Xianbei and the Northern Dynasties

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Xianbei and the Xianbei and the Northern DynastiesNorthern Dynasties

Barfield, Thomas, Barfield, Thomas, The Perilous Frontier,The Perilous Frontier,”” Ch. 3, Ch. 3, ““The collapse of Central Order,The collapse of Central Order,”” pp. 104-130. pp. 104-130.

““Family, Marriage and Political Power in Sixth Family, Marriage and Political Power in Sixth Century China: A Study of the Kao Family of Century China: A Study of the Kao Family of the Northern Ch’i, c.520-550”, in Holmgren, the Northern Ch’i, c.520-550”, in Holmgren, Jennifer, Jennifer, Marriage, Kinship and Power in Marriage, Kinship and Power in Northern ChinaNorthern China. pp VI, 1-50.. pp VI, 1-50. OR:OR:

““Politics of the Inner Court under the Hou-chu Politics of the Inner Court under the Hou-chu (Last Lord of the Northern Ch’i, c.. 565-73” in (Last Lord of the Northern Ch’i, c.. 565-73” in Dien, Albert E., ed., Dien, Albert E., ed., State and society in early State and society in early medieval Chinamedieval China, pp 269-330., pp 269-330.

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The Xianbei and the Northern The Xianbei and the Northern DynastiesDynasties

IntroductionIntroduction The Rise of the TuobaThe Rise of the Tuoba

Marriage System:Marriage System: AlliancesAlliances PolicyPolicy Naming of EmpressesNaming of Empresses Separation of wife’s Biological and Political Separation of wife’s Biological and Political

RolesRoles Marriages of the Imperial ClanMarriages of the Imperial Clan

The Tuoba and the RouranThe Tuoba and the Rouran The Sinicization of the TuobaThe Sinicization of the Tuoba The End of the Northern WeiThe End of the Northern Wei

The Xianbei and the Northern The Xianbei and the Northern Dynasties (2)Dynasties (2)

The Northern QiThe Northern Qi Succession ProblemsSuccession Problems The end of Northern QiThe end of Northern Qi

The Northern ZhouThe Northern Zhou The Regency of Yuwen HuThe Regency of Yuwen Hu The End of the Northern ZhouThe End of the Northern Zhou

ReferenceReference Lady ChangLady Chang Empress Dowager FengEmpress Dowager Feng Empress Dowager LingEmpress Dowager Ling

IntroductionIntroduction The history of this period is referred to as the The history of this period is referred to as the

Northern and Southern Dynasties Northern and Southern Dynasties (420-589) – 169 (420-589) – 169 yearsyears::

The Northern dynasties are the following:The Northern dynasties are the following: The Northern Wei (386-534) – 148 yearsThe Northern Wei (386-534) – 148 years Eastern Wei (534-550) – 16 yearsEastern Wei (534-550) – 16 years Western Wei (535-556) – 21 yearWestern Wei (535-556) – 21 year The Northern Qi (550-557) – 7 yearsThe Northern Qi (550-557) – 7 years The Northern Zhou (557-581) – 24 yearsThe Northern Zhou (557-581) – 24 years

The Southern dynasties are:The Southern dynasties are: Liu-Song (420-479)Liu-Song (420-479) Southern Qi (479-502)Southern Qi (479-502) Southern Liang (502-557)Southern Liang (502-557) Chen (557-589)Chen (557-589)

4

55

Introduction (2)Introduction (2) By the time the Northern Wei conquered northern China in

410, China had been divided since the fall of the Han dynasty in 220 (not counting the brief 51 year reign of the Western Jin when the emperor was never able to completely centralize his power). By then China had been fragmented for about over 230

years.Three KingdomsYears AD 200

300

Cao-Wei(220-265)

Western

North China

Shu-Han(221-263)Jin (265-316)

South China

Wu(222-280)

Fragmentation of power in Northern China: the Sixteen Kingdoms; reunited by Northern Wei, c.439

Eastern Jin (317-420)

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Introduction (3)Introduction (3) The reunification of Northern China was the work The reunification of Northern China was the work

of different tribes of the Xianbei.of different tribes of the Xianbei. First, the Murong had developed a dual First, the Murong had developed a dual

administration system which was given time to administration system which was given time to mature and be usable for a non-Han group to mature and be usable for a non-Han group to govern a majority Han population.govern a majority Han population.

The Tuoba, the most nomadic and the least The Tuoba, the most nomadic and the least sophisticated of the Xianbei unified Northern sophisticated of the Xianbei unified Northern China under the Northern Wei and governed it China under the Northern Wei and governed it for 148 years years.for 148 years years.

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Introduction (4)Introduction (4) Daoism was adopted as the official religion.Daoism was adopted as the official religion.

Many antiques and art works have survived as the Many antiques and art works have survived as the N. Wei was heavily involved in funding the arts. N. Wei was heavily involved in funding the arts.

Near the end of the dynasty, The Tuoba, under Near the end of the dynasty, The Tuoba, under emperor Xiaowen (467–499), and his regent, Empress emperor Xiaowen (467–499), and his regent, Empress Dowager Feng (of Chinese ancestry) tried to synicize.Dowager Feng (of Chinese ancestry) tried to synicize. The imperial family took the name of Yuan The imperial family took the name of Yuan 元元 and and

required other non-Hans to take Han names.required other non-Hans to take Han names. It moved the capital from the frontiers to Luoyang.It moved the capital from the frontiers to Luoyang.

The N. Wei ended when the emperor, resenting the The N. Wei ended when the emperor, resenting the power of the regent, Empress Dowager Ling (also of power of the regent, Empress Dowager Ling (also of Chinese ancestry), called on an outside nomadic Chinese ancestry), called on an outside nomadic power for assistance.power for assistance.

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The Rise of the TuobaThe Rise of the Tuoba The early Xianbei Tuoba The early Xianbei Tuoba 拓跋拓跋 kingdom was called Dai, kingdom was called Dai,

after the Chinese district of that name.after the Chinese district of that name. It was only a poorly organized confederation and It was only a poorly organized confederation and

was not recognized as one of the the 16 kingdoms.was not recognized as one of the the 16 kingdoms. For most of this period the Tuoba paid allegiance to For most of this period the Tuoba paid allegiance to

their more powerful neighbors or fled into the their more powerful neighbors or fled into the mountains when attacked.mountains when attacked.

After the breakup of the Xiongnu Empire, the Tuoba After the breakup of the Xiongnu Empire, the Tuoba began to conquer all of the steppe peoples until began to conquer all of the steppe peoples until they were defeated by the Former Qin.they were defeated by the Former Qin.

