Zanzibar Revolution

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Zanzibar RevolutionFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaThe Zanzibar Revolution saw the 1964 overthrow of theSultan of Zanzibar and his mainly Arab government by localAfrican revolutionaries. An ethnically diverse stateconsisting of a number of islands off the east coast ofTanganyika, Zanzibar had been granted independence byBritain in 1963. Thereafter a series of parliamentaryelections resulted in the Arab minority retaining the hold onpower it had inherited from Zanzibar's former existence asan overseas territory of Oman. Frustrated by under-representation in Parliament despite winning 54% of thevote in the July 1963 election, the mainly African Afro-Shirazi Party (ASP) allied itself with the left-wing UmmaParty, and early on the morning of 12 January 1964 ASPmember John Oke11omobilised around 600-800revolutionaries on the main island of Unguja. Havingoverrun the country's police force and appropriated theirweaponry, the insurgents proceeded to Zanzibar Townwhere they overthrew the Sultan and his government.Reprisals against Arab and South Asian civilians on theisland followed; the resulting death toll is disputed, withestimates ranging from several hundred to 20,000. Themoderate ASP leader Abeid Karume became the country'snew president and head of state, and positions of powerwere granted to Umma party members.The new government's apparent communist ties concernedWestern governments, and as Zanzibar lay within the Britishsphere of influence, the British government drew up anumber of intervention plans. However, the fearedcommunist takeover never materialised, and British and UScitizens were successfully evacuated, so these plans werenot put into effect. Meanwhile, the communist bloc powersofP. R. China, East Germany and the Soviet Unionestablished friendly relations with the new government byrecognising the country and sending advisors. Karumenegotiated a merger of Zanzibar with Tanganyika, formingthe new nation of Tanzania; an act judged by contemporarymedia to be an attempt to prevent communist subversion ofZanzibar. The revolution ended 200 years of Arabdominance in Zanzibar, and is commemorated on the islandeach year with anniversary celebrations and a publicholiday.

Contents 1Background 2 Revolution 3 Aftermath 4 Foreign reaction

4.1 British military response 5 Legacy 6 References

Unguja and Pemba, the two main islands of ZanzibarDate 12 January 1964

Location ZanzibarResult Revolutionaryvictory

MainlyAfricanrevolutionaries

BelligerentsSultanateof

ZanzibarCommanders and leaders

John Okello Sultan JamshidbinAbdullah

Strength600-800 men[1][2] Zanzibar Police ForceCasualties and lossesAt least 80 killed and 200 injured during revolution

(the majoritywere Arabsi3]Up to 20,000 civilianskilled in the afiermath[4]


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6.1 Bibliography

BackgroundThe Zanzibar Archipelago, now part of the East African republic of Tanzania, is a group of islands lying in theIndian Ocean off the coast of Tanganyika. It comprises the main southern island ofUnguja (also known asZanzibar), the smaller northern island of Pemba, and numerous surrounding islets. With a long history of Arabrule dating back to 1698, Zanzibar was an overseas territory of Oman until it achieved independence in 1858under its own Sultancy. [5] In 1890 during Ali ibn Sa'id's reign, Zanzibar became a British protectorate, [6] andalthough never formally under direct rule was considered part of the British Empire. [7]By 1964, the country was a constitutional monarchy ruled by Sultan Jamshid bin Abdullah. [8] Zanzibar had apopulation of around 230,000 Africans-some of whom claimed Persian ancestry and were known locally asShirazis[9]-and also contained significant minorities in the 50,000 Arabs and 20,000 South Asians who wereprominent in business and trade. [9]The various ethnic groups were becoming mixed and the distinctionsbetween them had blurred; [8 ] according to one historian, an important reason for the general support for SultanJamshid was his family's ethnic diversity. [8] However, the island's Arab inhabitants, as the major landowners,were generally wealthier than the Africans; [10] the major political parties were organised largely along ethniclines, with Arabs dominating the Zanzibar Nationalist Party (ZNP) and Africans the Afro-Shirazi Party (ASP).[8]

