ost cell is 'no(n as lysogeniccycle&*iruses t#at are ca5a,le of using ,ot# %odes of re5roduction (it# ina ,acteriu% are called Te%5erate *irusesJ&


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T#e follo(ing are t#e stages of lysogenic cycle&718 In t#is cycle infection of t#e E:coli cell ,egins (#en t#e 5#age,inds to t#e surface of cell and inects its DNA&7;8 -it# in t#e #ost cell0 t#e 5#age DNA %olecule for%s a circle&

7


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7>8 -eig#t loss and fe$er&7?8 De%entia 7loss of t#oug#ts87/8 Diarr#ea 7loose %otion (it# increasing freuency87@8 )e5tice%ia 7Blood Poisoning8

)e$erity of t#e I%%uno:Deficiency $aries and ,outs of illness %ay5ersist for years&HI* %ostly infects ly%5#ocytes and causes ,rain cell da%age0 in%ore t#an ?KL of cases& Irre$ersi,le de%entia and e$entual deat#occurs&TRAN)4I))IN718 T#e HI* $irus can only sur$i$e in t#e ,ody fluids and trans%itted,y ,lood or se%en&7;8 In .KL of cases t#e trans%ission occurs ,y se6ual contact& )o%eot#er %odes of trans%ission are as follo(2

9nsterili=ed syringes and needles %ostly in intra$enous druga,users&By gi$ing ,lood or ,lood 5roducts already infected (it# HI*&Close contact ,et(een infected and non:infected 5eo5le&Fro% an infected 5regnant (o%en to #er ,a,y t#roug# 5lacenta ort#roug# ,reast %il'&CNTR! AND TREAT4ENTNo 5articular drug is a$aila,le for treat%ent of AID) ,ut t#ere areso%e drugs0 (#ic# are effecti$e against t#is disease li'e

A=idot#y%adine0 +ido$udine and su%arin&PRE*ENTIN9se of t#e clean needles and sterili=e syringes&Education and 5u,lic a(areness a,out t#e disease and restrictedse6ual contacts (it# 5re$enti$e %easures&Tranfusion of screened ,lood and ,lood 5roducts&HEPATITI)He5atitis is an infla%%ation of t#e li$er cells caused ,y $iralinfections0 to6ic agents or drugs&)I"N) AND )Y4PT4)

Uaundice&A,do%inal 5ain&!i$er enlarge%ent&Fatigue and fe$er&TYPE) F HEPATITI)T#ere are $arious ty5es of He5atitis fe( of t#e% are as follo(2718HEPATITI) AJ


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Cause ,y non:en$elo5ed RNA $irus&Trans%itted ,y contact (it# faeces fro% infected indi$idual&4ost co%%on for% of He5atitis (orld (ide&7;8HEPATITI) BJ 7)ER94 HEPATITI)8

Caused ,y DNA $iruses&4ore co%%on in Asians0 Africans and %ale #o%ose6uals&ften 5ersist in carrier for% (it#out causing any sy%5to%s&Trans%ission %ostly occurs t#roug# s'in contacts0 ,lood transfusionand ot#er %edical 5rocedures& 7)urgery0 N" tu,e0 Cat#eters8T#e $irus of t#is disease can cause li$er cancer %ostly in carriers&TREAT4ENT AND PRE*ENTINNe( $accines against t#e $irus #a$e ,een 5roduced (#ic# are ofgreat i%5ortance es5ecially for 5erson (#o reuired freuent ,loodtransfusion&

7


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5#agocytosis&7>8 CE!! -A!!Bacterial cell (all %ostly %ade u5 of a%ino acids0 sugar and c#itin& Itsurrounds t#e cell %e%,rane0 deter%ine s#a5e and 5rotects ,acteria

fro% os%otic lyses& 4ost ,acteria #a$e a uniue %acro%oleculecalled Pe5tidoglycan in addition to it& )ugar %olecules0 teic#oic acid0glyco 5roteins and li5o 5olysacc#aride are also 5resent&7?8CE!! 4E4BRANEIt is 5resent inside t#e cell (all attac#ed to it at fe( 5laces containing%any 5ores&It is %ade u5 of li5ids and 5roteins&It acts as a res5iratory structure&7/8CYTP!A)4Bacterial cyto5las% is granular containing %any s%all $acuoles0

glycogen 5articles and ri,oso%es&7@84E))4E)T#ese are t#e in$aginations of t#e cell %e%,rane into t#e cyto5las%&T#ey are in t#e for% of $esicles0 tu,ules or la%ella&T#ey #el5 in t#e DNA re5lication0 cell di$ision0 res5iration and e65ortof en=y%e&78BACTERIA! HEREDITARY 4ATERIA!Bacterial #ereditary %aterial DNA is found as concentrated structurescalled Bacterial c#ro%oso%es or c#ro%atin ,odies& It is %ostly

scattered in t#e cyto5las%&A s%all frag%ent of e6tra c#ro%oso%al circular DNA0 called Plas%idis also 5resent&FI"9RE /&1 7FR4 TET B38C!A))IFICATIN F BACTERIAN THE BA)I) F )HAPEn t#e ,asis of s#a5e ,acteria can ,e di$ided into four categories&718CCCIT#ese are s5#erical or rounded ,acteria 5resents in t#e for% of%ono0 di5lo or stre5tococcus for%&

T#ey are non:flagellated and cannot %o$e fro% one 5lace to anot#er5lace&FI"9RE 7FR4 TET B387;8BACI!!IBacilli are rod s#a5ed ,acteria0 can ,e 5resent in t#e for% of di5lo orstre5lo,acilli&T#ey %ay ,e flagellated and can %o$e fro% one 5lace to anot#er&


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FI"9RE 7FR4 TET B387


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T#ese ,acteria gro( inside t#e tissues of ot#er li$ing organis%T#ey o,tain food at t#e e65ense of t#eir #ost&T#ese ,acteria lac' certain co%5le6 syste% of en=y%es t#ereforet#ey usually de5end u5on #ost cell& E&g& Pneu%ococcus0

4yco,acteriu% tu,erculosis0 )al%onella ty5#i&7>8A9TTRPHIC BACTERIAT#ese ,acteria can syt#esi=e organic co%5ound fro% si%5leinorganic su,stances&

Autotro5#ic ,acteria can ,e di$ided into 5#otosynt#etic orc#e%osynt#etic&7A8PHT)YNTHETICT#ese ,acteria contain green 5ig%ent c#loro5#yll0 (#ic# is 'no(n as,acterial c#loro5#yll0 or c#loro,iu% c#loro5#yll&T#ese 5ig%ents are 5resent in %esoso%es 7in$agination of t#e cell

%e%,rane in t#e cyto5las%8T#ese ,acteria utili=e H;) during 5#otosynt#esis instead of (aterand li,erate sul5#ur instead of o6ygen&sunlig#t7B8 CHE4)YNTHETICT#ese ,acteria o,tain t#eir energy fro% o6idation of so%e inorganicsu,stances li'e iron0 #ydrogen0 nitrogen and sul5#ur co%5ounds&!C4TIN IN BACTERIA)o%e ,acteria can %o$e fro% one 5lace to anot#er (it# t#e #el5 of a

(i5e li'e structure flagella&Flagella allo( ,acteria to dis5erse into ne( #a,itats0 to %igrateto(ards nutrients and to lea$e unfa$ora,le en$iron%ent&Flagellated ,acteria s#o( orientation to(ards $arious sti%uli0 a,e#a$ior called Ta6is&)o%e ,acteria are c#e%o tactic0 5#ototectic or %agnetotatic&"R-TH IN BACTERIAIn fa$ora,le conditions ,acteria can gro(0 $ery ra5idly& T#ere areso%e factors affecting gro(t# of ,acteria suc# as Te%5erature0nutrient a$aila,ility0 PH and ion concentration& Bacterial gro(t# can

,e di$ided into four %ain 5#ases0 (#ic# are as follo(s718!A" PHA)EIt is inacti$e 5#ase during (#ic# ,acteria 5re5are t#e% for di$ision&7;8!" PHA)EIn t#is 5#ase ,acteria gro( and %ulti5ly $ery ra5idly&7


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7>8DEC!INEDEATH PHA)EIn t#is 5#ase deat# is %ore ra5id t#en %ulti5lication rate&REPRD9CTIN IN BACTERIA9sually ase6ual re5roduction is 5resent in ,acteria (#ic# is as follo(