After the breakdown of the Former Qin, Tuoba Gui After the breakdown of the Former Qin, Tuoba Gui 拓拓跋圭跋圭 (r.386-409) became Prince of Dai; 3 months later (r.386-409) became Prince of Dai; 3 months later his title was changed to Prince of Wei of the new state his title was changed to Prince of Wei of the new state of N. Wei.of N. Wei.

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The Rise of the Tuoba (2)The Rise of the Tuoba (2) By 410, 14 years after Tuoba Gui declared himself By 410, 14 years after Tuoba Gui declared himself

emperor of a new Wei dynasty he controlled the emperor of a new Wei dynasty he controlled the entire northeastern region of China and southern entire northeastern region of China and southern Manchuria.Manchuria. He adopted the Yan Kingdom’s pattern of He adopted the Yan Kingdom’s pattern of

government by dual administration by allowing:government by dual administration by allowing: The Xianbei tribes to retain their old benefits.The Xianbei tribes to retain their old benefits.

The tribal confederacy and tribesmen were The tribal confederacy and tribesmen were registered as subjects of the state and registered as subjects of the state and organized as military units.organized as military units.

The tribes were given land and forced to settle The tribes were given land and forced to settle on it, acting as garrison communities and on it, acting as garrison communities and nomadism was prohibited.nomadism was prohibited.

The Chinese ran the civil service bureaucracy and The Chinese ran the civil service bureaucracy and so began to gain influence.so began to gain influence.

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Marriage System: AlliancesMarriage System: Alliances

When Tuoba Gui began to build his state, strategic When Tuoba Gui began to build his state, strategic marriages were used to win the loyalties of influential marriages were used to win the loyalties of influential clans, particularly those of the conquered ruling clans, particularly those of the conquered ruling houses.houses. The Tuoba intermarried with other Xianbei clans and The Tuoba intermarried with other Xianbei clans and

with prestigious lines of Xiongnu rulers; these with prestigious lines of Xiongnu rulers; these marriage ties were accompanied by the granting of marriage ties were accompanied by the granting of feudal titles to members of the consort clans.feudal titles to members of the consort clans.

After the defeat of the Later Yan, Tuoba Gui took the After the defeat of the Later Yan, Tuoba Gui took the daughter of the last emperor, Murong Bao, as his daughter of the last emperor, Murong Bao, as his consort.consort.

He also took a consort from the Duan clan (the long-He also took a consort from the Duan clan (the long-time consort clan of the Murong).time consort clan of the Murong).

Tuoba Gui took as wife the sister of a leader of the Tuoba Gui took as wife the sister of a leader of the Xiongnu clan and named their child as his successor.Xiongnu clan and named their child as his successor.

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Marriage System: Alliances Marriage System: Alliances (2)(2)

Tuoba Si, the second emperor had two Murong wives.Tuoba Si, the second emperor had two Murong wives. Tuoba Si also took the daughter of the Later Qin Tuoba Si also took the daughter of the Later Qin

emperor, Yao Xing, as consort.emperor, Yao Xing, as consort. Tuoba Tao, the third ruler, conquered Da Xie in 431 Tuoba Tao, the third ruler, conquered Da Xie in 431

and took the daughter of the ruler as his consort.and took the daughter of the ruler as his consort. Tuoba Tao’s heir, Tuoba Huang, had a Murong wife..Tuoba Tao’s heir, Tuoba Huang, had a Murong wife.. The daughters of the Da Xie ruling house were given to The daughters of the Da Xie ruling house were given to

other Tuoba leaders in marriage:other Tuoba leaders in marriage: One was married to Tuoba Jun (r.452-465), Tuoba One was married to Tuoba Jun (r.452-465), Tuoba

Tao’s grandson (fifth emperor of the Northern Wei).Tao’s grandson (fifth emperor of the Northern Wei). Tuoba Jun also took, as wife, the granddaughter of the Tuoba Jun also took, as wife, the granddaughter of the

last emperor of the Northern Yan – Empress Dowager last emperor of the Northern Yan – Empress Dowager Feng. Feng.

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Marriage System: Alliances (3)Marriage System: Alliances (3) Empress Dowager Feng Wenming (442-Empress Dowager Feng Wenming (442-

490CE), from the Northern Yan, was the 490CE), from the Northern Yan, was the consort of Tuoba Jun; she ruled the Northern consort of Tuoba Jun; she ruled the Northern Wei as regent for both her son and her Wei as regent for both her son and her grandson, Tuoba Hong grandson, Tuoba Hong 弘弘 , the 7th emperor , the 7th emperor (r.471-499); the sinicization of the Northern (r.471-499); the sinicization of the Northern Wei was carried out under her guidance.Wei was carried out under her guidance.

Two of her nieces, also of the Feng house, Two of her nieces, also of the Feng house, were married to her grandson, Tuoba Hong.were married to her grandson, Tuoba Hong.

Half of the Tuoba princesses — about 54 — Half of the Tuoba princesses — about 54 — were given in marriage to the different clans were given in marriage to the different clans and the other half to the Chinese clans.and the other half to the Chinese clans.

Empress Dowager Ling (r.515-520; 525-528) of Empress Dowager Ling (r.515-520; 525-528) of the Chinese Hu clan was a concubine of Tuoba the Chinese Hu clan was a concubine of Tuoba Ke (Shizong (r.499-515), the 8Ke (Shizong (r.499-515), the 8thth emperor. She emperor. She ruled as regent for her son Suzong (r.510-528).ruled as regent for her son Suzong (r.510-528).

Marriage System: PolicyMarriage System: Policy The Tuoba The Tuoba 拓拔拓拔 adopted the Chinese principle of adopted the Chinese principle of

primogeniture but not succession by a son of the primogeniture but not succession by a son of the empress empress There was no role for the senior widow.There was no role for the senior widow. The system protected the privileges of paternal kin The system protected the privileges of paternal kin

by denying other groups access through marriage by denying other groups access through marriage ties with the throne. ties with the throne.

It emphasized the common interest of the throne It emphasized the common interest of the throne and the princes to control the ambitions of Chinese and the princes to control the ambitions of Chinese and other non-Han families.and other non-Han families.

Imperial wives and concubines came from outside the Imperial wives and concubines came from outside the ranks of the bureaucratic and military and ranks of the bureaucratic and military and discriminated against the ruler’s maternal kin in discriminated against the ruler’s maternal kin in selection for high office.selection for high office.

