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Transcript of YAIR_Design Through Making
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This paper concerns applications for crafts knowledge to design for
industry. Despite theoretical advocation for increased collaboration
between craft makers and manufacturers, empirical research has
previously been limited to anecdotal narrative. The aim of this paper is to
offset this imbalance by documenting an example of best practice, examin-
ing the nature of expertise derived from crafts knowledge and its effect onboth design process and product.
Assertions of the value of crafts knowledge to design centred, until
recently, on upholding standards essentially derived from the Arts and
Crafts Movements commitment to integrity and workmanship. Leach1, for
example, criticised manufacturers for designing without consideration for
their own materials and processes. He envisaged an alliance with craft1 Leach, B A potters bookFaber, London, UK (1940) p 21
www.elsevier.com/locate/destud
0142-694X/99 $ - see front matter Design Studies 20 (1999) 495515
495PII: S0142-694X(98)00040-4
1999 Elsevier Science Ltd All rights reserved Printed in Great Britain
Design through making: craftsknowledge as facilitator tocollaborative new product
developmentKaren Yair, Anne Tomes and Mike Press, Art and Design Research
Centre, School of Cultural Studies, Psalter Lane Campus, Sheffield
Hallam University, Sheffield S11 8UZ, UK
Collaboration between manufacturers and craft makers is believed by
many crafts theorists to offer new originality, insight and specialist
expertise to design for production. In practice, however, there exists a
discrepancy between this ideal and a reality of unreconcilable cultural
and methodological differences. This paper documents and discusses
such a collaboration as an example of best practice with implications
for managers, educators, designers and craft makers. It identifies a new
role for craft makers with the appropriate knowledge and experience to
act as bridges within companies, facilitating the adoption of design
methodologies appropriate to changing priorities in the manufacturing
industries. 1999 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved
Keywords: case study, communication, crafts knowledge, design
management, product development
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makers, whose commitment to such values in their own work could, he
believed, be applied to mass production.
Contemporary theorists have re-assessed the value of crafts knowledge,
suggesting its increasing relevance in relation to changes in consumer
values and corporate strategy. In the context of shortening product life
cycles, for example, craft makers modelling skills can be applied to proto-
typing, potentially minimising development times, improving the com-
munication of ideas and facilitating decision making2. In order to counter
increasing competitiveness, one suggested strategy is to develop products
reflecting a unique combination of expertise rather than a single technologi-
cal innovation. Rhodes and Carter3 suggest achieving this through multi-
disciplinary teamworking, indicating a possible role for craft makers in
contributing to products insusceptibility to imitation. In relation to product
aesthetics, Thackara4 argues that the significance of craft makers potential
input to new product development is increasing as consumers begin to
reject technology-led innovation. Increasing emphasis on visual, tactile and
emotive qualities can benefit from the craft makers process-based creativ-
ity, ability to convey meaning through form and sensitivity to materials.
Technology and crafts knowledge have however been shown not to be
mutually exclusive as, according to Braddock5, their integration in the tex-
tiles industries is essential in devising product applications for chemical
and materials-based innovation.
It may therefore be surmised that craftas a discipline distinct from indus-
trial designcould be contributing with increasing significance to new pro-duct development. However, further investigation indicates that the actual
number of successful collaborations with British manufacturers is small.
Several half documented cases reveal a discrepancy between each partys
expectations, and a reality of unreconcilable cultural and methodological
differences6,7. This anecdotal evidence is substantiated by a 1997 Crafts
Council survey, which suggests that only 3.8% of craft makers engage in
design as an activity detached from their own making8.
Dissatisfaction with such collaboration is common to both parties con-
cerned. Manufacturers are perceived by many craft makers as inflexible,unimaginative and myopic. Leading ceramic maker Jacqui Poncelet
describes her experiences with British manufacturers as like pushing an
elephant7, whilst glass designer and maker Stuart Garfoot states in an
interview with the author that,
Most people (manufacturers) nowadays cant stop the machine of production, the
process of production, to listen to an individuals requirements.