FI))INFission is t#e fastest %ode of ,acterial ase6ual re5roduction 7BinaryFission8It usually ta'es 5lace in fa$ora,le conditions&Hereditary %aterial DNA in t#e for% of c#ro%atin ,ody re5licates&

After t#e re5lication of #ereditary %aterial a constriction a55ears int#e %iddle of t#e cell0 (#ic# later s5lits it into t(o 5arts&Ne(ly for% ,acterial cells gro( in si=e and for% nature ,acterial cells&T#e single fission ta'es 5lace in ;K:/EPERI4ENTU&lader,erg and E&Tatu% 5erfor%ed an interesting e65eri%ent inorder to 5ro$e conugation in ,acteria& Follo(ing are t#e %ain ste5sof t#is e65eri%ent&


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1& T#ey selected a (ild ty5e ,acteria 7E:coli8 and o,tain 7tri5lenutritional %utants8 different fro% one anot#er&;& -ild:ty5e (as ca5a,le of synt#esi=ing si6 su,stances sy%,oli=edas A0 B0 C0 D0 E and F&

& 4utant ty5e II (as ca5a,le of synt#esi=ing t#ree su,stances D0Eand F ,ut not A0B and C&?& T#ese %utant ty5e I and II (ere gro(n toget#er in t#e gro(t#%ediu% #a$ing all t#e si6 su,stances A0 B0 C0 D0 E and F&/& After se$eral #ours0 t#ree ty5es of ,acteria (ere detected afternutritional test (#ic# (ere0i& Bot# %utant I and %utant II ty5es&ii& -ild ty5e ,acteria synt#esi=ing all t#e si6 su,stances&

iii& A ne( ty5e of ,acterial strain reuiring all t#e si6 su,stances forgro(t#&In t#is e65eri%ent0 a55earance of (ild ty5e and one ne( ty5e is ane$idence t#at conugation #ad ta'en 5lace&;& TRAN)D9CTINIt is t#e %ode of genetic reco%,ination in (#ic# genetic %aterial istransferred fro% one ,acteria to anot#er ,y a t#ird 5arty0 (#ic# isusually ,acterio5#age&T#is 5rocess (as e65eri%entally carried out ,y !eder,erg and +inder

in 1.?;&EPERI4ENT1& In t#is e65eri%ent0 a ,acterio5#age is %ade to attac' a ,acteriu%'no(n as donorJ 7D8&;& T#e inected DNA of ,acterio5#age %ulti5ly to for% a large nu%,erof daug#ter 5#ages&& T#e 5#ages released fro% t#is donor ,acteriu% contain t#e genetic%aterial of 5#age 5lus a little 5iece of t#e donor genetic %aterial DJ&

?& T#ese ne( 5#ages t#en %ade to attac' a ne( ,acteriu% 'no(n asReci5ientJ 7R8&/& T#ese reci5ient ,acteriu% is not destroyed li'e t#e donor in orderto re5roduce nor%ally& In t#is (ay0 genetic %aterial of t#e donor,acteriu% is carried to t#e reci5ient ,acteriu% ,y a ,acterio5#ageand t#is 5rocess is 'no(n as Transduction&


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In t#is 5rocess0 genetic infor%ation transfers fro% one ,acteria toanot#er ,y 5roducing a c#ange it 7undergo a c#ange8&T#is ty5e of genetic reco%,ination (as first 5ro$ed ,y Fred "riffit# in1.;&

EPERI4ENT"riffit#i inected a s%all uantity of R:ty5e ,acteria and a largeuantity of #eat 'illed ):ty5e ,acteria into t#e sa%e %ouse&T#is treat%ent 5ro$ed fatal as %ouse sur5risingly suffered fro%Pneu%onia and died&T#e auto5sy of t#e %ouse re$ealed t#e 5resence of li$ing ):ty5e,acteria in t#e %ouse in addition to R:ty5e&Fro% t#is e65eri%ent "riffit# concluded t#at0T#e li$e R:ty5e ,acteria #ad ,een transfor%ed into li$e ):ty5e,acteria due to transfer of so%e %aterial fro% dead ):ty5e0 cells&

T#us t#is transfor%ation occurred due to genetic reco%,ination in R:ty5e ,acteria&In #is e65eri%ent0 #e #ad ,een (or'ing on t(o strains of ,acteriaPne%ococcusJ& ne strain is 'no(n as s%oot# ty5e 7*irulent andcauses Pneu%onia8 (#ile t#e second strain is 'no(n as 7Roug# ty5e7Non:*irulent and does not cause 5neu%onia8&NTE2 7I4PRTANCE F BACTERIA 79)EF9! AND HAR4F9!BACTERIA8FR4 B3 PA"E X 11/ 7!D B3 ;KK


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in colony for%&T#ey 5osses dou,le layered cell (all&T#e 5roto5las% differentiated into an outer colored regionc#ro%o5las%0 (#ic# contain $arious 5ig%ents in (#ic# c#loro5#yll

aJ and 5#ycocyanin are %ore i%5ortant&Inner colorless region of t#e 5roto5las% is 'no(n as centro5las%&T#ey are %ostly auatic 7fres# (ater8)e6ual re5roduction is a,sent&

Ase6ual re5roduction ta'es 5lace ,y %eans of Har%ogonia0=oos5ores0 a'inates and frag%entation&N)TCNostoc is a ty5ical e6a%5le of ,lue green algae&)TR9CT9RENostoc is a fila%entous 5ro'aryotic algae in (#ic# fila%ents are

inter%i6ed in a glatinous %ass:for%ing ,all li'e structure 'no(n ascoeno,iu%&A single fila%ent loo' li'e a c#ain of ,eads&Eac# fila%ent is un,ranc#ed and #as a single ro( of rounded or o$alcells&Eac# cell #as dou,le layered (all0 outer t#ic' (all is %ade u5 ofcellulose %i6ed u5 (it# 5ectic co%5ounds& -#ile inner t#in layer is%ade u5 of cellulose only&T#e 5roto5las% is differentiated into an outer colored region

7c#ro%o5las%8 and an inner colorless region 7centro5las%8&T#e c#ro%o5las% $arious 5ig%ents li'e c#loro5#yll0 a6ant#o5#ylls0carotene0 5#ycocyanin and 5#ycoeryt#rin&Ri,oso%es0 5seudo$acuoe and reser$e food in t#e for% ofcyno5#yceae starc# are 5resent&Hereditary %aterial is 5resent in cyto5las% (it# out t#e nuclear%e%,rane&In Nostoc fila%ents slig#tly larger0 colorless cells (it# t#ic' (alled'no(n as HeterocystJ are 5resent& T#e function o Heterocyst isnitrogen fi6ation0 food storage and %ulti5lication of fila%ent during

unfa$ora,le conditions&N9TRITINIt is an autotro5# and 5re5ares its food in t#e 5resence of sunlig#t&It also ca5a,le of fi6ing at%os5#eric nitrogen and con$erts it intonitrates in order to 5re5are a%ino acids and 5roteins0 t#is acti$ityta'es 5lace in Heterocysts&REPRD9CTIN


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nly ase6ual re5roduction is 5resent (#ic# ta'es 5lace ,y follo(ing%et#ods&718HR4"NIA

A 5ortion of t#e fila%ents ,et(een t(o #eterocysts is 'no(n as

Hor%ogonia&During fa$ora,le conditions0 fila%ents ,rea' u5 at t#e unction ofeac# Heterocyst&T#e end cells of eac# #o%ogonous di$ide to for% long fila%ents ofNostoc&7;8A3INETE)It is t#e %et#od of sur$i$al during unfa$ora,le conditions&T#ese are non:%otile s5ores0 for%ed fro% certain $egetati$e cells&Eac# a'inete contains an outer layer e6os5oreJ and inner layerendos5oresJ&

n t#e return of fa$ora,le conditions0 eac# a'inete ger%inates ,yru5turing e6os5ore and for%ed inde5endent fila%ents ,y si%5le celldi$ision&I4PRTANCE F CYNBACTERIAT#ey release o6ygen as a ,y:5roduct during 5#otosynt#esis&4any are ca5a,le of fi6ing at%os5#eric nitrogen&T#ey are first coloni=ers of %oist soil&Nostoc ana,ena is used as nitrogen fertili=er in agriculture due to itsnitrogen fi6ing a,ility&

4NERADisco$ery of ,acteria A&*&!eu$entoe'&)i=e of ,acteria Q K&;:; %icron 7,readt#8Q ;:1K %icron 7lengt#8&Cell (all of ,acteria %ade u5 of 5e5tidoglycan&

Arc# ,acteria do not contain 5e5tidoglycan&Bacterial re5lications0 cell di$ision0 res5iration0 e65ort of en=y%es QBy %eans of %esoso%es 7in$aginations of cell %e%,rane8)a5ro5#ytic ,acteria for% #u%us 7i%5ortant co%5onent of soil8P#otosynt#etic ,acteria Q use H;) in 5#otosynt#esis instead of

(ater&C#loro,iu% c#loro5#yll or ,acterial c#loro5#yll disco$ered ,y *onNell 1.