Daughters of princesses and maternal cousins were Daughters of princesses and maternal cousins were not taken into the imperial harem. not taken into the imperial harem.

Marriage System: Policy (2)Marriage System: Policy (2) All empresses came from the royal families of recently All empresses came from the royal families of recently

conquered non-Chinese states.conquered non-Chinese states. The naming of an empress was used to capture the The naming of an empress was used to capture the

loyalty of recently conquered peoples. loyalty of recently conquered peoples. Their appointments hastened the integration of subject Their appointments hastened the integration of subject

populations into the Northern Wei empire.populations into the Northern Wei empire. They were symbolic figures representing the They were symbolic figures representing the

integration of their peoples into the Tuoba empire. integration of their peoples into the Tuoba empire. These women did not have influential relatives at court These women did not have influential relatives at court

and were preferred as their families posed no threat to and were preferred as their families posed no threat to the authority of the Tuoba elite—ruler’s male agnates. the authority of the Tuoba elite—ruler’s male agnates.

Appointment of an empress was considered politically Appointment of an empress was considered politically dangerous and not necessary and so often no empress was dangerous and not necessary and so often no empress was named.named.

Marriage System: Marriage System: Naming of EmpressesNaming of Empresses

Two of the six emperors in the 5Two of the six emperors in the 5thth Century never Century never named legal consorts.named legal consorts.

None of Taizong’s wives were given the title of None of Taizong’s wives were given the title of empress during their lifetimes.empress during their lifetimes.

Xianzu (r.465-471) never appointed an empress.Xianzu (r.465-471) never appointed an empress. The third emperor, Shizu, did not name his first The third emperor, Shizu, did not name his first

empress until he had been on the throne for 9 empress until he had been on the throne for 9 years. years.

Gaozu (r.471- ), the last ruler of the 5C waited 22 Gaozu (r.471- ), the last ruler of the 5C waited 22 years after his enthronement to name his first years after his enthronement to name his first empress. empress.

Marriage System: Marriage System: Naming of Empresses (2)Naming of Empresses (2)

EmperorEmperor EmpressEmpress

EmperorEmperor Year Year EnthronedEnthroned

Year appointed Year appointed first living first living empressempress

EmpressEmpress Ethnic Ethnic OriginsOrigins

TaizuTaizu 386386 400400 MurongMurong XianbeiXianbei

TaizongTaizong 409409

ShizuShizu 423423 432432 HolianHolian XiongnuXiongnu

GaozongGaozong 453453 456456 FengFeng XianbeiXianbei

XianzongXianzong 465465

GaozuGaozu 471471 493493 FengFeng XianbeiXianbei

ShizongShizong 499499 Yu, GaoYu, Gao XianbeiXianbei

SuzongSuzong 515515

Marriage System: Separation of Marriage System: Separation of Wife’s Wife’s

Biological and Political RolesBiological and Political Roles The Tuoba tried to separate the wife’s biological function of The Tuoba tried to separate the wife’s biological function of

producing an heir from her political role. producing an heir from her political role. Empresses who named were childless. Empresses who named were childless. They did not act as titular or foster mothers to eldest sons.They did not act as titular or foster mothers to eldest sons. Mothers of eldest sons were never named empress in their Mothers of eldest sons were never named empress in their

lifetimes.lifetimes. Once an heir was named, the biological mother might Once an heir was named, the biological mother might

be made to commit suicide. be made to commit suicide. Sons were given to captive or low ranked palace women Sons were given to captive or low ranked palace women

to raise as foster mothers.to raise as foster mothers. The separation of the woman’s biological and political roles

was done to prevent women and their relatives from achieving power.

Marriage System: Separation of Marriage System: Separation of Wife’s Wife’s

Biological and Political Roles (2)Biological and Political Roles (2) However, there was a danger that the foster mother would

have influence over the future emperor and so become very powerful. This happened in several cases especially with the

Empress Dowager Feng Wenming who first served as regent for Emperor Xianwen.

When he came to power at the age of 13, she retired as regent and fostered Xianwen’s son.

Emperor Xianwen died in 476 – some say that Feng may have poisoned him – she became regent for Xianwen’s son, Emperor Xiaowen.

She later became the foster mother of Xianwen’s son as well.

Feng was able to hold power until her own death.

Marriage System:Marriage System:Marriages of the Imperial ClanMarriages of the Imperial Clan

Marriage was not a political issue for the princes.Marriage was not a political issue for the princes. They were free to choose wives without They were free to choose wives without

permission of the throne. permission of the throne. Many branches of the house intermarried with Many branches of the house intermarried with

commoner, even slaves — wives being chosen for commoner, even slaves — wives being chosen for reasons of love or physical beauty. reasons of love or physical beauty.

The wife’s social standing was of little importance. The wife’s social standing was of little importance. Imperial princesses were given in marriage to Imperial princesses were given in marriage to

leaders of refugee groups arriving in Northern leaders of refugee groups arriving in Northern Wei, from other states or to members of a select Wei, from other states or to members of a select line of a non-Han lineage, to neutralize a line of a non-Han lineage, to neutralize a potentially hostile group.potentially hostile group.

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The Sinicization of the The Sinicization of the Tuoba WeiTuoba Wei

In a dual administration system, the emperor was In a dual administration system, the emperor was responsible for maintaining the balance between the responsible for maintaining the balance between the Chinese and the tribal elites; any change between Chinese and the tribal elites; any change between these two groups had a critical impact on the dynasty.these two groups had a critical impact on the dynasty. The balance changed when Empress Dowager Feng The balance changed when Empress Dowager Feng

and her grandson, Tuoba Hong (and her grandson, Tuoba Hong ( 拓跋弘拓跋弘 ) (Xiao ) (Xiao Wendi, r.471-499),Wendi, r.471-499), began to sinicize the Wei state. began to sinicize the Wei state.

The sinicization program The sinicization program gave greater power to the gave greater power to the central governmentcentral government.. Before that, the great tribal clans had attracted Before that, the great tribal clans had attracted

large groups of dependent households who worked large groups of dependent households who worked the land in exchange for protection against heavy the land in exchange for protection against heavy taxation.taxation.

The Sincization program:The Sincization program: Reformed the officials’ salaries system (feng lu zhi Reformed the officials’ salaries system (feng lu zhi

俸禄制俸禄制 ), enacted (484).), enacted (484).