In January 1961, as part of the process of decolonisation, the island's British authorities drew up constituenciesand held democratic elections. [10] Both the ASP and the ZNP won 11 of the available 22 seats in Zanzibar'sParliament, [8] so further elections were held in June with the number of seats increased to 23. The ZNP enteredinto a coalition with the Zanzibar and Pemba People's Party (ZPPP) and this time took 13 seats, while the ASP,despite receiving the most votes, won just 10. [8 ] Electoral fraud was suspected by the ASP and civil disorderbroke out, resulting in 68 deaths. [8] To maintain control, the coalition government banned the more radicalopposition parties, filled the civil service with its own appointees, and politicised the police. [10]In 1963, with the number of parliamentary seats increased to 31, another election saw a repeat of the 1961votes. Due to the layout of the constituencies the ASP, led by Abeid Arnani Karume, won 54 percent of thepopular vote but only 13 seats, [11] while the ZNP/ZPPP won the rest and set about strengthening its hold onpower. [10] The Umma Party, formed that year by disaffected radical Arab socialist supporters of the ZNP, [12]was banned, and all policemen of African mainland origin were dismissedYl][13] This removed a large portionof the only security force on the island, and created an angry group of paramilitary-trained men with knowledgeof police buildings, equipment and procedures. [14]Complete independence from British rule was granted on 10 December 1963, with the ZNP/ZPPP coalition asthe governing body. The government requested a defence agreement from the United Kingdom, asking for abattalion of British troops to be stationed on the island for internal security duties, [2 ] but this was rejected as itwas deemed inappropriate for British troops to be involved in the maintenance of law and order so soon afterindependence. [2] British intelligence reports predicted that a civil disturbance, accompanied by increasingcommunist activity, was likely in the near future and that the arrival of British troops might cause the situationto deteriorate further. [2] However, many foreign nationals remained on the island, including 130 Britons whowere direct employees of the Zanzibar government. [15]

RevolutionAround 3:00 am on 12 January 1964,600-800 poorly armed, mainly African insurgents, aided by some of therecently dismissed ex-policemen, attacked Unguja's police stations, both of its police armouries, and the radiostation. [1][2] The Arab police replacements had received almost no training and, despite responding with amobile force, were soon overcome. [1][16] Arming themselves with hundreds of captured automatic rifles,submachine guns and Bren guns, the insurgents took control of strategic buildings in the capital, Zanzibar


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Town_[17][18]Within six hours of the outbreak of hostilities, the town's telegraph office and main governmentbuildings were under revolutionary control, and the island's only airstrip was captured at 2: 18 pm. [17][18]TheSultan, together with Prime Minister Muhammad Shamte Hamadi and members of the cabinet, fled the islandon the royal yacht Seyyid Khalifa, [18][19]nd the Sultan's palace and other property was seized by therevolutionary government. [3]At least 80 people were killed and 200 injured, the majority of whom were Arabs,during the 12 hours of street fighting that followed. [3]Sixty-one American citizens, including 16 men staffing aNASA satellite tracking station, sought sanctuary in the English Club in Zanzibar Town, and four USjournalists were detained by the island's new government. [18][20]According to the official Zanzibari history, the revolution was planned and headed by the ASP leader AbeidAmani Karume. [2]However, at the time Karume was on the African mainland as was the leader of the bannedUmma Party, Abdulrahman Muhammad Babu. [19]The ASP branch secretary for Pemba, Ugandan-born ex-policeman John Okello, had sent Karume to the mainland to ensure his safety. [1][19]Okello had arrived inZanzibar from Kenya in 1959,[8]claiming to have been a field marshal for the Kenyan rebels during the MauMau Uprising, although he actually had no military experience. [1]He maintained that he heard a voicecommanding him, as a Christian, to free the Zanzibari people from the Arabs, [8]and it was Okello who led therevolutionaries-mainly unemployed members of the Afro-Shirazi Youth League-on 12 JanuaryY][13] Onecommentator has further speculated that it was probably Okello, with the Youth League, who planned therevolution. [2]