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Fi$e 'ingdo% syste% of Ro,ert -#itta'er Q 1./.&Disco$ery of *irus Q I(anos'y 1.;&T4* *irus disco$er ,y -endell )tanley in 1.


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5lant0 (#ic# is called ase6ual 5lant or s5oro5#yte&7;8A)E9A! REPRD9CTIN

Ase6ual re5roduction ta'es 5lace ,y for%ation of uadri flagellate=oos5ores in di5loid ase6ual 5lant or s5oro5#yte0 (#ic# is

%or5#ologically si%ilar to ga%eto5#yte&Eac# cell 7e6ce5t t#e ,asal cells8 of t#e s5oro5#yte 7;n8 undergoes%eioses or reduction di$ision and for%s :1/ =oos5ores0 (#ic# arereleased in (ater&

After s(i%%ing t#ey lose flagella and undergo a 5eriod of rest&Eac# =oos5ore ulti%ately de$elo5es and for%s #a5loid se6ual 5lanti&e& ga%eto5#yte0 t#us co%5leting t#e life cycle&

A!TERNATIN F "ENERATINA distinct regular alternation of generations ,et(een t#e #a5loidga%eto5#ytes 7se6ual 5lant8 and di5loid s5oro5#yte 7ase6ual 5lant8 is

5resent& )ince t#e t(o 5lants are %or5#ologically si%ilar so t#is5rocess is 'no(n as Alternation of generation 7iso%or5#ic8JCH!RE!!AFI"9RE @&; PA"E X 1;@&CC9RANCEC#lorella is a fres# (ater alga found floating in stagnant (ater of5onds0 5ools and ditc#es&It is easily cultured and #as ,een used an e65eri%ental organis% inresearc# in 5#otosynt#esis&

)TR9CT9RET#e ,ody of c#lorella is one celled0 s5#erical in outline and solitary&It contains a single nucleus and a cu5:s#a5ed c#loro5last usually (it#out 5yrenoid&REPRD9CTIN 7A)E9A! REPRD9CTIN8Re5roduction ta'es 5lace ,y a5lanos5ore for%ation0 (#ic# in$ol$est#e di$ision of 5roto5last into :1/ daug#ter 5roto5last&Eac# daug#ter 5roto5last secrets a (all to 5roduce a non:%otilea5lanos5ore&n release fro% t#e 5arent cell0 eac# a5lanos5ore for%s a ne(

$egetati$e cell&I4PRTANCERecently an anti,iotic 'no(n as C#lorellinJ useful for t#e control of,acterial diseases #as ,een 5re5ared fro% t#e 5lant&F9N"I !I3E PRTCTI)T)!I4E 4!D 7P!A)4DI94 )TA"E8In initial stages of life cycle0 sli%e %old are cree5ing %asses of li$ing


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su,stances0 #a$ing t#e consistency of an un,oiled egg (#ite and t#ecolour of t#e yol'&It sends out 5roto5las%ic ar%s t#at engulf and digest ,acteria fro%t#e surface of rotten roc' or lea$es&

T#is a%oe,oid stage of sli%e %old is called 5las%odiu% stage&T#e 5las%odiu% consists of t#e cyto5las% in (#ic# are e%,edded%any nuclei0 food $acuoles and undigested food 5articles&Plas%odia can %o$e along t#e forest floor0 on to dead lea$es t#at are,at#ed in sunlig#t&FR9ITIN" BDYIn dry (ar% en$iron%ent %eta%or5#osis in Plas%odia ta'es 5laceand it c#anges into cluster of fruiting ,odies&De5ending on t#e s5ecies t#e fruiting ,odies loo' li'e golf ,alls0feat#ers0 ,ird cages or (or% li'e and in a great $ariety of colours&

REPRD9CTINEac# fruiting ,ody 5roduces a large nu%,er of %icrosco5ic ase6ualre5roducti$e cells 'no(n as s5ores&Eac# s5ore #as a single nucleus and a t#ic' 5rotecti$e (all&"er%ination of t#e s5ore occurs (#en t#ere is 5lenty of (ater andsuita,le te%5erature&-#en a sli%e %olds s5ore ger%inates0 it 5roduces one or %ore tinycells&Eac# cell #as a 5air of flagella t#at 5ro5el it t#roug# t#e fil% of (ater0

(#ic# is necessary for its ger%ination&T#ese flagellated cells so%e ti%es function as ga%etes 7se6 cells8and fuse in 5airs& T#is is true se6ual re5roduction&Fusion of t#e ga%etes for%s =ygote0 (#ic# ,eco%e a%oe,oid andfor% a ne( 5las%odiu% i&e& %ultinucleated sli%e %oldPHYTPTHRA INFE)TAN)7-ATER 4!D8T#is fungi li'e 5rotoctist ,elongs to fa%ily o%ycotes&It is a 5at#ogenic organis% causing& late ,lig#t of 5otatoJ)TR9CT9RET#e %ycelliu% consist of Hy5#ae (#ic# are endo5#ytic0 ,ranc#ed0

ase5tate coenocytic0 #yaline and nodulated&T#e rounded or ,ranc#ed #ustoria are found (#ic# a,sor, food%aterial fro% t#e #ost cells&REPRD9CTIN)e6ual as (ell as ase6ual re5roductions are 5resent&7A8A)E9A! REPRD9CTIN

Ase6ual re5roduction ta'es 5lace ,y %eans of ,iflagellate =oos5ores


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5roduce inside t#e 5roducti$e structure )5orangia&T#e s5ores are 5roduced on t#e ,ranc#ed )5orangio5#ore infa$ora,le condition&)5orangio5#ore co%ing out t#roug# t#e sto%ata0 in grou5s on t#e

lo(er surface of infected lea$es&T#e s5orangia are 5roduced on t#e ,ranc#es of s5orangio5#ore&n %aturation0 t#e s5orangia t#e detac#ed fro% s5orangio5#ore&n %aturation t#e 5roto5las% of t#e s5orangiu% con$erts intouninucleate0 $acuolated and na'ed =oos5ores&-#en %ature s5orangiu% ,urst t#e =oos5ores li,erate in t#e fil%&7B8)E9A! REPRD9CTIN)e6ual re5roduction is =ooga%ous&T#e fe%ale se6 organ is oogoniu%& (#ile t#e %ale se6 organ isant#eridiu%&

T#e ant#erialiu% de$elo5s first and t#e oosgoniu% later&Bot# se6 organ %ay de$elo5 on #e sa%e Hy5#ae or on t(o adacentHy5#ae lying side ,y side&T#e oogoniu% #y5#ae 5enetrates t#e ant#eridiu%&T#e oogoniu% is 5ear s#a5ed and contains a single fe%ale nucleusin it&T#e fertili=ation ta'es 5lace (#en t#e %ale and t#e fe%ale nuclei fusein t#e egg after 5enetration of t#e oogoniu% in t#e ant#eridiu%&T#ere is no fertili=ation tu,e and after fertili=ation t#e t#ic' (alled

=oos5ore de$elo5ed0 (#ic# is 5resent inside t#e oogoniu%&T#e oos5ore ger%inates in fa$ora,le conditions and 5roduce ne(%ycelliu%&Reduction di$ision occurs during ger%inates of oos5ore&ECN4IC I4PRTANCET#e -ater 4old causes a disease in 5otato cro5 'no(n as late ,lig#tof 5otatoJT#is disease effects ,ot# aerial and underground 5arts and (#ole5lant ,eco%es ,lig#ted in se$ere conditions&T#e disease a55ears in t#e for% of ,ro(n s5read 5atc#es on lea$es

and ra5idly increases to t#e (#ole leaf surface&T#e tu,er con$erts into a rotten 5ul5y %ass e%itting foul s%ell andre%ains s%all in si=e&

A great danger to 5otato cro5 and causes sufficient da%age of Potatocro5&


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E9"!ENAEuglena is an unicellular0 flagellated organis%& It ,elongs to t#edi$ision Eugleno5#ytaJCC9RANCE