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The Sinicization of the Tuoba The Sinicization of the Tuoba Wei (2)Wei (2)

Brought the local populations into manageable Brought the local populations into manageable administrative units, one that had been used in administrative units, one that had been used in China since the Qin-Han period and still exists China since the Qin-Han period and still exists today -- bao jia today -- bao jia 保甲保甲 system.system. Five families were to make up a neighborhood Five families were to make up a neighborhood

(lin (lin 林粼林粼 ) headed by an elder () headed by an elder ( 粼长粼长 ); five ); five neighborhoods made up a precinct neighborhoods made up a precinct （黎）（黎） , , headed by an elder headed by an elder （里长（里长 , five precincts , five precincts made up a districtmade up a district ，， (li (li 里里 ) headed by an ) headed by an elderelder （党长）（党长） ..

This made it easier to impose and enforce tax This made it easier to impose and enforce tax collections and to enforce another program:collections and to enforce another program:

The Equitable Field System (The Equitable Field System ( 均田制均田制 ) (485).) (485).

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Enactment of the Equitable Field System brought Enactment of the Equitable Field System brought uncultivated government lands into the tax rolls by uncultivated government lands into the tax rolls by distributing allotments to those who could cultivate it.distributing allotments to those who could cultivate it.

Adult males were to receive 40 mou of open field Adult males were to receive 40 mou of open field (suitable for grain crops); adult females received (suitable for grain crops); adult females received 20 mou. 20 mou.

Slaves or owners of slaves were given equal Slaves or owners of slaves were given equal allotments.allotments.

Allotments of cattle was also made -- 30 mou per Allotments of cattle was also made -- 30 mou per head, up to four headshead, up to four heads for plowing the land.for plowing the land.

In 494, the court moved to its new capital at Luoyang In 494, the court moved to its new capital at Luoyang resulting in impoverishing many tribal clans which had resulting in impoverishing many tribal clans which had supplied the capital -- the tribal hierarchy reacted supplied the capital -- the tribal hierarchy reacted strongly to this radical shift away from Tuoba strongly to this radical shift away from Tuoba traditions.traditions. The move to Luoyang had changed the relationship The move to Luoyang had changed the relationship

of the frontier troops to the dynasty; previously they of the frontier troops to the dynasty; previously they had been well supplied, their leaders had received had been well supplied, their leaders had received favor at court, and the northern border had imperial favor at court, and the northern border had imperial attention.attention.

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After the move, the view of the frontier was After the move, the view of the frontier was that of a marginal region; tribal troops were that of a marginal region; tribal troops were regarded as politically unreliable.regarded as politically unreliable.

Garrisons were cheated of their rations by Garrisons were cheated of their rations by corrupt officials who were assigned to corrupt officials who were assigned to frontier posts as a form of exile along with frontier posts as a form of exile along with convicts sentenced to frontier service.convicts sentenced to frontier service.

The Northern Wei policy of aggressive The Northern Wei policy of aggressive disruption of the Rouran, -- a group that they disruption of the Rouran, -- a group that they had been fighting with (20 clashes in first had been fighting with (20 clashes in first half of 5half of 5thth century) – was replaced by a century) – was replaced by a conservative approach of walled defenses conservative approach of walled defenses and tributary benefits. and tributary benefits.


The court banned the wearing of tribal clothes The court banned the wearing of tribal clothes (494) and the use of Xianbei language at court for (494) and the use of Xianbei language at court for young officials (495).young officials (495).

The tribal and Han elites were integrated into a The tribal and Han elites were integrated into a single ranking system (495).single ranking system (495).

The Tuoba abandoned its surname replacing it The Tuoba abandoned its surname replacing it with a Chinese one, Yuan (496), meaning origin.with a Chinese one, Yuan (496), meaning origin.

In 496, the crown prince led a large number of In 496, the crown prince led a large number of Xianbei back to Pingcheng in defiance the reforms Xianbei back to Pingcheng in defiance the reforms of his father who had staffed the government of his father who had staffed the government almost exclusively with Chinese and had tried to almost exclusively with Chinese and had tried to encourage intermarriage with Chinese elites.encourage intermarriage with Chinese elites.

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The End of the N. WeiThe End of the N. Wei The Northern Wei was finally defeated by a combination of The Northern Wei was finally defeated by a combination of

forces led by the Erzhu clan of Jie origin and other groups.forces led by the Erzhu clan of Jie origin and other groups. The outbreak of rebellion -- against the N. Wei The outbreak of rebellion -- against the N. Wei

sinicization program -- enabled the Erzhu to extend their sinicization program -- enabled the Erzhu to extend their influence by conquering areas in the name of the N. Wei influence by conquering areas in the name of the N. Wei court at Luoyang.court at Luoyang.

The last N. Wei emperor, Suzong, asked Erzhu Rong to free The last N. Wei emperor, Suzong, asked Erzhu Rong to free him from the Chinese advisors of his mother (E.D. Ling).him from the Chinese advisors of his mother (E.D. Ling). On arrival, Erzhu Rong murdered the entire N. Wei court On arrival, Erzhu Rong murdered the entire N. Wei court

and over 2,000 officials and their families, mostly and over 2,000 officials and their families, mostly Chinese. Chinese.

Power struggles between different factions continued, each Power struggles between different factions continued, each putting up different puppets (see reference for more info.)putting up different puppets (see reference for more info.)

The final winners were Gao Huan who set up the Eastern The final winners were Gao Huan who set up the Eastern Wei that became the Northern Qi and Yuwen Tai who set up Wei that became the Northern Qi and Yuwen Tai who set up the Western Wei which became the Northern Zhou.the Western Wei which became the Northern Zhou.

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The End of the N. Wei (6)The End of the N. Wei (6) N. Wei N. Wei was then divided into two states one was then divided into two states one

under the Gao and the the Yuwen clans.under the Gao and the the Yuwen clans. Eastern Wei, in the north-east, later became Eastern Wei, in the north-east, later became

the Northern Qi, the Northern Qi, ((550-577) in 550. 550-577) in 550. Northern Qi was eventually defeated by the Northern Qi was eventually defeated by the

Northern Zhou in 577 and north China was Northern Zhou in 577 and north China was united under Northern Zhou dynasty.united under Northern Zhou dynasty.

Western Wei came the Northern Zhou, Western Wei came the Northern Zhou, ((557-557-581) in 557. 581) in 557.

Northern Zhou eventually became the Sui Northern Zhou eventually became the Sui dynasty which was to unite all of China.dynasty which was to unite all of China.