496 Design Studies Vol 20 No 6 November 1999
2Woodhuysen, J Small firms,
big firms and the future of the
crafts RSA Journal Vol CXLIV
No 5471 (1996) pp 7479
3 Rhodes, E and Carter, REmerging corporate strategies
Co-Design Vol 3 (1995) pp 613
4 Thackara, J New britishdesign Thames and Hudson,
London, UK (1986) p 10
5 Braddock, S Respect for tra-dition, curiosity for technology. In
Textiles and new technology
2010 OMahoney, M and Brad-
dock, S (eds) Artemis, London,
UK (1994) pp 18, 23
6 Benjamin, J Raising our
glasses Design August (1986)pp 3033
7 Harrod, T and Margetts, MBridging the divide Crafts
May/June No 80 (1986) pp 50
51
8 Knott, C Crafts in the 1990s:an independent socio-economic
study of craftspeople in England,
Scotland and Wales The Crafts
Council, London, UK (1994) pp
177180
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9 Jevnaker, BH Fostering stra-tegic design directions in busi-
ness firms: the hidden assets
SNF Foundation for Research in
Economics and Business
Research Administration,
Bergen, Norway (1997) p 2
10 Biemans, WG Internal andexternal networks in product
development: a case for inte-
gration. In Product develop-
ment, meeting the challenge of
the designmarketing interface
Bruce, M and Biemans, WG(eds) Wiley, Chichester, UK
(1995) p 147
11 Fletcher, W Creativepeople and how to manage their
creativity Hutchinson, London,
UK (1998) p 33
12 Glaser, B and Strauss, AThe discovery of grounded
theory: strategies for qualitative
research Aldine, Chicago, USA
(1967)
Manufacturers criticisms of craft makers, meanwhile, focus on their
alleged limited awareness of design issues, preoccupation with self-
expression and inability to adapt to new situations. David Williams-
Thomas, former managing director of Royal Brierley Crystal, describes his
view of craft makers shortcomings in an interview with the author:
The studio person who comes into Brierley is really trying to develop their own
ideas They dont have the breadth of vision to look at the marketplace, to look at
our processes, and to bring them together.
Interviews undertaken with both parties have offered some insight into the
complexity of the cultures which frequently impede collaboration between
them. For example, the well documented problems of cultural division
between designers and technicians9 may be exacerbated by both the craft
makers status as an outsider, and by the art-based nature of crafts edu-
cation and practice. This can result in stereotyped perceptions of each party
by the other. Craft makers may for example expect an unattainable degreeof flexibility, whilst production staff may not appreciate the limits of the
craft makers company-specific knowledge.
Conflict clearly exists between strong theoretical advocation for crafts
industry collaboration, and empirical evidence of unproductive working
relationships. This indicates a need for documentation of best practice
where it occurs. By analysing the design methodology employed in a suc-
cessful project and determining the influence on it of contextual factors
and the craft makers knowledge, skills and expertise, implications can
be made both for individuals involved in future projects and by policy-making organisations.
1 MethodologyThe case study was conducted in the context of doctoral research into
applications for crafts knowledge to design for industry. The methodologies
chosen reflect a relative lack of academic research in the field of enquiry.
As this precluded the testing of existing hypotheses, issues were allowed
to emerge from the data as it was collected in an approach broadly based
on Glaser and Strauss concept of grounded theory12.
Initial data collection centred on in-depth, semi-structured interviews,
informing understanding of how interviewees perceive their professional
knowledge and relationships. A combination of direct interpretation and
categorical aggregation defined the most significant emic issues contained
within each interview. By comparing such issues across interviews, and in
relation to other resources such as drawings and documents, theoretical
categories began to emerge. These were in turn used to shape further data
Design through making: crafts knowledge as facilitator to collaborative new product development 497
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collection. In this way, analysis could focus progressively on key issues
as determined by the participants actual experiences, rather than by pre-
existing theories. The links that became evident between empirically
derived categories and the existing literature were therefore in no way
pre-determined.
Although qualitative data is inherently subjective, data analysis strove to
maintain rigour by employing multiple forms of existing triangulation pro-
tocol. Firstly, a relativist approach was adopted which sought to preserve
the cases multiple realities rather than attempt to resolve any contradic-
tions within it. Interviews were therefore undertaken independently with
each of the projects key players. Secondly, methodological triangulation
was used where possible. This combined interview data with observation
of the factory at work, review of relevant literature and documents, and
analysis of sketches, technical drawings and prototypes. Finally, additional
insight into interview data was sought through member checking and inves-
tigator triangulation. These methods represent a search for additional per-
spectives on the case, rather than for confirmation of one particular
interpretation.
2 ContextIn order to contextualise the case and its implications, this section indicates
those aspects of its participants backgrounds with particular significance
for their attitudes and motivations towards the project, and consequent
working methods.
2.1 Designer: Jane BeebeCrafts education and practice is centred on a dialogue between creativity,
materials and skill, the maker developing ideas by combining conceptual
vision with manipulation of the object. A crafts educationsuch as that
undertaken by Beebe at Manchester Polytechnic (198093) and the Royal
College of Art (198688)instills in its students a unique tacit knowledge
of how the chosen material is formed and reacts to processes, as well as
its potential as a vehicle for expression.