Euglena co%%only found in drains0 5onds and is also 5resent in soil0,lac'is# (ater and e$en salt (ater&D9E! NAT9REEuglena #as c#aracteristics of ,ot# ani%als and 5lants&It is %ore e$ol$ed t#an green Algae&)TR9CT9RE1& It is so%e(#at elongated ani%al0 al%ost 5ointed at ,ot# ends&;& It #as definite and easily staina,le nucleus&& All t#e Euglena #a$e t(o flagella usually one of t#e% is long and

t#e ot#er one s#ort ,y (#ic# t#ey can s(i% acti$ity&?& T#ey lac' t#e outer cellulose cell (all0 instead t#e 5roto5las% is,ounded ,y a groo$ed layer called t#e PellicleJ&/& Euglena #as a gullet near t#e ,ase of t#e flagella and an eyes5otcontaining a 5ig%ent called Asta6ant#inJ&@& Re5roduction is usually ase6uality ,y si%5le di$ision&TAN4IC P)ITIN F E9"!ENAne of t#e e6a%5les of Eu'aryotes is Euglena&Belongs to grou5 'ingdo% Protactista&

P!ANT !I3E CHARACTER) IN E9"!ENA1& Presence of C#loro5last&;& 9ndergoes 5#ysiological0 ,ioc#e%ical 5rocess of 5#otosynt#esis&


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& T#e ase6ual %et#ods include ,inary fission0 %ulti5le fission and,udding&1?& )e6ual re5roducti$e %et#ods include ga%ete for%ation7Isoga%ies and Anisoga%ous8 or ,y conugation&C!A))IFICATIN

A,out


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)o%e flagellates are 5arasites& For e6a%5le2 Try5anoso%e is a ,lood5arasite #u%an and causes African slee5ing sic'ness& Its carrier isTse Tse flyJ&7;8C!A)) )ARCDINA 7RHI+PDA8

1& !oco%otion ta'es 5lace ,y Psendo5odiu%J&;& Body s#a5e is not definite and 'ee5 on c#anging ,ecause t#e5ellicle is a,sent& )o%e #a$e e6ternal s#eats or s'eletons&& E6a%5le2i& Enta%oe,a #istolytic is a 5arasite li$ing in intestine of %an& ii&Fora%inifera is a grou5 including s#elled sarcodi%ians& E&g&Polysto%ella& iii& Helio=oa is a grou5 including fres# (ater organis%s#a$ing fine0 stiff and ray li'e 5sendo5odia e&g& Actino5#rys&

7


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?& )uctorians #a$e t(o nuclei i&e& %eganucleus and %icronucleus&/& Re5roduction is ,y ase6ual ,udding& E&g& Acineta0 E5#elota&7?8C!A)) )PR+A1& All are 5arasites&

;& !o%otary organs are a,sent&


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nset of %alarial fe$er)#au'ing c#ills)(eatingRise in ,ody te%5& 7%ay ,e u5 1K/8

4A!ARIA A BI!"ICA! PRB!E44alaria #as ,een one of t#e %ans %ost i%5ortant ,iological5ro,le%s& 4illions of 5eo5le #a$e ,een 'illed only ,ecause of #isdisease& To sol$e t#is 5ro,le%0 $arious ,iological %et#ods (erea55lied to find out in details& E65eri%ents (ere 5erfor%ed0o,ser$ation and data (ere collected0 and finally t#e co%5lete lifecycle of t#e %alarial 5arasite (as studied&)T9DYIN" 4A!ARIA EPERI4ENTA!!YIn t#e e65eri%ental study of %alaria0 se$eral HYPTHE)I) (ere5resented and deductions (ere %ade for eac# of t#e%& E65eri%ents

(ere 5erfor%ed to test t#e deduction and o,ser$ations are recorded&If t#e deductions are 5ro$ed true0 t#e #y5ot#esis regarded as correct&HYPTHE)I) 718

A #y5ot#esis (as %ade a,out t#e %alarial 5arasite 5las%odiu% t#at2Plas%odiu% is t#e cause of %alariaJDED9CTINTo test t#e a,o$e #y5ot#esis0 t#e follo(ing deductions (ere %ade2 Ift#e 5las%odiu% is t#e cause of %alaria0 t#en t#e 5atients sufferingfro% %alaria s#ould #a$e %alarial 5arasite in t#eir ,loodJ&

EPERI4ENTE65eri%ent (ere carried out ,y e6a%ining ,lood sa%5les fro%%alarial 5atients t#at s#o(ed 5ositi$e result& To 5ro$e it furt#ere65eri%ents (ere re5eated (#ene$er %alaria accured&RE)9!TIn t#is (ay t#e #y5ot#esis t#at t#e Plas%odiu% is t#e cause of%alariaJ (as found to ,e true&HYPTHE)I) 7II8It (as noted t#at 5eo5le li$ing around t#e %ars#y 5laces (ere usually#a$e t#e attac' of %alaria& T#us t#e #y5ot#esis (as stated 4alaria

is associated (it# %ars#esJDED9CTINTo test t#e state%ents0 a deduction (as %ade t#at If %ars#es areeli%inatedJ&EPERI4ENTn e65eri%ental ,asis0 %ars#es (ere eli%inated and as a result t#erole of infection of %alaria (as greatly %uc# reduced&


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RE)9!TIt (as t#is 5ro$ed t#at %alaria is associated (it# %ars#es& T#us t#e#y5ot#esis stands true& T#us0 it is ne( understood t#at accurate%et#ods are essential to understood ,iological 5ro,le%s&

!IFE CYC!E F 4A!ARIA! PARA)ITEDI)C*ERY!ife cycle of 5las%odiu% in ANPHE!E) 4)9IT (as firstdisco$ered in 1.&PHA)E) F !IFE CYC!ET#e life cycle of 5las%odiu% is digenetic in$ol$ing t(o 5#ases is t(o#osts for co%5letion&1& A)E9A! PHA)E IN 4AN 7PRI4ARY H)T8;& )E9A! PHA)E IN 4)9IT 7)ECNDARY H)T81& A)E9A! CYC!E IN 4AN 7)CHI+"NY8

INTRD9CTINT#e life cycle of 5las%odiu% in %ass is Ase6ual and is called)CHI+"NY0 ,ecause )CHI+NT)J are 5roduced&PHA)E) F )CHI+"NY

According to "ra#a% 71.>80 t#e life cycle of 5las%odiu% can ,edi$ided into four 5#asesZ1& PRE:ERYTHRCYTIC PHA)E 7!I*ER )CHI+"NY8&;& ERYTHRCYTIC PHA)E&& "A4RNY R "A4ETCYTIC PHA)E&EP!ANATIN F )CHI+"NYINFECTIN

A #ealt#y 5erson acuires infection (#en a fe%ale Ano5#eles%osuito0 containing infecti$e stages 7)PR+ITE)8 of 5arasite isits sali$ary gland0 ,ites #i% for suc'ing #is ,lood&718PRE:ERYTHRCYTIC PHA)Ence (it# in t#e #u%an ,lood0 t#e s5oro=oites circulate in t#e ,loodfor a,out #alf an #our&IN*A)IN F !I*ER

After circulation in t#e ,lood0 t#e s5oro=oites get into li$er to in$adet#e #e5atic cells&)CHI+NT FR4ATIN

After 5enetrating t#e li$er cells0 eac# s5oro=oite gro(s for no& of daysand ,eco%es a )CHI+NT&CRYPT+ITE FR4ATIN)CHI+NT di$ides to for% a large nu%,er of uninucleate


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CRYPT+ITE)0 (#ic# are li,erated (#en t#e li$er cell ,urst&4ETACRYPT+ITE FR4ATINT#e released cry5to=oites in$ade t#e fres# li$er cells and %ulti5ly5roducing enor%ous no& of %etacry5to=oites&

7;8 ERYTHRCYTIC PHA)ETRPH+ITE FR4ATINT#e %etacry5to=oites after esca5ing into t#e ,lood strea%0 in$adet#e red ,lood cor5uscles& Eac# ,eco%e rounded and is calledTRPH+ITE&)I"NET RIN" )TA"E-#en tro5#o=oite gro(s in si=e0 t#e nucleus is 5us#ed to one sideinto t#e 5eri5#eral cyto5las%& It rese%,les a signet ring and is5referred to an )I"NET RIN" )TA"E&4ER+ITE FR4ATIN