The End of the N. Wei (7)The End of the N. Wei (7)

The end of the N. Wei showed that as a foreign The end of the N. Wei showed that as a foreign dynasty became sinicized it left itself vulnerable dynasty became sinicized it left itself vulnerable both to unhappy tribal elements and to a Chinese both to unhappy tribal elements and to a Chinese elite which hates and fears the tribal leaders.elite which hates and fears the tribal leaders. The tribal military felt betrayed when the The tribal military felt betrayed when the

dynasty:dynasty: Reduced its importance by promoting Reduced its importance by promoting

Chinese to the most powerful positions in Chinese to the most powerful positions in court.court.

Reduced the economic and political benefits Reduced the economic and political benefits that had previously been taken for granted that had previously been taken for granted by the tribal leaders.by the tribal leaders.

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The End of the N. Wei:The End of the N. Wei:Puppet Emperors on the Wei Puppet Emperors on the Wei

ThroneThronePuppet MasterPuppet Master PuppetPuppet EmpressEmpress RemarksRemarks

Erzhu RongErzhu Rong Tuoba ZiyuTuoba Ziyu Daughter of Erzhu Daughter of Erzhu RongRong

Liang KingdomLiang Kingdom Tuoba HaoTuoba Hao Liang attacked Liang attacked Luoyang & installed Luoyang & installed their own puppet.their own puppet.

Erzhu RongErzhu Rong Tuoba ZiyuTuoba Ziyu Daughter of Erzhu Daughter of Erzhu RongRong

Rong’s puppet Rong’s puppet returns to the returns to the throne; then throne; then murders and turns murders and turns against Rong.against Rong.

Erzhu ZhaoErzhu Zhao

(nephew of Rong)(nephew of Rong)Tuoba YeTuoba Ye Daughter of Erzhu Daughter of Erzhu

ZhaoZhaoZhao avenges Rong.Zhao avenges Rong.

Gao rewarded with Gao rewarded with wife of former wife of former empress, Rong’s empress, Rong’s daughter.daughter.

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Throne (2)Throne (2)Puppet MasterPuppet Master PuppetPuppet EmpressEmpress RemarksRemarks

Erzhu ShilongErzhu Shilong

(relative of Zhao)(relative of Zhao)Tuoba GongTuoba Gong Daughter of Tuoba Daughter of Tuoba

ZhaoZhaoZhao away on Zhao away on campaign; Shilong campaign; Shilong deposes him and deposes him and sets Gong on sets Gong on throne. To appease throne. To appease Zhao, he made Zhao, he made Zhao’s daughter Zhao’s daughter Empress.Empress.

Gao HuanGao Huan Tuoba LangTuoba Lang Gao Huan defeats Gao Huan defeats Erzhu forces; Erzhu forces; deposes Gong and deposes Gong and puts Lang, on the puts Lang, on the throne.throne.

Former empress, Former empress, Zhao’s daughter Zhao’s daughter was taken into was taken into Gao’s harem.Gao’s harem.

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Throne (3)Throne (3)Puppet MasterPuppet Master PuppetPuppet EmpressEmpress RemarksRemarks

Gao HuanGao Huan Tuoba XiuTuoba Xiu Eldest Daughter of Eldest Daughter of Gao Huan, born of Gao Huan, born of LouLou

In 532, Gao Huan In 532, Gao Huan deposed Lang and deposed Lang and installed Xiu on the installed Xiu on the throne.throne.

Xiu rebelled against Xiu rebelled against Gao Huan and Gao Huan and abandoned his abandoned his empress.empress.

Gao Huan deposed Gao Huan deposed him and remarried him and remarried his eldest daughter his eldest daughter to Tuoba Shao.to Tuoba Shao.

Gao HuanGao Huan

Yuwen TaiYuwen Tai

Tuoba ShanjianTuoba Shanjian

Tuoba Baoju Tuoba Baoju

Another daughter of Another daughter of Gao Huan (539)Gao Huan (539)

Gao Deng, Huan’s Gao Deng, Huan’s son, was married to son, was married to Shanjian’s sister. Shanjian’s sister. Court moved; Court moved; Eastern Wei.Eastern Wei.

Established 535 in Established 535 in the eastern part of the eastern part of the N.Weithe N.Wei

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The Northern Qi (550-577)The Northern Qi (550-577) The N. Wei was divided into E. Wei and Western Wei; each The N. Wei was divided into E. Wei and Western Wei; each

headed by puppet emperors from the Imperial Tuoba headed by puppet emperors from the Imperial Tuoba family.family.

Gao Huan was the puppet controller of the E. Wei and he Gao Huan was the puppet controller of the E. Wei and he had consolidated his power through marriage alliances.had consolidated his power through marriage alliances.

In addition to intermarriage with the Tuoba royal family, In addition to intermarriage with the Tuoba royal family, for:for: Gao Yang, he found a woman from the prestigious Li Gao Yang, he found a woman from the prestigious Li

clan. clan. Gao Zhan, a Rouran woman and one from the Chinese Gao Zhan, a Rouran woman and one from the Chinese

Hu clan. Hu clan. Gao Wei, the last ruler was married to the daughter of Gao Wei, the last ruler was married to the daughter of

Hulu Guang, possibly of Turkic origin.Hulu Guang, possibly of Turkic origin. The marriages successfully secured Gao legitimacy but had The marriages successfully secured Gao legitimacy but had

little effect on the racial hatred between the Chinese and little effect on the racial hatred between the Chinese and Xianbei families as well as within the Gao family. Xianbei families as well as within the Gao family. Racial tension was a problem of major personal and Racial tension was a problem of major personal and

political proportions which Gao Huan and his successor, political proportions which Gao Huan and his successor, Gao Yang, recognized but were powerless to deal with. Gao Yang, recognized but were powerless to deal with.

Gao Huan’s Rise Through Marriage

Gao Huan’s first wife, Lou, had given him the initial money to get started.

The Erzhu daughters gave him claim to the Erzhu forces and territories.

Marriage with the Tuoba gave him legitimacy to continue the rule of the Northern Wei.

Lady Li gave him some access to the Chinese official class. Lady Cheng gave him contacts with clans who had held

important posts during ED Ling’s rule. Lady Feng gave him access to the Feng clan which had

dominated the Northern Wei rule for many years. Lady Yu gave knowledge of the rites for ceremonial

occasions. Lady Mu gave him access to the Northern Wei elites. The princess of Rouran allied him with her people and

strengthened his position against the Westen Wei.

Imperial Women of the Northern Qi

The nomadic custom of levirate was practiced and wives of one ruler would be passed to his successor: At least two of his wives remarried after his death. 50% of the wives and concubines of Northern Qi

rulers with biographies who lived long enough to remarry did so.

75% of women with biographies as empresses remarried.