For many craft makers, the tensions inherent in this dialogue provide the
creative stimulus for a lifetimes work, with vision and skill developing
simultaneously. For Beebe however, the limitations of her own skill level
became increasingly frustrating as her ideas advanced beyond the para-
meters imposed by them. The solution was to work with another, more
highly skilled craft maker who could produce the size and thickness of
blown glass required. This was a process of collaboration rather than
498 Design Studies Vol 20 No 6 November 1999
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delegation, with the designers crafts knowledge informing both the initial
idea and its development in the hotshop and finishing workshop:
Beebe: Neil (the glassmaker) puts as much of himself into making something as I
do, so its like the sum of everything that you get, instead of one person. And Neil
knows how I work, and as well, my works appropriate to his sense of form andproportion.
This relationship introduced the designer to the concept of collaboration
as a creative catalyst. It demonstrated the new potential offered by integrat-
ing others specialist expertise with the designers vision, and the impor-
tance of communication in achieving the mutual understanding crucial to
success. Figure 1 shows two of a series of sculptural vessels produced in
this way.
Experience of working in the glass industry constitutes another aspect of
Beebes background which is unusual amongst craft makers yet which hascontributed significantly to her competence as a designer. Developing an
understanding of the management of professional relationships and how to
operate within an existing company structure has since proved essential
for consultancy work. The effect of management style, company culture
and company politics on design policy and implementation were evident
at both Royal Brierley and Dartington Crystal, where she worked as studio
glassmaker and freelance designer, respectively. Dartingtons weaknesses
appeared to be its structure (marginalisation of designers, poor communi-
cations, and mechanistic management systems), its lack of direction
Design through making: crafts knowledge as facilitator to collaborative new product development 499
Figure 1 Jane Beebe, Asy-
metric Forms, 1990. Photo-
graph: Trudie Balantyne.
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(designing for an unknown market) and its company politics, resulting in
impeded creativity and new product development.
Beebe: They expect a designer to have all of the answers and do all the work.
Youve got to be psychic. They didnt integrate you as part of the team, you were set
apart, in a Portakabin. To me, design, manufacture, marketing, sales, its all vital that
each feeds to the other, and it didnt.
In addition to developing appreciation of the relationship between pro-
ducts quality and the system that creates them, working at Dartington
provided an opportunity to relate crafts skills to those employed in industry,
specifically the effect of form and processes on pricing.
Beebe: I used to sit and watch production for hours. You could see how one little
movement here or that little pipe-roller there could make so much difference to the
cost of your product and to whether it would go through, because it went under the
price bracket you were working to. Theres a lot to contend with, but it comes
naturally to work around that after a bit.
A project working with Dartingtons finishing team on an exclusive range
of sculptural vessels was valuable to Beebes future work in developing
her skills in team leadership. The most effective strategy found for over-
coming the teams opinion of designers as interventionalists was to demon-
strate equality by sharing their tasks, and establishing a rapport based on
humour. An additional tactic was to exploit the finishers pride by encour-
aging them to demonstrate their skills whilst increasing company prestige.
Rewards were also offered, in the form of praise for their contribution and
a set of photographs of the work. Such motivational tactics successfully
established strong working relationships for the future as well as achieving
short-term aims, and informed relationships with other production teams:
Beebe: I never had any problems with them after that. Theyd always find ways
round things. If Id got a problem production-wise, theyd say well, if you do it like
this itll be alright, dont worry about it. So we always got on very well, we
understood each other.
To summarise, whilst Beebes design skills are essentially derived from
crafts knowledge, her motivations differ from many craft makers in her
need to expand her ideas beyond parameters imposed by her own skill
level. Her experiences have taught her the value to professional practiceof learning-based relationships based on mutual respect. In addition, she
has developed the ability to communicate with and motivate others in order
to attain their input, and to adapt as necessary to company culture.
2.2 Manufacturer: Nazeing GlassNazeing Glass is a Hertfordshire glass manufacturer, operating on its
current site since 1928 and producing only to order, with no in-house
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13 Oakley, M Assembling andmanaging a design team. In
Design methods, a handbook of
issues and methods Oakley, M
(ed) Blackwell, Oxford, UK
(1990) p 332
designers. Its production systems are semi-automated, yet both blown and
pressed ware remain partly reliant upon hand skills, and its products range
from traditional stemware to traffic light lenses and limited edition corpor-
ate trophies. The company occupies an unusual position within the British
glass industry, encumbered by neither the traditional handmade crystal
manufacturers conservatism, nor by the large-scale producers tooling
costs and production constraints.
Although the majority of Nazeings new products involve no design input,
instead reconfiguring existing moulds, in theory the company is well suited
to collaboration with design consultants. The need to adapt to often short
runs of varied products has bred a culture of flexibility and creativity within
the management team which is consistent with the organic management
style recommended by Oakley13 for design-led projects. His definition par-
allels working Nazeings working practices in its emphasis on teamwork,
common goals, job flexibility, communication, and an even distribution ofexpertise throughout the workforce.