T#e tro5#o=oite ingesis a large a%ount of cyto5las% of t#e R&B&C&T#e ,lood H/ is ,ro'en do(n into its 5rotein co%5onents0 (#ic# isused ,y tro5#o=oite de$elo5s into an acti$e a%oe,oid tro5#o=oite&

After acti$e feeding0 it ,eco%es rounded and gro(s in si=e and,eco%e and )CHI+NT& It no( undergoes )CHI+"NY and5roduces 4ER+ITE)&RE!EA)E F 4ER+ITE) IN B!D-it# t#e ru5ture of RBC)0 t#e %ero=oites are li,erated into t#e ,lood5las%a& T#ese in$ade fres# cor5uscles to re5eat t#e cycle& T#e ti%e

ta'en to co%5lete one eryt#rocytic cycle de5ends u5on t#e s5ecies ofRasnodiu%&7


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de$elo5%ent&)E9A! CYC!E IN 4)9ITINTRD9CTIN)e6ual life cycle of Plas%odiu% is co%5leted in t#e gut of Fe%ale

Ano5#eles 4osuito resulting in infecti$e )5oro=oites& T#is cycle isco%5leted in 1;:;< days&PHA)E) F )E9A! CYC!ET#is cycle co%5rises of follo(ing stages21& "a%etogony;& )ynga%y or Fertili=ation


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T#e s5oro,last nucleus again di$ides and for%s #undreds offila%entous0 uninucleated )5oro=oites& T#e cyst ,ursts and li,erateds5oro=oites %igrates to t#e )ali$ary "land (#ere t#ey a(ait to5enetrate to a #u%an #ost&

3ingdo% FungiCHAPTER 3IN"D4 F9N"IFungi are a grou5 of unicellular to %ulticellular0 t#alloid0#eterotro5#ic0 eu'aryotic li$ing organis%s #a$ing a ,ody called4YCE!!I940 %ade u5 of HYPHAE (#ic# are non:c#loro5#yllous [#a$e cell (all 7%ade u5 of c#itin8& Re5roduction is usually A)E9A!,y %eans of s5oresJ&F9N"I ARE NEITHER C4P!ETE!Y P!ANT) NR ANI4A!)Pre$iously fungi (ere regarded as 5lants as t#ey rese%,le t#e 5lants

in %any c#aracteristics& But in addition fungi #a$e %any ualities ustli'e t#e ani%als& )o t#ey are regarded in t#e %id(ay ,et(een 5lantsand ani%als&P!ANT !I3E CHARACTERI)TIC) F F9N"IFungi rese%,le t#e 5lants inHa$ing Cell -all!ac'ing CentriolesBeing non:%otile

ANI4A! !I3E CHARACTERI)TIC) F F9N"I

But Fungi also rese%,le (it# ani%als as t#ey areHeterotro5#ic!ac' cellulose in t#eir cell (allPresence of c#itinIt %eans t#atFungi are neit#er co%5letely 5lants nor ani%als&CNFIR4ATINDetail studies also confir% t#at Fungi are different fro% all ot#erorganis%s&N9C!EAR 4IT)I)

T#ey #a$e a c#aracteristic %itosis called Nuclear:%itosis0 during(#ic# nuclear %e%,rane does not ,rea' [ s5indle is for%ed (it# int#e nucleus&)4E REPRE)ENTATI*E) F 3IN"D4 F9N"I)o%e i%5& E6a%5les are as follo(s2:YEA)T49)HR4)


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PENICI!!I944!D49CRRHI+P9)

)TR9CT9RE F BDY F F9N"9)4YCE!I94T#e co%5lete %ulticellular ,ody of fungus is called 4YCE!I940(#ic# is co%5osed of (#ite fluffy %ass of ,ranc#ed #y5#ae&HYPHAE

A fe( of true fungi are unicellular 7suc# as yeast8 ,ut %ost #a$e%ulticellular ,ody 7%yceliu%8 consisting of long0 slender0 ,ranc#ed0tu,ular0 t#read li'e fila%ents called as Hy5#ae (#ic# s5reade6tensi$ely o$er t#e surface of su,strate&HYPHAE

TYPE) F HYPHAEHy5#ae can ,e di$ided in to t(o ty5es21& )e5tate or 4ulticellular Hy5#ae;& Non:se5tate or %ultinuclear or coenocytic #y5#ae&1&)EPTATE HYPHAEDEFINITINT#ose #y5#ae (#ic# are se5arated ,y cross:(alls called se5taJ intoindi$idual cells containing one or %ore nuclei 0 are called )e5tateHy5#aeJ

EA4P!E2 4us#roo%s;& NN:)EPTATE HYPHAEDEFINITINT#ose #y5#ae0 (#ic# lac' se5ta [ are not di$ided into indi$idualcells0 instead t#ese are in t#e for% of long0 %ultinucleated large cellsare called Non:se5tate or Coenocytic Hy5#ae&EA4P!E 4ucor [ R#i=o5usCE!! -A!! F HYPHAECHITIN is t#e c#ief co%5onent 5resent in t#e cell (all of %ost fungi0Because it is %ore resistant to decay t#an are t#e Cellulose [ lignin

(#ic# %a'e u5 5lant cell (all&CYTP!A)4 F HYPHAEIn se5tate Hy5#ae \ Cyto5las% flo(s t#roug# t#e 5ores of se5tafro% cell to cell0 carrying t#e %aterials to gro(ing ti5s [ ena,ling t#e#y5#ae to gro( ra5idly0 under fa$ora,le conditions& In non:se5tate#y5#ae \\ cyto5las% %o$es effecti$ely0 distri,uting t#e %aterialst#roug#out&


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N9C!EI F HYPHAEAll fungal nuclei are HAP!ID e6ce5t for transient di5loid =ygote t#atfor%s during se6ual re5roduction&4AIN F9NCTIN F HYPHAE

E6tensi$e s5reading syste% of Hy5#ae 5ro$ides enor%ous surfacearea for a,sor5tion&N9TRITIN IN F9N"I

AB)RPTI*E HETERTRPH)All fungi lac' c#loro5#yll [ are #eterotro5#s 7 o,tain car,on [ energyfro% organic %atter0 T#ey o,tain t#eir food ,y direct a,sor5tion fro%i%%ediate en$iron%ent [ are t#us AB)RPTI*EHETERTRPH)J&DIFFERENT 4DE) F HETERTRPHIC N9TRITIN IN F9N"IBeing Heterotro5#ic0 fungi can e6ist as

1: )a5rotro5#s or sa5ro,es 7 Deco%5osers 8;: Parasites: 4utualists1& )APRBIC R )APRTRPHIC F9N"I 7 DEC4P)ER)8)a5ro,ic fungi along (it# ,acteria0 are t#e %aor deco%5osers of,ios5#ere0 contri,uting to t#e recycling of t#e ele%ents 7C0N0P00H [etc8 used ,y li$ing t#ings&DEFINITIN

T#ose fungi (#ic# o,tain t#eir food 7energy0 car,on [ nitrogen80directly ,y digesting t#e dead organic %atter are called )APRBICF9N"IJ R DEC4P)ER)J4ECHANI)4 F AB)RBIN" FD 7DE*E!P4ENT FRHI+ID)8T#ese fungi anc#or to t#e su,strate ,y %odified #y5#ae0 t#eRHI+ID0 (#ic# 5ro$ide enor%ous surface area for a,sor5ti$e %odeof nutrition&)ECRETIN F DI"E)TI*E U9ICE))a5ro,ic fungi secrete digesti$e uices0 (#ic# digest organic %atter [

t#e organic %olecules t#us 5roduced are a,sor,ed0 ,ac' into t#efungus&;& PARA)ITIC F9N"IDEFINITINT#ose fungi (#ic# a,sor, nutrients directly fro% li$ing #ost cyto5las%are called PARA)ITIC F9N"I&4ECHANI)4


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For o,taining0 t#eir food reuire%ents0 t#ese fungi de$elo5s5eciali=ed #y5#al ti5s called as HA9)TRIA (#ic# 5enetrate t#e#ost tissues for a,sor,ing nutrients&TYPE) R PARA)ITIC F9N"I

Parasitic fungi %ay ,e of t(o ty5esA& B!I"ATE PARA)ITE)B& FAC9!TATI*E PARA)ITE)&7A8 B!I"ATE PARA)ITE)DEFINITINT#ose 5arasitic fungi (#ic# can gro( only in t#eir li$ing #ost [ cannot,e gro(n on a$aila,le defined gro(t# culture %ediu%0 are called ,ligate ParasitesJ&EA4P!E)4any %ilde(s