1/3 of the women who remarried became wives of the incoming ruler -- usually a brother of the late husband.

13% of the concubines remarried a Gao family member .

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The Northern Qi:The Northern Qi:Succession ProblemsSuccession Problems

Gao Huan had at least 15 sons; six were the offspring Gao Huan had at least 15 sons; six were the offspring of the main consort, Empress Dowager Lou.of the main consort, Empress Dowager Lou. After his death (547), his eldest son, Gao Cheng After his death (547), his eldest son, Gao Cheng

controlled the puppet Eastern Wei regime and was controlled the puppet Eastern Wei regime and was able to hold the loyalty of most of the Eastern Wei able to hold the loyalty of most of the Eastern Wei leadership and expand the domains of the empire. leadership and expand the domains of the empire.

Gao Cheng was assassinated and his brother Gao Yang Gao Cheng was assassinated and his brother Gao Yang executed the assassins -- the assassination might have executed the assassins -- the assassination might have been planned by Gao Yang (Wenxuandi: r.550-9) as two been planned by Gao Yang (Wenxuandi: r.550-9) as two of Gao Cheng’s advisors fled the murder scene and of Gao Cheng’s advisors fled the murder scene and became close advisors of Gao Yang.became close advisors of Gao Yang.

In 550, Gao Yang ordered the abdication of the last In 550, Gao Yang ordered the abdication of the last Eastern Wei puppet and became the first Northern Qi Eastern Wei puppet and became the first Northern Qi emperor.emperor.

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Succession Problems (2)Succession Problems (2)

He executed two of the older and more He executed two of the older and more influential half-brothers; the other surviving influential half-brothers; the other surviving half-brothers.half-brothers.

All his brothers had numerous sons, many of All his brothers had numerous sons, many of whom felt themselves to be rightfully entitled whom felt themselves to be rightfully entitled to the throne. to the throne.

Violent political problems developed between Violent political problems developed between the full brothers and also with the the full brothers and also with the descendants of the line of Gao Cheng.descendants of the line of Gao Cheng.

Prior to his death in 559, Gao Yang asked his Prior to his death in 559, Gao Yang asked his next eldest brother, the future Xiaozhao, not to next eldest brother, the future Xiaozhao, not to kill Gao Yang’s son should the brother want to kill Gao Yang’s son should the brother want to seize the throne.seize the throne.

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When Gao Yang died, his son, ascended the throne When Gao Yang died, his son, ascended the throne but the grandmother, Grand Empress Dowager but the grandmother, Grand Empress Dowager Lou preferred that her next eldest son, Xiaozhao, Lou preferred that her next eldest son, Xiaozhao, and not her grandson.and not her grandson. In mid-560, ED Lou became a major supporter In mid-560, ED Lou became a major supporter

of her second son’s coup and the grandson was of her second son’s coup and the grandson was deposed by his grandmother.deposed by his grandmother.

Later that year, Xiaozhao made his son Bainian Later that year, Xiaozhao made his son Bainian his heir and it upset his brother, Gao Zhan, who his heir and it upset his brother, Gao Zhan, who had expected to succeed him.had expected to succeed him.

In 561, Xiaozhao was critically injured after In 561, Xiaozhao was critically injured after falling from a horse and asked his brother Gao falling from a horse and asked his brother Gao Zhan not to hurt his son; but as soon as Gao Zhan not to hurt his son; but as soon as Gao Zhan became emperor he had his nephew Zhan became emperor he had his nephew beaten and beheaded.beaten and beheaded.

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When Gao Zhan ascended to the throne as When Gao Zhan ascended to the throne as Wuchengdi, the dynasty had a history of aborted Wuchengdi, the dynasty had a history of aborted primogenital successions and successful fraternal primogenital successions and successful fraternal successions. successions. To ensure that his son would succeed him, he To ensure that his son would succeed him, he

retired in 565 making his son the emperor but retired in 565 making his son the emperor but retained power in his own hands as the Retired retained power in his own hands as the Retired Emperor.Emperor.

After Wuchengdi died, Houzhu reigned until the After Wuchengdi died, Houzhu reigned until the sudden collapse of the dynasty in 576, a full 7 years.sudden collapse of the dynasty in 576, a full 7 years. Houzhu’s succession was the only successful Houzhu’s succession was the only successful

primogenital succession in the history of the primogenital succession in the history of the dynasty -- except for Gao Huan’s eldest son who dynasty -- except for Gao Huan’s eldest son who had inherited power from him before the had inherited power from him before the establishment of Northern Qi.establishment of Northern Qi.

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The Northern WeiThe Northern Wei When Gao Huan was victorious against the troops When Gao Huan was victorious against the troops

of Erzhu, the was a large Erzhu army left a large of Erzhu, the was a large Erzhu army left a large army in the west and his principal generals met to army in the west and his principal generals met to choose Yuwen Tai as the new leader. choose Yuwen Tai as the new leader. After his election Yuwen Tai absorbed the newly After his election Yuwen Tai absorbed the newly

arrived refugees from Gao Huan -- military-arrived refugees from Gao Huan -- military-political elites -- and named his own puppet in political elites -- and named his own puppet in the west -- first emperor of the Western Wei.the west -- first emperor of the Western Wei.

Yuwen Tai ruled Western Wei through his Tuoba Yuwen Tai ruled Western Wei through his Tuoba puppet.puppet. He reversed the hated law (496) requiring He reversed the hated law (496) requiring

everyone to have Chinese surnames and everyone to have Chinese surnames and recognized Xianbei surnames. recognized Xianbei surnames.

He stabilized the eastern border and bribed the He stabilized the eastern border and bribed the Turks with tribute to keep peace on his western Turks with tribute to keep peace on his western and northern borders.and northern borders.

When he was dying he named his nephew, Yuwen When he was dying he named his nephew, Yuwen Hu, the son of his eldest brother as regent. Hu, the son of his eldest brother as regent.

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The Northern Zhou The Northern Zhou ((557-557-581) 581)

Yuwen Hu then deposed the puppet Tuoba emperor and Yuwen Hu then deposed the puppet Tuoba emperor and enthroned Yuwen Jue (542-57), a 14 year old son of Yuwen enthroned Yuwen Jue (542-57), a 14 year old son of Yuwen Tai (506-56), as ruler of a revived Zhou dynasty claiming Tai (506-56), as ruler of a revived Zhou dynasty claiming legitimacy for the clan through descent from Shennong legitimacy for the clan through descent from Shennong 神农神农 ..

