Yasmin GunaratnamYasmin Gunaratnam

University of Central University of Central LancashireLancashire

The Production of Difference in Qualitative

Research

Howard BeckerHoward Becker

‘‘Methodology is too Methodology is too important to be left to important to be left to methodologists.’methodologists.’

ThemesThemes

► Epistemology Epistemology (theory of knowledge) - how (theory of knowledge) - how do we work with racial and ethnic categories do we work with racial and ethnic categories in research? How might we know differently? in research? How might we know differently?

► MethodologyMethodology - how does difference - how does difference between the researcher & research between the researcher & research participant impact upon the research participant impact upon the research interactions & knowledge that is produced in interactions & knowledge that is produced in qualitative research? How do we discern qualitative research? How do we discern this impact empirically?this impact empirically?

► EmotionsEmotions: Difference as a source of : Difference as a source of anxiety, assumptions about the emotionality anxiety, assumptions about the emotionality of racialised research participantsof racialised research participants

► PoliticsPolitics: - interactional, institutional & : - interactional, institutional & social relationssocial relations

Some WritingSome Writing

‘… ‘… our very concern with our very concern with naming and with naming and with examining ‘race’ and examining ‘race’ and ethnicity (often in order to ethnicity (often in order to uncover oppressive uncover oppressive relations of power), always relations of power), always runs the risk of runs the risk of reproducing ‘race’ and reproducing ‘race’ and ethnicity as essentialized ethnicity as essentialized and deterministic and deterministic categories that can categories that can (re)constitute these very (re)constitute these very power relations’ . power relations’ .

Gunaratnam, 2003: 32-3Gunaratnam, 2003: 32-3

The ‘Treacherous Bind’The ‘Treacherous Bind’

► While ‘race’ and ethnicity While ‘race’ and ethnicity have been recognised as have been recognised as being socially constructed being socially constructed rather than ‘natural’, fixed rather than ‘natural’, fixed categories of difference, categories of difference, racial and ethnic identities racial and ethnic identities have ‘real’ meaning and have ‘real’ meaning and consequences in everyday consequences in everyday life & in researchlife & in research

► How can we engage with How can we engage with lived experiences lived experiences andand work work against the constraints of against the constraints of racial thinking?racial thinking?

Inter-racial research as a Inter-racial research as a ‘problem’‘problem’

► Difference as distance

► ‘Race of interviewer effects’ (US survey research)

► Racialized difference between the Racialized difference between the research participant and interviewer can research participant and interviewer can affect the ‘genuineness’ and ‘accuracy’ affect the ‘genuineness’ and ‘accuracy’ of what research participants say of what research participants say particularly with regard to ‘racial topics’particularly with regard to ‘racial topics’

Race of Interviewer effects - Race of Interviewer effects - Schuman and Converse study

(1971) Greatest difference by R of I Greatest difference by R of I Least difference by R Least difference by R

of Iof I

Do you personally feel that you can trust mostDo you personally feel that you can trust most Have you ever taken part in any Have you ever taken part in any kind violent kind violent protest for civil rights?protest for civil rights?

white people, some white people, or none at all?white people, some white people, or none at all?

Some leaders want to organize Negroes into gps Some leaders want to organize Negroes into gps Do you think you were ever Do you think you were ever refused a refused a

to protect themselves against any violence by to protect themselves against any violence by job because of being Negro?job because of being Negro?Whites. Do you think this is worthwhile or not?Whites. Do you think this is worthwhile or not?

In yourIn your church has money ever been collected at church has money ever been collected at Do you think there are many, Do you think there are many, some, or some, or

Sunday service for the Civil Rights movement?Sunday service for the Civil Rights movement? just a few places in the city of just a few places in the city of Detroit Detroit where a Negro could not where a Negro could not rent or buy arent or buy a house because house because of racial discrimination?of racial discrimination?

Race of Interviewer Effects: What Happens on the Web? Krysan &

Couper Inter J of Internet Science 2006, 1 (1), 17-28

‘Social Presence’

Krysan & Couper ‘Mere Presence’

Krysan & Couper - Questions

Do you feel you can trust most White people, some White people, or no White people?

Do you feel you can trust most Black people, some Black people, or no Black people?

On the average, Blacks have worse jobs, income, and housing than White people.Do you think these differences are because most Blacks have less in-born ability to learn?

On the average, Blacks have worse jobs, income, and housing than White people. Do you think these differences are because most Blacks just don't have the motivation or will power to pull themselves up out of poverty?

Krysan & Couper - Conclusions

Findings indicate mixed support for the hypothesis that mere presence may activatenegative attitudes, while social presence may lead to censoring or editing or these negative attitudes.