4ost of Rust s5ecies&7B8 FAC9!TATI*E PARA)ITE)DEFINITINT#ose 5arasitic fungi (#ic# can gro( 5arasitically on t#eir #ost as(ell as ,y t#e%sel$es on artificial gro(t# %edia0 are called Facultati$e ParasitesJ&


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T#ose fungi (#ic# for% suc# sy%,iotic associations (it# ot#er li$ingorganis%s in (#ic# ,ot# 5artners of association get ,enefit fro% eac#ot#er are called 49T9A!I)TIC F9N"I [ )uc# association are calledas 49T9A!I)TIC )Y4BITIC A))CIATIN)J

T- 49T9A!I)TIC )Y4BITIC A))CIATIN) FR4ED BYF9N"IFungi for% t(o 'ey %utualistic sy%,iotic associations& T#ese are21& !ICHEN);&4YCRRHI+AE1& !ICHEN))Y4BITIC PARTNER) IN !ICHEN)!ic#ens are %utualistc [ #a$e sy%,iotic associations ,( certainfungi 7%ostly Asco%ycetes8 [ i%5erfect fungi [ fe( Basidio%ycetes7a,out ;K out of 1?KKK s5ecies of lic#ens8 [ certain 5#otoautotro5#

eit#er green algae or cyno,acteriu% or so%eti%es ,ot#&49T9A! BENEFITIn lic#ens0 fungi 5rotect t#e algal 5artner fro% strong lig#t [desiccation [ itself gets food t#roug# t#e courtesy of alga&

AREA) -HERE !ICHEN) "R-!ic#ens can gro( at suc# 5laces suc# as ,are roc's [ etc0 (#ereneit#er of t#e co%5onents alone can gro(&EC!"ICA! I4PRTANCE F !ICHEN)Fro% ecological 5oint of $ie(0 lic#ens are $ery i%5ortant ,ecause

t#ey ser$e as BI INDICATR) of AIR P!!9TIN&;& 4YCRRHI+AE)Y4BITIC PARTNER)4ycorr#i=ae are %utualistic association ,( certain fungi [ roots of$ascular 5lants 7a,out .?L of all 'inds of $ascular 5lants8&49T9A! BENEFITT#e fungal #y5#ae dra%atically increase t#e a%ount of soil contact [total surface area for a,sor5tion [ #el5 in direct a,sor5tion ofnutrients fro% soil& T#e 5lant on t#e ot#er #and0 su55lies organiccar,on to fungal #y5#ae&

TYPE) F 4YCRRHI+AET#ere are t(o %ain ty5es of %ycorr#i=ae&1& Endo%ycorr#i=ae;& Ecto%ycorr#i=ae1& END4YCRRHI+AEIn Endo%ycorr#i=ae0 t#e fungal #y5#ae 5enetrate t#e outer cells of5lant root0 for%ing coils0 s(ellings [ %inute ,ranc#es0 [ also e6tend


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out into surrounding soil&;&ECT4YCRRHI+AEIn Ecto%ycors#i=ae t#e #y5#ae surround [ e6tend ,et(een t#e cell,ut dont 5enetrate t#e cell (alls of roots&

EA4P!E4utualistic association ,et(een fungi [ 5ines [ firsREPRD9CTIN IN F9N"IT(o 'inds of re5roduction are usually found in Fungi1& A)E9A! REPRD9CTIN;& )E9A! REPRD9CTINE6ce5t In 5erfect Fungi in (#ic# se6ual re5roduction #as not ,eeno,ser$ed&1& A)E9A! REPRD9CTINDEFINITIIN

T#e %ost co%%on %eans of re5roduction in fungi (#ic# does notin$ol$e se6es0 reduction di$ision [ fertili=ation is called A )E9A!REPRD9CTINDIFFERENT 4DE) F A)E9A! REPRD9CTINIn fungi 0 ase6ual re5roduction ta'e 5lace ,y follo(ing (ays21: )PRE FR4ATIN;: CNIDIA FR4ATIN


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#y5ae ,y a co%5lete se5ta&BREA3A"E F )PRAN"IA! -A!!n %aturity of t#e s5ores0 t#e outer (all of s5orangiu% ,rea's do(n[ s5ores are dis5ersed&

DI)PER)IN F )PRE))5ores are usually dis5ersed ,y air currents to great distances [cause (ide distri,ution of %any 'inds of fungi& T#ey %ay also ,edis5ersed ,y s%all ani%als [ insects [ ,y rain s5las#es&"ER4INATIN F )PRE)In a fa$ora,le condition0 on a 5ro5er su,strate0 t#e s5ore ger%inatesgi$ing rise to ne( fungal #y5#ae&;&CNIDIA FR4ATININTRD9CTINT#e ty5e of ase6ual re5roduction in fungi in (#ic# large nu%,er of

ase6ual s5ores called CNIDIA are for%ed0 eac# on ger%inationgi$ing rise to ne( %yceliu% is 'no(n as CNIDIA!REPRD9CTIN&EP!ANATINCNIDIAConidia are non:%otile0 ase6ual s5ores (#ic# %ay ,e 5roduced in$ery large nu%,er [ can sur$i$e for (ee's0 causing ra5idcoloni=ation on ne( food&CNIDIPHRE)

Conidia are not de$elo5ed inside t#e s5orangiu% ,ut t#ey are usuallycut off at t#e end of %odified #y5#ae called CNIDIPHRE)0co%%only in c#ains or clusters&EA4P!E

Ase6ual re5roduction ,y conidia for%ation is $ery co%%on inA)C4YCETE)&


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)E9A! REPRD9CTININTRD9CTINDetails of se6ual re5roduction $ery in different grou5s of fungi on t#e,asis of (#ic# fungi can ,e di$ided into four %aor 5#yla0 Ho(e$er

t#e fusion of #a5loid nuclei [ %eiosis are co%%on to all&EP!ANATIN)e6ual re5roduction in fungi ta'es 5lace t#roug# se$eral stages0(#ic# are as follo(s&P!A)4"A4Y-#en fungi re5roduce se6ually0 #y5#ae of t(o genetically different,ut co%5ati,le %ating ty5es co%e toget#er [ t#eir cyto5las% fuse&T#is 5rocess is called P!A)4"A4Y0 T#is ste5 is co%%on in allty5es of fungi&IN +Y"4YCTA

In +ygo%ycota after Plas%oga%y follo(ing ste5s occur&3ARY"A4YIn =ygo%ycetes0 Plas%oga%y is follo(ed ,y fusion of nuclei0 calledas 3ARY"A4Y+Y"T F4ATIN [ 4EI)I)In +Y"4YCETE)0 fusion of nuclei0 leads directly to t#e for%ation of=ygot0 (#ic# di$ides ,y %eiosis (#en it ger%inates&IN A)C4YCTA AND BA)IDI4YCTAIn t#ese grou5s of fungi0 follo(ing ste5s after 5las%oga%y&

FR4ATIN F DI3ARYTIC NYPHAEIn t#ese grou5s0 t#e t(o genetic ty5es of #a5loid nuclei fro% t(oindi$iduals %y coe6ist [ di$ide in t#e sa%e #y5#ae for %ost of t#e lifeof fungus& )uc# as fungal #y5#ae is called DI3ARYTIC RHETER3ARYTIC HYPHACE!!&FR4ATIN F FR9ITIN" BDIE)E6tensi$e gro(t# of di'aryotic #y5#ae %ay lead to t#e for%ation of%assi$e structures of inter(o$en #y5#ae called as Fruiting Bodies0suc# asBasidia Basidiocar5s

Asci Ascocar5s)YN"A4Y [ 4EI)I)Fusion of t(o #a5loid nuclei occurs (it# in t#e fruiting ,odies for%inga =ygote0 T#is is called as )YN"A4Y0 follo(ed i%%ediately ,y%eiosis&FR4ATIN F HAP!ID )E9A! )PRE)Eac# =ygote di$ides i%%ediately ,y %eiosis to for% four #a5loid