In practice, however, relationships between consultant designers and Naz-
eings production staff are characterised by wariness and resentment.
Sales Director: They (production workers) tend to think that because they make it
theyre the ones that know about glass, and the designers come up with these stupid
designs that cant be made.
These attitudes have resulted from the production workers experience of
designers as arrogant and uncompromising idealists, badly informed aboutglassmaking and over-demanding of the processes available. Such design-
ers frequently approach the company with pre-determined requirements,
developed to fulfil a marketing led brief without consideration for pro-
duction constraints. These proposals rarely reach full-scale production, as
the designer is unwilling to compromise on form in order to improve ease
of production and decrease costs.
The resulting negative perception of designers is exacerbated by their status
as outsiders, as mutual respect of competences rarely has time to develop.
New products not only interrupt production, but may also constitute a threatto individual members of the production team, who are forced to prove
their skill to colleagues by making an unfamiliar shape.
To summarise, whilst Nazeing Glasss size, management style and com-
pany policy were conducive to involvement in this design-led and unpre-
dictable project, its weakness was a resistance amongst production staff
towards designers and new products.
Design through making: crafts knowledge as facilitator to collaborative new product development 501
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2.3 Client: Mada TradingMada Trading research, source and supply luxury tea and tobacco products
to the Jeddah-based distributor Linjawi Holding Company, part of the Al-
Maglif Corporation. Their products are characterised by quality of manu-
facture, and by a distinctive and sophisticated style which combines tra-
ditional Eastern and contemporary Western aesthetics.
The company had decided to expand its product range by introducing an
expensive, high-quality glass hookah pipe which was to be marketed as
British-made lead crystal. The long tradition of hookah smoking meant
that the pipes accepted form had evolved through use rather than design,
and that there was little understanding of how it actually functioned. Mada
Trading therefore had no technical knowledge to inform the design process,
meaning that the project required technical solutions as well as an aes-
thetic one.
In evaluating the importance of the case, it is important to acknowledge
the products commercial success. The original order for 200 units has now
been repeated twice, with Linjawi Holding Company experiencing dif-
ficulty in matching supply to demand. Standard components from the orig-
inal design have been used to extend the range, which now includes a
cheaper, metal stemmed version, a travelling version with no neck but a
portable case, and an ornate two-headed version intended for sharing and
for combining different flavours of tobacco. Figure 2 shows the standard
production model.
Mada Trading attributes the products success to its virtual immunity to
imitation, achieved through a combination of quality workmanship and
appropriate design. The companys satisfaction with the project is demon-
strated by its continuing collaboration with both designer and Nazeing
Glass on further new product development.
3 Case study: hookah pipes
3.1 Information gatheringDesign work began with a set of sketches exploring form, colour and sur-face effect, intended as stimuli for discussion rather than actual proposals.
Three of these ideas were immediately commissioned by the client for
manufacture, necessitating the transformation of visual concept sketches
into working prototypes. This was problematic because although the draw-
ings had been informed by the designers understanding of glass from both
studio and manufacturing perspectives, technical requirements had not
been addressed.
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Recognising the limitations of her own expertise, Beebe approached glass
manufacturers, engineers and metal workshops for advice, informing
design development with their specialist expertise and her growing under-
standing of production constraints and capabilities. For this she relied heav-ily on a network of professional contacts, developed during her time work-
ing in the glass industry and as a freelance designer and maker. One contact
was David Royce, sales director at Nazeing Glass, with whom several
previous projects had been discussed. Familiarity with the company
enabled accurate assessment of its suitability for the current project:
whereas price had previously been an important consideration, on this
occasion communication and flexibility were more important criteria.
Design through making: crafts knowledge as facilitator to collaborative new product development 503
Figure 2 Photograph: Tru-
die Balantyne.
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Such a degree of familiarity also informed understanding of the companys
working practices and particular facilities, skills, strengths and weaknesses.
This allowed design to incorporate practical restrictions (such as those
imposed by the size of the annealing kilns), and strengths and working
practices of the production teams. For example, observing the production
teams work on a lamp shaped similarly to the hookahs base allowed the
anticipation of problems with her own designs. Considering features of
production specific to Nazeing was to prove beneficial in the development
phase, as many of the problems that would have been encountered by a
designer unfamiliar with the company were avoided.
Royce: The beauty of it is that youre working with a designer whos sympathetic to
glassmaking, and in particular not just glassmaking, but what we can make and what
were good at.
Informed by the designers improved knowledge of the company, and by
consultation with engineers and metalworkers, aesthetic vision could nowbe integrated with technical considerations and production constraints.