When the young emperor was maturing he tried to get rid of When the young emperor was maturing he tried to get rid of Yuwen Hu but Hu was informed of this by one of the Yuwen Hu but Hu was informed of this by one of the emperor’s personal companions who was appointed to keep emperor’s personal companions who was appointed to keep watch on him.watch on him. Yuwen Hu had the emperor killed and made Tai’s eldest Yuwen Hu had the emperor killed and made Tai’s eldest

son, Mingdi, emperor at the age of 23.son, Mingdi, emperor at the age of 23. Since Mingdi was an adult, Hu abolished the regency but Since Mingdi was an adult, Hu abolished the regency but

continued to retain full authority over the military. continued to retain full authority over the military. When Mingdi began to name his own people in important When Mingdi began to name his own people in important

offices, Hu was had him poisoned in 560.offices, Hu was had him poisoned in 560.

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The Regency of Yuwen HuThe Regency of Yuwen Hu

Yuwen Hu then made Wudi, Tai’s fourth eldest son, Yuwen Hu then made Wudi, Tai’s fourth eldest son, emperor at the age of 17. emperor at the age of 17.

Wudi included his brothers in his plot to get rid of Hu.Wudi included his brothers in his plot to get rid of Hu. During a private audience with the Empress Dowager, During a private audience with the Empress Dowager,

Wudi hit Hu over the head with the imperial scepter Wudi hit Hu over the head with the imperial scepter and then Wudi’s brother, beheaded Hu – all Ju’s and then Wudi’s brother, beheaded Hu – all Ju’s children who were politically active and Hu’s closest children who were politically active and Hu’s closest advisers were killed.advisers were killed.

Wudi said that he had to kill Yumen Hu as it was not Wudi said that he had to kill Yumen Hu as it was not possible for a 30 year old emperor to submit to the possible for a 30 year old emperor to submit to the control of another.control of another.

Wudi (561-578) died suddenly after a 17 year reign and Wudi (561-578) died suddenly after a 17 year reign and his son, Xuandi (r.579), ascended the throne.his son, Xuandi (r.579), ascended the throne.

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The End of the Northern ZhouThe End of the Northern Zhou

Xuandi was not like his father who had solicited Xuandi was not like his father who had solicited court opinion and the views of his close paternal court opinion and the views of his close paternal relatives.relatives.

His major concern was to eliminate the political His major concern was to eliminate the political roles of his uncles and the close personal advisers roles of his uncles and the close personal advisers of his deceased father and did this through of his deceased father and did this through murder as well as divide and conquer tactics.murder as well as divide and conquer tactics. He killed his influential uncle and scattered his

five surviving uncles throughout the empire. He executed all the members of Wudi’s

innermost advisers.

The Ascension of Xuandi (3) He adopted a divide and rule tactic and installed 5

women as empresses, ranked in order of seniority. The daughter of Yang Jian, the future founder of the

Sui dynasty, was the senior empress and was given to him in 573 when he was first named heir apparent.

The middle three were all from families of little or no influence in Zhou political circles.

The last was the daughter of the senior courtier, son of Yuwen Tai’s younger sister.

It was said that he made her drunk and seduced her.

This insult caused the husband to rebel but the rebellion was rapidly crushed.

The End of the Northern Zhou

He now wanted to rename his 5th consort “Retired Empress”; but to do so he had to eliminate his senior empress, the daughter of Yang Jian. To do so, he had to also exterminate the entire

Yang family. Yang Jian’s friends learned of this and when the

Retired Emperor became ill, Yang’s friends forged an edict summoning Yang Jian to the bedside. When Xuandi died, Yang Jian kept it secret

until he could assume the regency of the young emperor.

Yang Jian won the struggle for power against the Yang Jian won the struggle for power against the senior princes and in 581 and proclaimed a new senior princes and in 581 and proclaimed a new Sui dynasty (581-618). Sui dynasty (581-618).

ReferenceReference

Lady ChangLady Chang Empress Dowager FengEmpress Dowager Feng Empress Dowager LingEmpress Dowager Ling

Lady ChangLady Chang Gaozong’s foster mother, Chang Gaozong’s foster mother, Chang 常常 , She was a , She was a

captive concubine with few relatives of influence at captive concubine with few relatives of influence at court and so was appointed as foster mother for the court and so was appointed as foster mother for the future Gaozong. future Gaozong. Lady Yu, Gaozong’s natural mother was a member Lady Yu, Gaozong’s natural mother was a member

of Rouranof Rouran 柔然柔然 aristocracy which was the only aristocracy which was the only northern threat to Tuoba security; so she was kept northern threat to Tuoba security; so she was kept away from her son during his formative years.away from her son during his formative years.

As Gaozong’s foster mother, Lady Chang arranged for As Gaozong’s foster mother, Lady Chang arranged for him to marry another captive imperial woman from him to marry another captive imperial woman from the Northern Yan, Lady Feng, who would later the Northern Yan, Lady Feng, who would later become empress and an important ruler as regent.become empress and an important ruler as regent.

Lady Chang may have helped Gaozong get support for Lady Chang may have helped Gaozong get support for the throne after he had been passed over twice. the throne after he had been passed over twice.

Lady Chang (cont.)Lady Chang (cont.)

Three years after his succession, Gaozong’s infant Three years after his succession, Gaozong’s infant son, aged 2, was formally proclaimed heir. son, aged 2, was formally proclaimed heir.

The captive concubine, Feng, from the house of The captive concubine, Feng, from the house of Northern Yan was named empress and the natural Northern Yan was named empress and the natural mother of the heir was forced to commit suicide. mother of the heir was forced to commit suicide. Lady Chang was said to have been responsible Lady Chang was said to have been responsible

for the reintroduction of the law on forced for the reintroduction of the law on forced suicide for the mother of the heir. suicide for the mother of the heir.

The early appointment of an infant heir, his The early appointment of an infant heir, his mother’s death, and the naming of consort from the mother’s death, and the naming of consort from the Feng family may have been Lady Chang’s Feng family may have been Lady Chang’s strategies to maintain her privileged position in the strategies to maintain her privileged position in the harem and to protect the interests of Northern Yan.harem and to protect the interests of Northern Yan.

Empress Dowager FengEmpress Dowager Feng

After the deaths of Lady Chang and Gaozong, After the deaths of Lady Chang and Gaozong, Empress Feng, at the age of 23, made her first bid for Empress Feng, at the age of 23, made her first bid for power as regent for the new emperor, Xianwendi power as regent for the new emperor, Xianwendi (r.456-470), who had succeeded to the throne at the (r.456-470), who had succeeded to the throne at the age of 11.age of 11.