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s5ores0 (#ic# (#en release are dis5ersed0 so%e of t#e% gi$ing riseto ne( #y5#ae&C!A))IFICATIN F F9N"IT#ere are four %aor di$isions of fungi0 (#ic# are di$ided on t#e ,asis

of t#eir se6ual re5roduction&1: +Y"4YCTA;: A)C4YCTA: DE9TER4YCTA1: +Y"4YCTAINTRD9CTIN+ygo%ycota are ,y far t#e s%allest of four grou5s of fungi0 (it# onlya,out /KK na%ed s5ecies& T#is grou5 includes %ore freuently ,read%olds as (ell as a $ariety of ot#er %icrosco5ic fungi found on

decaying organic %aterial&CHARACTERI)TIC FEAT9RET#e grou5 is na%ed after a c#aracteristic feature of t#e life cycle of its%e%,er0 t#e 5roduction of te%5oralily dor%ant structures called+Y")PRE)&T#e =ygo%ycetes lac' se5ta in t#eir #y5#ae i&e coenocytic #y5#ae0e6ce5t (#en t#ey for% s5orangia or ga%etangia&!IFE CYC!E F +Y"4YCTAIn t#e life cycle of =ygo%ycota0 t(o ty5es of re5roduction occurs2

A: )E9A! REPRD9CTIN IN +Y"4YCTAB: A)E9A! REPRD9CTIN IN +Y"4YCTA7A8 )E9A! REPRD9CTIN IN +Y"4YCTA)e6ual re5roduction ta'es 5lace ,y fusion of "A4ETAN"IA infollo(ing ste5s2FR4ATIN F PR"A4ETAN"I94-#en t(o #y5#ae ca%e in contact (it# eac# ot#er0 eac# of t#e%gi$es a lateral 5roga%etangiu%0 facing eac# ot#er&DIFFERENTIATIN F PR"A4ETAN"IA INT "A4ETAN"IA [)9)PEN)R)

!ater on0 eac# of t#e 5roga%etangiu% differentiates into t(o 5artsA5ical s(ollen 5art called "A4ETAN"I940 containing nu%erousnucleiBasal #ollo( 5art called )9)PEN)R&"A4ETAN"IA! CP9!ATINT#e ga%etangia %ay ,e for%ed on #y5#ae of different %ating ty5esor on a single #y5#ae& If different %ating ty5es are in$ol$ed0 fusion


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,et(een 5airs of #a5loid nuclei occurs i%%ediately&+Y"T FR4ATINFusion of #a5loid nuclei results in for%ation of di5loid =ygote nuclei0E6ce5t for t#e =ygote nuclei0 all nuclei of =ygo%ycota are #a5loid&

+Y")PRE FR4ATINAfter t#e for%ation of di5loid =ygote nuclei0 t#e fused 5ortion of#y5#ae de$elo5s into +Y")PRE)&"ER4INATIN F +Y")PRE9nder fa$ora,le condition =ygos5ore ger%inates [ gi$ing rise to ne(%yceliu%& 4eiosis occurs during ger%ination&7B8 A)E9A! REPRD9CTIN IN +Y"4YCTA 7BY )PREFR4ATIN 8

Ase6ual re5roduction occurs %uc# %ore freuently t#an se6ualre5roduction in t#e =ygo%ycetes&

EP!ANATINAs 5re$iously discussed in s5ore for%ationEA4P!E) F +Y"4YCETE)1: 49CR;: RHI+P9) )T!NIPER;:A)C4YCTAINTRD9CTINT#e second di$ision of fungi0 t#e A)C4YCTA is a $ery largegrou5 of a,out


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se$eral to %any nuclei& T#ese cells for% Ant#eridiu% or %alega%etangiu%&;:FE4A!E "A4ETAN"I94 R A)C"NI94T#e ga%etangiu% (#ic# de$elo5 ,ea' li'e out gro(t# called as

TRICH"YNE0 is called fe%ale ga%etangiu% or Ascogoniu%&:PAIRIN" F N9C!EI

After 5las%oga%y0 nuclei fro% ant#eridiu% t#en %igrate t#roug# t#etric#ogyne into t#e ascogoniu%0 [ 5air (it# nuclei of o55osite %atingty5es&?:FR4ATIN F DI3ARYTIC HYPHAE [ DI3ARYTICYDi'arytic #y5#ae t#en arise fro% t#e area of fusion& T#roug#out suc#

#y5#ae0 nuclei t#at re5resent t#e t(o different original %ating ty5esoccur 7 DI3ARYTICY 8 )uc# #y5#ae are also called asHETER3ARYTIC HYPHAE&/:FR4ATIN F A)CCARP) R FR9ITIN" BDIE)E6cessi$e gro(t# of %ono'aryotic or di'aryotic #y5#ae results infor%ation of %assi$e structures of tig#tly inter(o$en #y5#ae0 calledas FR9ITIN" BDIE) F A)CCARP)0 (#ic# corres5onds to t#e$isi,le 5ortions of a %orel or cu5 fungus&@: A)CI FR4ATIN

Asci are s5ecial re5roducti$e structures (#ic# are for%ed on s5ecialfertile layers of di'aryotic #y5#ae (it# in t#e Ascocar5s&: )EPARATIN F A)CI:OT#e asci are cut off ,y t#e for%ation of se5ta at t#e ti5s of#etero'aryotic #y5#ae&.: )YN"A4YT#ere are t(o #a5loid nuclei (it# in eac# ascus one of eac# of (#ic#,elongs to different %ating ty5e& Fusion of t#ese t(o nuclei occurs(it#in eac# ascus called as )YN"A4Y&1K:+Y"T FR4ATIN

)ynga%y results in =ygote for%ation0 (#ic# di$ides i%%ediately ,y%eiosis0 for%ing four #a5loid daug#ter cells&11: FR4ATIN F A)C)PRE)Four #a5loid daug#ter nuclei0 usually di$ide again ,y %itosis 05roducing #a5loid nuclei t#at ,eco%e (alled [ called

A)C)PRE)&1;:B9R)TIN" F A)C9)


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In %ost Asco%ycetes0 t#e ascus ,eco%es #ig#ly turgid at %aturityand ulti%ately ,ursts0 often at a 5erforated area0 (#ic# %ay ,e 5oreor slit or lid1


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CHARACTERI)TIC FEAT9REBasidio%ycetes are na%ed for t#eir c#aracteristic se6ual re5roducti$estructures0 t#e BA)IDI940 (#ic# is clu, s#a5ed li'e as ascus&!IFE CYC!E F BA)IDI4YCTA

In life cycle of Basidio%ycota0 re5roduction is usually se6ual& Ase6ualre5roduction is not $ery i%5ortant&7A8 )E9A! REPRD9CTIN IN BA)IDI4YCTAT#e life cycle of ,asidio%ycetes ,egin (it# t#e 5roduction of #y5#ae(#ic# %ay ,e of t(o ty5es&1: Ho%o'aryotic #y5#ae gi$ing rise to 5ri%ary %yceliu%&;: Hetero'aryotic #y5#ae gi$ing rise to secondary %yceliu%&PRI4ARY R 4N3ARYTIC 4YCE!I94Ho%o'aryotic or %ono'aryotic #y5#ae lac' se5ta at first& E$entually0Ho(e$er0 se5ta are for%ed ,et(een nuclei of t#ese #y5#ae& A

,asidio%ycete %yceliu% %ade u5 of %ono'aryotic #y5#ae is calledPRI4ARY 4YCE!I94&)ECNDARY R DI3ARYTIC 4YCE!I944yceliu% of ,asidio%ycetes0 (it# t(o nuclei0 re5resenting t#e t(odifferent %ating ty5es ,( eac# 5air of se5ta0 is called )ECNDARYR DI3ARYTIC 4YCE!I94& 4ost of t#e %yceliu% of,asidio%ycetes t#at occur in nature is di'aryotic [ often onlydi'aryotic %yceliu% is a,le to for% ,asidiocar5s&FR4ATIN F BA)IDICARP R FR9ITIN" BDY

Di'aryotic %yceliu% is res5onsi,le for t#e for%ation of FR9ITIN"BDY in Basidio%ycetes called as BA)IDICARP0 %ade u5 of tig#tlyinter(o$en di'aryotic #y5#ae&FR4ATIN F BA)IDI94Basidiu% is c#aracteristic re5roducti$e structure of Basidio%ycetes0(#ic# is clu, s#a5ed [ for%ed (it# in t#e Basidiocar5& T#is 5roducesslender 5roection at t#e end called as )TERI"4ATA0 in t#is (ay&)YN"A4Y [ +Y"T FR4ATINNuclear fusion or syanga%y occurs in Basidiu%0 gi$ing rise to di5loid=ygote0 t#e only di5loid cell of t#e life cycle&

4EI)I) [ BA)IDI)PRE FR4ATIN4eiosis occurs i%%ediately after t#e for%ation of =ygot0 resulting int#e for%ation of four #a5loid nuclei0 (#ic# are incor5orated inBasidios5ores& In %ost %e%,er of t#is di$ision ,asidios5ores are,orne at t#e sterignataDI)PER)IN AND "ER4INATIN)a%e as in Asco%ycetes