Determining the size of the bases neck proved problematic: whilst a large
diameter caused the smoker to choke through excess inhalation, a small
diameter impeded the blowing of glass into the mould. In addition,
enabling sufficient smoke to ascend the pipe necessitated reducing the
bases capacity twice. Reconciling these two critical dimensions without
compromising the designs elegance could only be achieved by gradual
refinement through a series of functioning prototypes.
Beebe: They couldnt have known until they had something that they could actually
try to smoke, because nobodys even thought about it before.
It was decided not to produce these prototypes at Nazeing as interruptions
to production needed to be minimised, and at this stage the production
teams wariness of designers had not yet been overcome. It was therefore
considered that a flexible environment more conducive to experimentation
and reflection could be better provided by the craft-based workshop fam-
iliar to the designer.
3.2 Focus on productionOnce Nazeings involvement had been secured through a meeting with theclients, design development could be concentrated on its specific systems
and processes. The management team and designer together identified
remaining potential problems by comparing the designs features to those
of previous projects undertaken by Nazeing. One problem occurred in
achieving a tight seal between the metal and glass components. Although
Beebe had believed this to be caused by irregularities in the hand blown
prototype, Royces experience of other projects suggested to him that
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Nazeings version would be similar. Figures 3 and 4 show their solution,
which prevented smoke leakage by altering the funnels shape to provide
a closer join between the metal components. This demonstrates the design-
ers willingness to incorporate suggestions from others, and to compromise
in order to balance design integrity with ease of manufacture.
Beebe: What was happening for them (Nazeing) was that they were getting specific
drawings with specific measurements on that they were having to make, and the
designer was adamant that it was to the drawing. Whereas I said, does this dimension
here give you a problem? Because I can alter that if you want. I would prefer it like
this, but if it makes it easier, I will take it out 2 millimetres. I will move, as long as
its not at critical points that would just destroy the design.
This time at the factory was also crucial in developing a rapport between
designer and production team. By demonstrating an informed interest in
their work, how certain effects were being obtained and the rate of
Design through making: crafts knowledge as facilitator to collaborative new product development 505
Figure 3 Jane Beebe: tech-
nical drawing.
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production, Beebe was able to gain professional respect for her understand-
ing of glassmaking. Establishing a dialogue through crafts knowledge chal-
lenged their perceptions of her as a designer, whilst demonstrating a lack
of arrogance and respect for their skills.
Beebe: Theyll offer you their hand and its black with dirt, but what does it matter?
I think they actually quite like that, that Im prepared to shake the dirty hand.
Foreman: She seems to communicate a lot more (than other designers). And she
doesnt mind being in the factory, you know what I mean? She doesnt mind getting
her hands dirty. Shell talk to you. She seemed to have quite a good idea of how we
went about it. I mean, she ended up telling us what to do in the first place.
506 Design Studies Vol 20 No 6 November 1999
Figure 4 Jane Beebe: revised
technical drawing.
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These comments demonstrate the accuracy of the designers evaluation for
the need to demonstrate equality through participation and communication,
and to establish professional respect. The value of her crafts skills is evi-
dent in both respects. Firstly, it enabled her to communicate with the team
as a sympathetic and informed outsider. Secondly, it allowed her to make
accurate technical specifications and to produce a prototype, demonstrating
competence and facilitating production. Royce acknowledges the impor-
tance of such an attitude to overcoming the production teams scepticism:
Royce: The relationship can be very fraught at times. I think the designer has to be
very skilled in public relations, because the attitude of a production glass factory shop
floor is bloody designers.
During this development phase, the established divisions between designer
and production team were therefore overcome through mutual respect gen-
erated by crafts knowledge. This process of integration was to be essential
to the projects success, fostering a positive attitude to the job within theproduction team. It meant that throughout production, the factory floor
were supportive, willing to overcome problems and keen to produce glass
of a high quality. Whilst the designers outgoing personality undoubtedly
contributed in this respect, the most important factors in her success were
her attitudes to design as a collaborative process that develops from within
the company, and her ability to communicate through her crafts knowledge.
3.3 Team motivationThe integration of the entire product development teamcompany man-
agement, designer, foreman, blowers and finisherswas confirmed by apre-production meeting held at Nazeing. The prototype was presented to
be handled and dismantled by the glass makers and production manager,
increasing their understanding of its function. The meeting was also
important in transferring responsibility for the designs acceptanceand
consequently ownership of itto the team as a whole. Encouraging each
person to consider the design in relation to their own expertise and role in
its production also created another opportunity for remaining problems to
be identified.
Beebe: It was getting rid of the attitude that designers are a real problem because
they say, thats it and thats how its got to be done. I gave them the opportunity for
their input, so if it went wrong then, they couldnt blame me.
An additional benefit of the meeting was the contextualisation of the pro-
ject in terms of Nazeings proposed expansion into new markets based on
quality and service rather than cost. It was important to convey to the
production team their role in providing the level of quality required for
this change in company policy.