Racialised Difference in Qualitative Racialised Difference in Qualitative ResearchResearch

‘‘Closeness of identity and, in Closeness of identity and, in particular shared racial identity is particular shared racial identity is generally presumed to promote generally presumed to promote effective communication between effective communication between researcher and subject and, researcher and subject and, conversely, disparate identity to conversely, disparate identity to inhibit it. inhibit it. (Rhodes, (Rhodes, Sociology, 1994,Sociology, 1994, 28(2): 28(2): 547-58547-58))

Ethnic Matching - Ethnic Matching - AssumptionsAssumptions

►Ethnicity used as ‘methodological Ethnicity used as ‘methodological capital’ to access & get ‘closer to’ capital’ to access & get ‘closer to’

►Reduces inter-subjective distances Reduces inter-subjective distances between the interviewer & the between the interviewer & the research participant research participant

►Ethnic/cultural/religious/linguistic Ethnic/cultural/religious/linguistic differences given primacy over other differences given primacy over other differences (e.g. gender, class, age)differences (e.g. gender, class, age)

►Shared language = shared meaningsShared language = shared meanings

Papadopoulos & Lees (2002) Developing Papadopoulos & Lees (2002) Developing culturally competent researchers, culturally competent researchers, Journal of Journal of

Advanced NursingAdvanced Nursing, 37(3): 258-64., 37(3): 258-64.

A researcher with the same ethnic A researcher with the same ethnic background as the participant will possess background as the participant will possess ‘a rich fore understanding’ (Ashworth, ‘a rich fore understanding’ (Ashworth, 1986) and an insider/emic view (Leininger, 1986) and an insider/emic view (Leininger, 1991; Kauffman, 1994), will have more 1991; Kauffman, 1994), will have more favourable access conditions and the co-favourable access conditions and the co-operation of a large number of people operation of a large number of people (Hanson, 1994) and a genuine interest in (Hanson, 1994) and a genuine interest in the health and welfare of their community. the health and welfare of their community. (p. 261)(p. 261)

Ethnic Matching - CritiqueEthnic Matching - Critique

►Need to move from ‘commonality’ to Need to move from ‘commonality’ to ‘connectivity’‘connectivity’

►The impact of ‘race’ and ethnicity on The impact of ‘race’ and ethnicity on research interactions is not research interactions is not predictablepredictable

►Cannot interpret accounts in relation Cannot interpret accounts in relation to one category of difference to one category of difference

►Even when there is a shared Even when there is a shared language social & biographical language social & biographical difference can affect meaning difference can affect meaning

Twine ‘Twine ‘Racing Research, Racing Research, Researching RaceResearching Race ‘ (2001) ‘ (2001)

[…] rather than mistrusting a white researcher, […] rather than mistrusting a white researcher, racial subalterns in Brazil may be more likely racial subalterns in Brazil may be more likely to identify with them. My experiences suggest to identify with them. My experiences suggest that some Brazilians of color do not that some Brazilians of color do not necessarily feel more comfortable discussing necessarily feel more comfortable discussing the topic of race and racism with those who the topic of race and racism with those who resemble them racially…Moreover, prestige resemble them racially…Moreover, prestige hierarchies and the hierarchies and the

valorization of whiteness resulted in some valorization of whiteness resulted in some Brazilians of color preferring to be interviewed Brazilians of color preferring to be interviewed by my white research partner. (p.16) by my white research partner. (p.16)

Reay ‘Reay ‘Fantasies of Feminisms: Fantasies of Feminisms: Egalitarian Fictions & Elitist Realities’, Egalitarian Fictions & Elitist Realities’, Feminism and PsychologyFeminism and Psychology, 9(4): 426-30., 9(4): 426-30.‘‘The trade in contract researchers is an The trade in contract researchers is an accepted part of both male and female accepted part of both male and female academic empire-building. To become a academic empire-building. To become a female professor, feminist or otherwise, often female professor, feminist or otherwise, often involves buying into a research marketplace involves buying into a research marketplace and acquiring contract researchers as so and acquiring contract researchers as so many ‘intellectual’ possessions…there is many ‘intellectual’ possessions…there is virtually nothing written on the dilemmas of virtually nothing written on the dilemmas of operating as a feminist in an academic operating as a feminist in an academic industry underpinned by, and shored up industry underpinned by, and shored up through, the appropriation of other, less through, the appropriation of other, less powerful women’s intellectual labour; where powerful women’s intellectual labour; where despite the best intentions…hierarchical ways despite the best intentions…hierarchical ways of working remain the norm’ (1999: 429)of working remain the norm’ (1999: 429)

A Doubled PracticeA Doubled Practice

We need an approach to research that:We need an approach to research that:►works both with/and against racial and works both with/and against racial and

ethnic categoriesethnic categories► that is about linking theory to lived that is about linking theory to lived

experienceexperience

► addresses the relationships between a addresses the relationships between a

commitment to anti-racist practice for commitment to anti-racist practice for

research participants & the institutional research participants & the institutional

marginalisation of minoritized researchersmarginalisation of minoritized researchers