AftermathA Revolutionary Council was established by the ASP and Umma partiesto act as an interim government, with Karume heading the council asPresident and Babu serving as the Minister of External Affairs. [19]Thecountry was renamed the People's Republic of Zanzibar and Pemba;P]the new government's first acts were to permanently banish the Sultanand to ban the ZNP and zppp_[3] Seeking to distance himself from thevolatile Okello, Karume quietly sidelined him from the political scene,although he was allowed to retain his self-bestowed title offieldmarshal. [1][19]However, Okello's revolutionaries soon began reprisalsagainst the Arab and Asian population ofUnguja, carrying out beatings,rapes, murders, and attacks on property. [1][19]He claimed in radiospeeches to have killed or imprisoned tens of thousands of his "enemies and stooges",P] but actual estimates ofthe number of deaths vary greatly, from "hundreds" to 20,000. Some Western newspapers give figures of 2,000-4,000; [20][21]he higher numbers may be inflated by Okello's own broadcasts and exaggerated reports in someWestern and Arab news media_[1][4][22]he killing of Arab prisoners and their burial in mass graves wasdocumented by an Italian film crew, filming from a helicopter, for Africa Addio and this sequence offilmcomprises the only known visual document of the killingsY3] Many Arabs fled to safety in Oman, [4]althoughby Okello's order no Europeans were harmed. [19]The post-revolution violence did not spread to Pemba. [22]By 3 February Zanzibar was finally returning to normality, and Karume had been widely accepted by the peopleas their president. [24]A police presence was back on the streets, looted shops were re-opening, and unlicensedarms were being surrendered by the civilian populace. [24]The revolutionary government announced that itspolitical prisoners, numbering 500, would be tried by special courts. Okello formed the Freedom Military Force(FMF), a paramilitary unit made up of his own supporters, which patrolled the streets and looted Arab property.[25][26]he behaviour of Okello's supporters, his violent rhetoric, Ugandan accent, and Christian beliefs werealienating many in the largely moderate Zanzibari and Muslim ASP, [27]and by March many members of hisFMF had been disarmed by Karume's supporters and the Umma Party militia. On 11 March Okello wasofficially stripped of his rank of Field Marshal, [26][27][28]nd was denied entry when trying to return to Zanzibarfrom a trip to the mainland. He was deported to Tanganyika and then to Kenya, before returning destitute to hisnative Uganda. [27]


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In April the government formed the People's Liberation Army (PLA) and completed the disarmament ofOkello's remaining FMF militia. [27]On 26 April Karume announced that a union had been negotiated withTanganyika to form the new country of Tanzania. [29]The merger was seen by contemporary media as a meansof preventing communist subversion of Zanzibar; at least one historian states that it may have been an attemptby Karume, a moderate socialist, to limit the influence of the radically left-wing Umma Party. [25][29][30]However, many of the Umma Party's socialist policies on health, education and social welfare were adopted bythe government. [22]

Foreign reactionBritish military forces in Kenya were made aware of the revolution at 4:45 am on 12 January, and following arequest from the Sultan were put on 15 minutes' standby to conduct an assault on Zanzibar's airfield. [1][31]However, the British High Commissioner in Zanzibar, Timothy Crosthwait, reported no instances of Britishnationals being attacked and advised against intervention. As a result, the British troops in Kenya were reducedto four hours' standby later that evening. Crosthwait decided not to approve an immediate evacuation of Britishcitizens, as many held key government positions and their sudden removal would further disrupt the country'seconomy and government. [31]To avoid possible bloodshed, the British agreed a timetable with Karume for anorganised evacuation.Within hours of the revolution, the American ambassador had authorised the withdrawal of US citizens on theisland, and a US Navy destroyer, the USS Manley, arrived on 13 January. [32]The Manley docked at ZanzibarTown harbour, but the US had not sought the Revolutionary Council's permission for the evacuation, and theship was met by a group of armed men. [32]Permission was eventually granted on 15 January, but the Britishconsidered this confrontation to be the cause of much subsequent ill will against the Western powers inZanzibar. [33]Western intelligence agencies believed that the revolution had been organised by communists supplied withweapons by the Warsaw Pact countries. This suspicion was strengthened by the appointment of Babu asMinister for External Affairs and Abdullah Kassim Hanga as Prime Minister, both known leftists with possiblecommunist tiesY] Britain believed that these two were close associates of Oscar Kambona, the Foreign AffairsMinister of Tanganyika, and that former members of the Tanganyika Rifles had been made available to assistwith the revolution. [1]Some members of the Umma Party wore Cuban military fatigues and beards in the styleof Fidel Castro, which was taken as an indication of Cuban support for the revolution. [34]However this practicewas started by those members who had staffed a ZNP branch office in Cuba and it became a common means ofdress amongst opposition party members in the months leading up to the revolution. [34]The new Zanzibargovernment's recognition of the German Democratic Republic (the first African government to do so), and ofNorth Korea, was further evidence to the Western Powers that Zanzibar was aligning itself closely with thecommunist bloc. [26]Just six days after the revolution the New York Times stated that Zanzibar was "on the vergeof becoming the Cuba of Africa", but on 26 January denied that there was active communist involvement. [20][35]Zanzibar continued to receive support from communist countries and by February was known to be receivingadvisers from USSR, East Germany and China. [36]At the same time, western influence was diminishing and byJuly 1964 just one Briton, a dentist, remained in the employ of the Zanzibari government. [15]Ithas been allegedthat Israeli spymaster David Kimche was a backer of the revolution[37] with Kimche in Zanzibar on the day ofthe Revolution. [38]The deposed Sultan made an unsuccessful appeal to Kenya and Tanganyika for military assistance, [31]althoughTanganyika sent 100 paramilitary police officers to Zanzibar to contain rioting_[1]Other than the TanganyikaRifles (formerly the colonial King's African Rifles), the police were the only armed force in Tanganyika, and on20 January the police absence led the entire Rifles regiment to mutiny. [1]Dissatisfied with their low pay ratesand with the slow progress of the replacement of their British officers with Africans, [39]he soldiers' mutinysparked similar uprisings in both Uganda and Kenya. However, order on the African mainland was rapidlyrestored without serious incident by the British Army and Royal Marines. [40]