Design through making: crafts knowledge as facilitator to collaborative new product development 507
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Royce: So the guys knew what they were trying to achieve, they knew who the end
client was and that we had huge potential business there. He was expecting that he
would be getting a superb, hand made, crafted product. So we had to keep hammering
into our own people that we mustnt let him down. That it might be just another job
to them, but that the client was paying a lot of money for it, it was something very
new, with different criteria, different parameters, and that we had to be very careful
not to make any mistakes.
On commencing production, the benefits of high production staff motiv-
ation became evident, in terms of both the quality of work produced and the
level of interest and enthusiasm demonstrated. The factory teams resulting
willingness to solve problems is demonstrated by their input as production
began. When the actual moulds were used for the first time, it was disco-
vered that the sharp angle where the shoulder of the base met the pipe
caused the glass to crack. Although the need to maintain an effective seal
precluded any change to the shape itself, the blowers devised the solution
of filing the edges slightly with emery paper. In a typical project, such a
problem would have been blamed on poor design, with little attempt made
by the production team to resolve it.
4 Discussion
4.1 Communication through craftTraditional design management systems follow a linear sequence, whereby
design is essentially imposed upon production. When Nazeing is
approached by an agency with a finished design for production they are
experiencing this model, often compared to a relay race where the batonof new product development is passed from one department to another.
Recent studies, however, reject this method in favour of concurrent devel-
opment which integrates design, engineering, sales and marketing from the
projects conception onwards. Advantages of cross-functional development
include decreased product development times, improved organisational
ability to solve complex problems, heightened customer focus, increased
creative potential, improved learning by team members and a single point
of contact within the company for clients10.
It is established that the success of such cross-functional development inthe manufacturing sector is often inhibited by cultural divisions separating
designers and technical staff, which have been shown by production work-
ers comments to exist at Nazeing. According to Biemans, divisions orig-
inate in differing backgrounds and attitudes between professional groups,
and result in each group perceiving the other according to stereotypes and
displaying little interest in their work10. Such cultural differences may be
expected to be exacerbated in collaborations involving craft makers, as
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their perceived status as artists can stereotype them as insecure, egotistical,
stubborn, rebellious, poor time-keeping perfectionists11. Such negative
stereotyping can result in an attitude from production and technical staff
of resentment and unwillingness to compromise. As Oakley writes,
Resistance (in general) may take the form of constant rejections of new designs,refusal to supply information and help, or simply obstructionall while paying lip
service to the need for new products13.
This case study, however, demonstrates how the dual nature of craft mak-
ingas a discipline with its origins in both design and productioncan
succeed in overcoming such cultural divisions and consequently optimize
the potential of cross-functional development.
The projects stakeholders constituted an unusually diverse group in terms
of attitudes, motivations and working methods, determined by differences
in class, culture and status. Beebe recognised the potential communication
problems resulting from this diversity, and the impact of this on a project
largely dependent on communication for its success. She therefore adopted
a bridging role between the client, subcontractors and Nazeings manage-
ment and shop floor, acting in a way that Royce describes as cha-
meleon-like:
Royce: When Jane is talking with the glass blowers, shes got to be one of them.
When shes talking to prospective clients who might be directors of a chain of stores
or whatever, shes got to be one of them. Shes got to blend in.
Crucial to success in this role was an understanding of the perspectives,
motivations and ways of working characteristic of each group. This was
informed by the dual nature of crafts knowledge as a discipline dependent
on both practical skill and reflection, and by experience of working in the
glass industry. For example, translating the clients tastes and needs into
an appropriate product required the employment of analytical and inter-
pretive skills common to both craft and design education. The management
of relationships both within the manufacturing company and between it
and Mada Trading was aided by the designers experiences, which had
informed her of the need for positive working relationships based on mut-
ual respect of strengths, weaknesses, attitudes and perceptions.
Crafts knowledge was however most beneficial in building a rapport with
the production team derived from a shared tacit understanding of materials
and processes, and the potential to work together on a practical level. This
allowed an unusual degree of communication between designer and
production workers, encouraging contribution to design in the form of
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specialist knowledge related to particular production tasks. Designs were
developed to reflect the production teams competences as well as their
input, countering their usual criticism of designers inflexibility and ignor-
ance.
4.2 IntegrationThe positive relationship between designer and production team meant that
ownership ofand responsibility forthe product could gradually be
transferred to its makers, ensuring quality workmanship and willingness to
resolve problems. The understanding that Beebe had developed of the
teams attitudes and perceptions enabled her to identify personal challenge
and company profit as their motivating factors. Through communication
and inclusion, her achievements became those of the team as a whole,
whose self image shifted gradually from passive labourers to active parti-
cipants in the projects success.