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7B8 A)E9A! REPRD9CTIN IN IN BA)IDI4YCTAIn contrast to t#eir effecti$e se6ual re5roduction0 ase6ual re5roductionis rare in %ost ,asidio%ycetes&EA4P!E) F BA)IDI4YCETE)

49)HR4)TAD )T!)P9FF BA!!)UE!!Y F9N"I)HE!F F9N"IP!ANT PATH"EN) CA!!ED R9)T) [ )49T)0>&DE9TER4YCTA 7F9"I I4PERFECTI8INTRD9CTINT#e fungi t#at are classified is t#is grou50 are si%5ly t#ose in (#ic#t#e se6ual re5roducti$e stages #a$e not ,een o,ser$ed& In ot#er

(ords0 %ost of t#e Fungi I%5erfecti are as asco%ycota t#at #a$e lostt#e a,ility to re5roduce se6ually& T#ere are so%e 1@KKK descri,eds5ecies of t#is grou5&JCHARACTERI)TIC FEAT9RE)e6ual re5roduction is a,sent a%ong Fungi I%5erfecti!IFE CYC!E F DE9TER4YCTA

Alt#oug# in life cycle of deutero%ycetes or Fungi I%5erfecti0 truese6ual re5roduction is a,sent0 ,ut t#ere is certain ty5e of "ENETICREC4BINATIN (#ic# see%s to ,e res5onsi,le for so%e of t#e

5roduction of ne( 5at#ogenic strains of (#eat rust&"ENETIC REC4BINATIN IN F9N"I I4PERFECTIPARA)E9A!ITYIn 5arase6uality0 e6c#ange of 5ortions of c#ro%oso%es ,et(een t#egenetically distinct nuclei (it# in a co%%on #y5#ae ta'es 5lace& T#isis t#e s5ecial ty5e of genetic reco%,ination occurs in fungi I%5erfecti&EA4P!E) F F9N"I I4PERFECTI

A%ong t#e econo%ically i%5ortant genera of Fungi I%5erfecti are1:PENICI!!I94;: A)PER"I!!9)


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FD4any 'inds of edi,le fungi are in t#e for% of %us#roo%s0 are asource of nouris#ing [ delicious food dis#es& But not all t#e%us#roo%s are edi,le& )o%e of t#e% are 5oisonous [ called as toad

stools or deat# stool& Yeast0 anot#er 'ind of fungi0 are utili=ed in,a'ing industry&4EDICINE)Nearly t(o do=ens anti,iotics #a$e ,een isolated fro% different ty5esof fungi [ ,acteria0 li'ePenicilliun fro% 5enecilliu% notatu%Neo%ycinC#loro%ycetinTetra%ycin [ etc&FD PRD9CTIN

4any 'inds of Yeast are used in t#e 5roduction of ,a'ery [ ,re(ery5roducts& )o%e s5ecies of genus PENICI!!I94 gi$e c#aracteristicfla$ors [ aro%as to t#e c#eese&FER4ENTATIN)5ecies of As5ergillus0 are used for fer%enting soya sauce [ soya5aste& Citric Acid is 5roduced co%%ercially (it# %e%,ers of t#isgenus under #ig#ly acidic condition&)I! FERTI!ITYFungi %aintain t#e soil fertility ,y deco%5osing t#e dead organic

%atter e&g 4ycor#i=al fungi&PRD9CTIN F R"ANIC C4P9ND)4ay s5ecies of fungi are used in t#e 5roduction of organic co%5oundsuc# as $ita%ins0 5roteins [ fats& )acc#aro%yces0 synt#esi=es arange of $ita%in B grou5&HAR4F9! F9N"IFollo(ing are so%e of t#e #ar%ful effects of fungi0FD )PI!A"E)a5ro5#ytic fungi cause tre%endous a%ounts of s5oilage of foodstuff& 1?:;KL of (orlds fruit is lost eac# year due to fungal attac'&

)PI!A"E F -D [ !EATHER ARTIC!E)4any fungi s5oil leat#er goods0 (oods0 (ool0 ,oo's0 ti%,er0 cotton [etc& -D:RTTIN" F9N"I destroy not only li$ing trees ,ut alsostructural ti%,er& BRAC3ET)HE!F F9N"I cause lot of da%age tostore cut lu%,er as (ell as stands of ti%,er of li$ing trees&TIN)4any fungi are 5oisonous & A4ANITA *ERNA is a %us#roo%0 (#ic#


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5roduces deadly 5oisonous su,stance 'no(n as A4ANITIN0 (#ic#causes serious 5ro,le%s in res5iratory syste% [ ,lood circulatorysyste%&FD PI)NIN"

)o%e fungi during deco%5osing food release certain 5oisonoussu,stances collecti$ely 'no(n as 4YCTIN)& 4ycoto6ins are t#e%aor source of food 5oisoning&DI)EA)E)Fungi cause a nu%,er of diseases in 5lants as (ell as in #u%an,eings&P!ANT DI)EA)E) CA9)ED BY F9N"IFungi destroy %any agricultural cro5s0 fruits0 orna%entals [ ot#er'inds of 5lants ,ecause t#ey 5roduce se$eral en=y%es t#at can,rea'do(n cellulose0 !ignin and e$en cutin& Follo(ing are so%e of

t#e serious 5lant disease caused ,y Fungi&R9)T [ )49T DI)EA)E)Rust [ s%ut diseases are serious diseases of -HEAT0 RICE0 CRN[ot#er cerial cro5s& T#ey cause e6tensi$e da%age&PTAT B!I"HT

A serious disease of 5otato caused ,y a fungus 'no(n asPHYTPTHRA INFE)TAN)& t#er 5lant disease are&Po(dery %ilde(s 7 on gra5es0 rose0 (#eat [ etc8&Ergot of rye

Red rot of sugar canePotato (illCotton root rot

A55le sca,Bro(n rot of 5eac#es0 5lu%s0 a5ricots [ c#erries&

ANI4A! DI)EA)E) CA9)ED BY F9N"IFollo(ing are so%e of t#e fungal diseases in %an&)3IN DI)EA)E)RIN" -R4 [ ATHE!ETE) FT are su5erficial fungal infectioncaused ,y certain Fungi In5erfecti

RA! THR9)HCANIDIA A!BICAN)0 a yeast causes oral [ *aginal t#rus#&

A)PER"I!!)I)As5ergillosis is t#e disease of ear [ lungs caused ,y A)PER"I!!9)&It occurs only in 5erson (it# defecti$e i%%une syste% suc# as AID)[ cause deat#&CANCER


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)o%e strains of A)PER"I!!9) F!A*9) 5roduce one of t#e %ostcarcinogenic 7 cancer causing 8 %ycoto6ins called AF!ATIN)&ER"TI)4Ergotis% is caused ,y eating ,read %ade fro% P9R!E ER"T:

Conta%inated flour& T#e 5oisonous %aterial in t#e ergot causesner$ous s5as%0 con$ulsions0 5syc#otic delusion [ e$en gangrene&HI)TP!A)4)I)Histo5las%osis is a serious disease of lungs caused ,y in#alings5ores of a fungus0 (#ic# is co%%on in soil conta%inated (it# ,irdsfeces&3ingdo% PlantaeINTRD9CTINIncludes all eu'aryotic %ulticellular and c#loro5#yllous li$ingorganis%s0 (#ic# #a$e cell (all %ade u5 of true cellulose&

4aority of %e%,ers are autotro5#ic ,ut fe( are 5arasite e&g&2CuscutaJT#ey #a$e locali=ed gro(t#0 regions of gro(t# lying 5ri%arily at t#ee6tre%ities t#at is root and ste% a5ices&C!A))IFICATIN F 3IN"D4 P!ANTAE3ingdo% 5lanatae is di$ided into to( su,:'ingdo% on t#e ,asis of5resence or a,sence of $ascular tissue 76yle% and 5#loe%8&

A )9B:DI*I)IN BRYPHYTE) 7NN:*A)C9!AR8Class He5atica 7!i$er(orts8

Class 4usci 74osses8Class Ant#roccrota 7Horn(orts8B: )9B:DI*I)IN TRACHEPHYTE)Class Psilo5sida 7Psilo5sids8Class !yco5sida 7Clu, 4osses8Class )5#eno5sida 7Horse Tails8Class Ptero5sida 7Ferns8Class)5er%o5sida 7)eed Plants8)9B DI*I)IN

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