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The possible emergence of an African communist state remained a source of disquiet in the West. In February,the British Defence and Overseas Policy Committee said that, while British commercial interests in Zanzibarwere "minute" and the revolution by itself was "not important", the possibility of intervention must bemaintained. [41]The committee was concerned that Zanzibar could become a centre for the promotion ofcommunism in Africa, much like Cuba had in the Americas. [41]Britain, most of the Commonwealth, and theUSA withheld recognition of the new regime until 23 February, by which time it had already been recognisedby much of the communist bloc.[42]In Crosthwait's opinion, this contributed to Zanzibar aligning itself with theSoviet Union; Crosthwait and his staffwere expelled from the country on 20 February and were only allowed toreturn once recognition had been agreed. [42]British military responseFollowing the evacuation of its citizens on 13 January, the USgovernment stated that it recognised that Zanzibar lay within Britain'ssphere of influence, and would not intervene. [43]The US did, however,urge that Britain cooperate with other East African countries to restoreorder. [43]The first British military vessel on the scene was the surveyship HMS Owen, which was diverted from the Kenyan coast and arrivedon the evening of 12 January.[33]Owen was joined on 15 January by thefrigate Rhyl and the Royal Fleet Auxiliary ship Hebe. While the lightlyarmed Owen had been able to provide the revolutionaries with anunobtrusive reminder of Britain's military power, the Hebe and Rhylwere different matters. [33]Due to inaccurate reports that the situation inZanzibar was deteriorating, the Rhyl was carrying a company of troops of the first battalion of the StaffordshireRegiment from Kenya, the embarkation of which was widely reported in the Kenyan media, and would hinderBritish negotiations with Zanzibar. [33]The Hebe had just finished removing stores from the naval depot atMombasa and was loaded with weapons and explosives. Although the Revolutionary Council was unaware ofthe nature of Hebe's cargo, the Royal Navy's refusal to allow a search of the ship created suspicion ashore andrumours circulated that she was an amphibious assault ship. [33]

since the Suez Crisis. [27]

A partial evacuation of British citizens was completed by 17 January,[44]when the army riots in East Africa prompted Rhyl's diversion toTanganyika so the troops she was carrying could assist in quelling themutiny. In replacement, a company of the Gordon Highlanders wasloaded aboard Owen so an intervention could still be made if necessary.[45]The aircraft carriers Centaur and Victorious were also transferred tothe region as part of Operation Parthenon. [42]Although never enacted,Parthenon was intended as a precaution should Okello or the Ummaparty radicals attempt to seize power from the more moderate ASP. [27]In addition to the two carriers, the plan involved three destroyers, Owen,13 helicopters, 21 transport and reconnaissance aircraft, the secondbattalion of the Scots Guards, 45 Commando of the Royal Marines andone company of the second battalion of the Parachute Regiment. Theisland of Unguja, and its airport, were to be seized by parachute andhelicopter assault, followed up by the occupation of Pemba. Parthenonwould have been the largest British airborne and amphibious operation