Beebe: Letting everyone say their bit makes them feel that theyve actually made a
valid contribution. The ownership of the project has shifted onto them, so then theyll
take a pride in it and make it beautiful. Because otherwise they wont put that effort
in.
4.3 Design through makingIn contrast to conventional linear models of product development where
design ends before production begins, here specifications were finalised as
late as possible, allowing further refinement as the processes actual
demands were imposed. This flexibility encouraged continued input from
production staff, optimizing the potential for a creative and easily manufac-
turable design solution:
Beebe: We see how it feels and how it looks, because what shows on my drawings
isnt necessarily what happens. When it comes to cutting Ill have a pattern worked
out, but it might look better if it had nine repeats to if it had five. The cutter might
say, you cant get that line exactly, but if we just twist it like this, then it happens.
Before you know it youve got something that actually isnt very much like the
drawing.
This is a process of design through making which demonstrates obvious
parallels with crafts practice. As discussed, the craft object demonstrates
a reconciliation between its makers vision and the opportunities and con-
straints presented by chosen materials and processes. Through repetition
and experience, the craft maker develops understanding of these factors
alongside the judgement to resolve their often conflicting demands. As
Peter Dormer writes,
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14 Dormer, P Why the craftsneed more than literary criticism,
keynote address from confer-
ence The Context for Critical
Studies in the Crafts The Crafts
Council, London, UK (1995)
The crafts are partly shaped and to some extent determined by the patterns of
thinking encoded in processes, tools and attitudes to making14.
Just as the craft maker operates within a dialogue between ideas and
materials or processes, so here the designer oversees a reconciliation
between vision and the limitations of manufacture. It may be argued thatthe ability to reconcile two such disparate concerns is neglected in a typical
design education, where solutions are generated by a conceptual approach.
In this case, the designer extended the process of design through making
from the individual to the collective sphere, allowing the integration of
otherwise unavailable skills, processes and production levels with personal
vision. This approach is unreconcilable with many craft makers need for
control over each stage of design and making. Beebes past experiences,
however, had indicated how sacrificing some degree of control could allow
her work to escape the limitations of personal skill, whilst continuing to
be informed by crafts knowledge. When collaborating with a skilled glass
blower on the making of one-off vessels, she had used his technique as an
extension of her own to generate new possibilities for self expression. At
Nazeing, the same methods were applied to working with the production
team, observation, reflection and reassessment replacing the usual design-
ers detachment. The result is a design tailored to accommodate the manu-
facturers strengths and weaknesses, stretching their competences whilst
producing an achievable solution. Figures 5 and 6 show Nazeings pro-
duction staff working on the final product.
Design through making: crafts knowledge as facilitator to collaborative new product development 511
Figure 5 Hookah pipe base
being cut. Photograph: Tru-
die Balantyne.
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4.4 ConclusionThis case study challenges the view traditionally held by manufacturers of
craft makers as inflexible and over-specialised artists. It indicates a new
boundary-crossing role within the new product development process, facili-tating the adoption of design methodologies appropriate to changing pri-
orities in the manufacturing industries. Previous collaborations have
attempted to impose craft makers designs onto production7, have used
them as researchers for future projects7, or have established a crafts studio
within the factory, in the hope that technology transfer will automatically
occur between craft and production6. This new role, however, concentrates
on using the craft makers skills in a different context, as contributors to
512 Design Studies Vol 20 No 6 November 1999
Figure 6 Hookah pipe base
being blown into a mould.
Photograph: Trudie Balan-
tyne.
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15 Moss Kanter, R Change-master skills: what it takes to be
creative. In Managing innovation
Henry, J and Walker, D (eds)Open University Press, London,
UK (1991) pp 5561
16 Reich, R Entrepreneurshipreconsidered: the team as hero.
In Managing innovationHenry, J
and Walker, D (eds) Open Uni-
versity Press, London, UK
(1991) p 69
17 Townsend, J Creating theideal workforce Independent on
Sunday (3.5.1998) p 3
the design process as well as the product. In essence, the dual nature of
the designers background in craft makingcombined with broader experi-
ence and her skills in communication and empathyallowed the cultural
differences that are often encountered by consultant designers and craft
makers to be overcome. This enabled active participation to be encouraged
from all areas of the company during design development and pre-pro-duction. A crafts-based design methodology could then be employed,
stressing interaction with the object as it was subjected to the demands of
the production line, and accommodating both constraints imposed by the
processes and opportunities created by it. The product therefore grew from
within the company, rather than being imposed onto it as is more common
at Nazeing. By incorporating contributions to design development from
both management and factory floor, the final solution became a team effort
rather than an imposed vision. This process in effect initiated a feeling of
involvement inand ownership ofthe design within the manufacturing
company, ensuring high workforce motivation reflected in quality work-manship and a willingness to overcome problems.