She tried to be sole regent but was not successful. She tried to be sole regent but was not successful. Instead, there was a three-way power struggle for Instead, there was a three-way power struggle for

control of the regency between her, the Tuoba elite, control of the regency between her, the Tuoba elite, and a faction headed by Lieutenant Chancellor Yi Hun and a faction headed by Lieutenant Chancellor Yi Hun (c.461) who had fought and murdered his way to the (c.461) who had fought and murdered his way to the position of Chancellor .position of Chancellor .

After the Tuoba elite and ED Feng together got rid of After the Tuoba elite and ED Feng together got rid of Yi Hun, she was able to dominate court policy for less Yi Hun, she was able to dominate court policy for less than a year before being made to retire as the than a year before being made to retire as the emperor came to power at the age of 13.emperor came to power at the age of 13.

Xianwendi then consolidated his power and had got Xianwendi then consolidated his power and had got rid of all of Fengrid of all of Feng’’s supporters, especially her Chinese s supporters, especially her Chinese allies, and executed her loverallies, and executed her lover, Li Yi and his brothers, Li Yi and his brothers..

Empress Dowager Feng (cont.)Empress Dowager Feng (cont.)

After retiring from being regent, Feng fostered After retiring from being regent, Feng fostered XianwendiXianwendi’’s son, Xiaowendi (r.471-499) who had been s son, Xiaowendi (r.471-499) who had been named heir-apparent in 469 and his mother, Lady Li, had named heir-apparent in 469 and his mother, Lady Li, had been ordered to commit suicide.been ordered to commit suicide.

Xiaowendi was only 9 when he succeeded to the throne.Xiaowendi was only 9 when he succeeded to the throne. Only three or four years remained in which the ED was Only three or four years remained in which the ED was

able to make political decisions in her own right as regent.able to make political decisions in her own right as regent. She has had nine years of psychological control over the She has had nine years of psychological control over the

young emperor so psychologically, if not legally, her young emperor so psychologically, if not legally, her position at the court was very secure. position at the court was very secure.

As the emperor grew older, her influence did not decline As the emperor grew older, her influence did not decline but instead increased.but instead increased.

Throughout her life, she tutored, counseled and even Throughout her life, she tutored, counseled and even physically punished him. physically punished him.

Empress Dowager Feng Empress Dowager Feng (cont.)(cont.)

ED Feng maintained her position of authority by ED Feng maintained her position of authority by promoting respected and capable officials who were promoting respected and capable officials who were not from her family. not from her family.

Her brother had been her only close relative and she Her brother had been her only close relative and she was able to share the traditional positions for relatives was able to share the traditional positions for relatives at court between him and members of the Chang clan. at court between him and members of the Chang clan.

She kept the emperor’s own maternal relatives from She kept the emperor’s own maternal relatives from power — his mother, Lady Li, had been given the power — his mother, Lady Li, had been given the posthumous title of empress in 476, the year of posthumous title of empress in 476, the year of Xianzu’s death. Xianzu’s death.

She filled the key positions in the emperor’s harem She filled the key positions in the emperor’s harem with her brother’s daughters and brought his sons into with her brother’s daughters and brought his sons into the palace as companions for him. the palace as companions for him.

The nephews were later married to Tuoba princesses. The nephews were later married to Tuoba princesses. She also forced the emperor to order the suicide of the She also forced the emperor to order the suicide of the

mother of his heir; she then fostered the young boy. mother of his heir; she then fostered the young boy.

Empress Dowager Lady FengEmpress Dowager Lady Feng

The emperor did not name an official consort The emperor did not name an official consort until three years after Feng’s death. until three years after Feng’s death.

At that time, he had been emperor for 22 years At that time, he had been emperor for 22 years and was 31 years old. and was 31 years old.

Even after Feng’s death in 490 he was unable to Even after Feng’s death in 490 he was unable to escape her influence:escape her influence: His harem was filled with her nieces.His harem was filled with her nieces. His ministers had been chosen by her. His ministers had been chosen by her. His eldest son had been brought up by her.His eldest son had been brought up by her. She even ordered him to build his tomb next to She even ordered him to build his tomb next to

hers but he was not buried there.hers but he was not buried there. On his death bed, the emperor ordered the On his death bed, the emperor ordered the

suicide of his consort, one of the nieces of ED suicide of his consort, one of the nieces of ED Feng. Feng.

Empress Dowager LingEmpress Dowager Ling

Lady Hu, known in history as ED LingLady Hu, known in history as ED Ling 靈靈太后太后 , was of , was of Chinese ancestry.Chinese ancestry.

She was Gaozong’s concubine and gave birth to his She was Gaozong’s concubine and gave birth to his second son – Suzongsecond son – Suzong 肃宗肃宗 (r. (r. .515-528); his first son .515-528); his first son had died.had died.

By 471, the law requiring suicide of the mother of By 471, the law requiring suicide of the mother of the heir, was no longer practiced.the heir, was no longer practiced.

Suzong came to the throne at the age of 5; he Suzong came to the throne at the age of 5; he honored his mother as huang-tai-fei honored his mother as huang-tai-fei 皇太妃皇太妃 and his and his father’s empress, Gao, as ED.father’s empress, Gao, as ED.

ED Gao tried to kill Lady Hu, failed; and was deposed.ED Gao tried to kill Lady Hu, failed; and was deposed. Lady Hu was named ED and held court as regent.Lady Hu was named ED and held court as regent.

Empress Dowager Ling Empress Dowager Ling (cont.)(cont.)

ED Ling/Hu rewarded her family members with honors ED Ling/Hu rewarded her family members with honors and riches.and riches.

Her father had been entitled Duke and at his death she Her father had been entitled Duke and at his death she gave him the title of Retired Emperor.gave him the title of Retired Emperor.

She built temples and shrines to the memory of her close She built temples and shrines to the memory of her close relatives.relatives.

She hated the family of ED Gao and murdered Gao’s She hated the family of ED Gao and murdered Gao’s relatives.relatives.

She carried on imperial sacrifices in place of the emperor.She carried on imperial sacrifices in place of the emperor. She was eventually killed by the She was eventually killed by the Erzhu RongErzhu Rong’’s forces, s forces, and and

has been pictured as a last bad ruler of the Northern Wei has been pictured as a last bad ruler of the Northern Wei by historians of the Northern Qi.by historians of the Northern Qi. Empress Dowager Ling’s biography is on the course Empress Dowager Ling’s biography is on the course

website.website.

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Xianbei and the Northern Dynasties

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