Following the revelation that the revolutionaries may have received communist bloc training, OperationParthenon was replaced by Operation Boris. This called for a parachute assault on Unguja from Kenya, but waslater abandoned due to poor security in Kenya and the Kenyan government's opposition to the use of itsairfields. [46]Instead Operation Finery was drawn up, which would involve a helicopter assault by RoyalMarines from HMS Bulwark, a commando carrier then stationed in the Middle East. [30]As Bulwark was outsidethe region, Finery's launch would require 14 days' notice, so in the event that a more immediate response wasnecessary, suitable forces were placed on 24 hours' notice to launch a smaller scale operation to protect Britishcitizens. [30]


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With the merger of Tanganyika and Zanzibar on 23 April, there were concerns that the Umma Party wouldstage a coup; Operation Shed was designed to provide for intervention should this happen. [30] Shed would haverequired a battalion of troops, with scout cars, to be airlifted to the island to seize the airfield and protectKarume's government. [47] However, the danger of a revolt over unification soon passed, and on 29 April thetroops earmarked for Shed were reduced to 24 hours' notice. Operation Finery was cancelled the same day. [47]Concern over a possible coup remained though, and around 23 September Shed was replaced with Plan Giralda,involving the use of British troops from Aden and the Far East, to be enacted if the Umma Party attempted tooverthrow President Julius Nyerere of Tanzania. [48] An infantry battalion, tactical headquarters unit andelements of the Royal Marines would have been shipped to Zanzibar to launch an amphibious assault,supported by follow-on troops from British bases in Kenya or Aden to maintain law and order. [49] Giralda wasscrapped in December, ending British plans for military intervention in the country. [50]

LegacyOne of the main impacts of the revolution in Zanzibar was to break thepower of the Arab/Asian ruling class, who had held it for around 200years. [51][52] Despite the merger with Tanganyika Zanzibar retained aRevolutionary Council and House of Representatives which was, until1992, run on a one party system and has power over domestic matters.[53] The domestic government is led by the President of Zanzibar,Karume being the first holder of this office. This government used thesuccess of the revolution to implement reforms across the island. Manyof these involved the removal of power from Arabs. The Zanzibar civilservice, for example, became an almost entirely African organisationand land was redistributed from Arabs to Africans. [51] The revolutionarygovernment also instituted social reforms such as free healthcare andopening up the education system to African students (who had occupiedonly 12% of secondary school places before the revolution). [51]The government sought help from the Soviet Union, the GermanDemocratic Republic (GDR) and P. R. China for funding for severalprojects and military advice. [51] The failure of several GDR-Ied projectsincluding the New Zanzibar Project, a 1968 urban redevelopmentscheme to provide new apartments for all Zanzibaris, led to Zanzibarfocussing on Chinese aid. [54][55] The post-revolution Zanzibargovernment was accused of draconian controls on personal freedomsand travel and exercised nepotism in appointments to political andindustrial offices, the new Tanzanian government being powerless tointervene. [56][57] Dissatisfaction with the government came to a headwith the assassination of Karume on 7 April 1972, which was followedby weeks of fighting between pro and anti-government forces. [58] Amulti-party system was eventually established in 1992, but Zanzibarremains dogged by allegations of corruption and vote-rigging. [53][59]

participating in a military parade tomark the 40th anniversary of therevolution

A kanga celebrating ten years sincethe revolution (mapinduzu), withreferences to the ASP and TANU(museum of the House of Wonders,Stone Town)

The revolution itself remains an event of interest for Zanzibaris andacademics. Historians have analysed the revolution as having a racialand a social basis with some stating that the African revolutionaries represent the proletariat rebelling againstthe ruling and trading classes, represented by the Arabs and South Asians. [60] Others discount this theory andpresent it as a racial revolution that was exacerbated by economic disparity between races. [61] Within Zanzibarthe revolution is a key cultural event and it has been marked by the release of 545 prisoners on its tenthanniversary, and by a military parade on its 40th. [62] Zanzibar Revolution Day is celebrated on 12 January eachyear and has been designated as a public holiday by the government of Tanzania. [63]


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