Such a crafts-based design methodology has parallels with several
important aspects of design management strategy advocated in the current
literature. Whilst these strategies are usually presented as theoretical rec-
ommendations, this case study constitutes an actual example where their
adoption has been facilitated by an individual with a certain set of skills
and experiences.
Firstly, in many ways the methods used parallel those employed by the
product champion described amongst others by Moss Kanter15. This is
evident in the gathering of input and expertise from throughout the com-
pany, the ability to communicate conviction in the project, persistence,
commitment to the team building, and appreciation of the need to credit
all those involved for their input.
Secondly, the encouragement of others input into design development
reflects Reichs concept of the entrepreneurial organisation, which advo-
cates the encouragement of a pro-active workforce:
Distinctions between innovation and production, between top managers and production
workers blur. Because production is a continuous process of reinvention,
entrepreneurial efforts are concentrated on many thousands of small ideas rather than
on just a few big ones16.
Townsend acknowledges the value of releasing latent workforce creativity
by encouraging each person to relate knowledge of their particular job to
the current problem17. In this instance, the designers role was not that of
the consultant expert, but of the facilitator of such renewed creativity.
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18 Cooper, R and Jones, TThe interfaces between design
and other key functions in pro-duct development. In Product
design: meeting the challenge of
the designmarketing interface
Bruce, M and Biemans, WG
(eds) Wiley, Chichester, UK
(1995) p 95
19 Dormer, P Textiles andtechnology. In The culture of
craftDormer, P (ed) Manchester
University Press, Manchester,
UK (1997) p 168
Thirdly, through effective communication with each of the projects stake-
holders and with other contacts which form part of an established network
of expertise, the designer created a product which synthesised a unique
combination of skills, interests and experience. This implemented Rhodes
and Carters strategy for avoiding imitation3. The value of such a strategy
is indicated by an interview with Frances Lambe of Mada Trading, who
partly attributes the products success to its immunity to imitation.
In evaluating the case, it is important to recognise the limitations of its
application to other companies and individuals. Successful collaboration
must depend to an extent on factors previously identified as important in
the management of traditional cross-functional development projects.
These may be summarised as understanding, awareness, communication
and commitment18. It may also be expected that collaborations involving
different media would enjoy varying measures of success: for example it
is well documented that handwoven textiles are closely compatible withcomputer systems and are therefore well suited to adoption by industry19.
Certain influencing factors on the outcome of the collaboration were
determined by the manufacturing company. For example, Nazeings manu-
facturing processes semi-automated form of hand production is relatively
close to that used in crafts workshops, and can therefore be considered
relatively accessible to a craft maker. However, the manufacturing tech-
nology employed in large-scale production of glass and ceramic tableware
is hardly far removed from its crafts origins. We may surmise from the
lack of successful craftsindustry collaborations in these areas, that such
success is as much reliant on company culture and attitudes as on manufac-
turing processes. It should therefore be recognised that despite Nazeings
production teams hostility to consultant designers, its size, lack of tra-
dition, flexibility, structure and project-based approach were conducive
to success.
The collaboration depended to a large extent on the designers mobilization
of skills and creativity within the workforce which although latent until
this project, had always had the potential to be developed. It would be a
matter for further research to determine whether such unexploited potential
exists in all crafts-based industries, or whether this is a feature specific toNazeing or to glassmaking. Overcoming cultural divisions, communicating
with production staff and employing motivational tactics would not con-
tribute to the design process if no specialist expertise existed to be ident-
ified.
An additional factor influencing the projects success is the designers
background, which in this instance combines a crafts education and
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practice as a craft maker with experience of working in the glass industry.
Whilst the methods employed are derived from crafts knowledge, the
additional skills, knowledge and interests informing them differ fundamen-
tally from those possessed by the typical craft maker. It may therefore be
argued that they represent a hybrid of crafts knowledge and professional
skills which is rarely developed in an industry which offers few opport-
unities for craft makers to work as designers. As these skills are generally
underepresented in degree level crafts education, with its tendency to con-
centrate on preparation for crafts-based self-employment, graduates with
an aptitude for design are often ill-equipped to work in industry. One sol-
ution could be the introduction of a postgraduate course which introduced
crafts graduates to design, contextualising their work within a new frame-
work and teaching additional professional and management skills. It is
clear that future research must address the implications of this case study
for educators in craft, design and management studies, in order to exploit
more fully the benefits of crafts knowledge to design for industry.
AcknowledgmentsThe authors would like to thank Jane Beebe, David Royce, Frances Lambe
and Bob Garraway for their co-operation in interview, and Stuart Garfoot
and David Williams-Thomas for providing contextual information.
Design through making: crafts knowledge as facilitator to collaborative new product development 515