Xhmeia G Gymnasioy
description
Transcript of Xhmeia G Gymnasioy
AA
A
OO
2007 41 & , .: 210 3608065, Fax: 210 3608197 www. volonaki.gr, mail: [email protected]
: :
, , . ISBN 978-960-381-374-3
.
a
OOO , , , , .. , . . : . , , , .. . . , . , . . : . . .
, . , . O .
7
1O - - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. O . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5. , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 13 44 63 76 102
2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. O . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. . . . . . . . . . . . 4. O . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 125 140 153 171 186 197
3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. O . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. - - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4. - - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 215 247 264 283
9
- 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307 346 374
1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413 431 448
10
1 - -
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
,
11
a
1. 1.1 1.2 O Arrhenius : . Arrhenius. . . , .
1
. 1. ; . . : . . . . . , . + .... + . . + .... +
13
2. Arrhenius; O Arrhenius (+) ( ). : O , , (+). Arrhenius, , HCl, HNO3, H2SO4, H3PO4, CH3COOH .. ! . .. (2O), (3), (CH4) ..
1
.
1. . . cola . . . : (HCl), , . (O3 ), , .
14
(H2SO4 ), , , , . 2. ; O . , . O , , , .. , , , , , .. 3. . , . ( ) , . O (CO2). , ( ). , , , . , . !
1
15
4. ; , . . , (Cu), (Hg), (Ag), (Pt) (Au). , . 2 . 5. : , , . O HCl H2SO4 HNO3 CH3COOH
1
6. .
16
Cl(aq) +(aq) + Cl-(aq) ()
H2SO4 (aq) 2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) ()
1
HO3 (aq) +(aq) + O3-(aq) ()
O CH3COOH(aq) +(aq) + CH3COO-(aq) ()
1. : , , , , , , cola, , , , , . 2. , 1, : . ............................................ . ............................................ . ............................................ . ............................................ 3. . . . ..................................................................................................... . ..................................................................................................... . ..................................................................................................... . .....................................................................................................
17
1
4. : . ......................... . ......................... . ..................................... ..................................... ................................ .......................... (3 ) . ......................... 5. (. 4 ); Cu ............ Fe............. Mg ............ Ca .................. Ag .................. Au .................. Zn .................. Pt ................... Al ...................
6. ; . + ............................................................. . + .................................................. 7. ;
B
...................................................................................................... ......................................................................................................
18
8. . .
1
HCl B
A
...................................................................................................... 9. . ; HCl, H2SO4, NaOH, NaCl, CaCO3, HNO3, CH4, CH3COOH ...................................................................................................... ...................................................................................................... ...................................................................................................... . : i. ............... +(aq) + Cl-(aq) ii. H2SO4 (aq) ..................... + SO42-(aq) iii. HO3 (aq) +(aq) + ........................ iv. .................................... +(aq) + CH3COO-(aq) 10. ; . + ............................................................................................... . CH3COO- ..................................................................................... . SO42- ............................................................................................ . Cl- ................................................................................................ . O3- ............................................................................................
19
1
: 1. . . . . 2. . . . cola . 3. . . . . 4. . . . . 5. . . . . 6. . . . . 7. . .
20
. . 8. . CO2 . CO2 . CO2 . CO2 9. . . . . 10. . . . . 11. . . . . 12. . . . . 13. Arrhenius, . . . .
1
21
1
14. H2SO4 (aq) 2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) . . . .
: 1. ........................................ . 2. cola ......................................... , ....................... ...................... . 3. ................................... . 4. ................................................. ................................................ . 5. O ...................................................... , ......................................... 6. ................ .................................... , .............................................. . 7. O .................................., .................................................., ................................................................ 8. .................................................., .................................. .............................................. . 9. ........................................ ...................................... 10. ....................................... ................................. . 11. ........................ ....................... ............................................... 12. O , ..............................................., . 13. ..................................... .
22
14. ................................................, ................................ 15. HCl .................................. ................................................ . 16. ................................................... 17. : O3(aq) +(aq) + .................. 18. ...................................................... 19. ............................................. 20. ......................................... SO42-.
1
1. : . . cola . . . . .... 1. .... 2. .... 3. .... 4. .... 5. .... 6.
2. , ; .... 1. .... 2. .... 3. .... 4. .... 5. .... 6. .... 7. .... 8.
. .
23
1
() (); 1. cola. 2. . 3. . 4. . 5. O . 6. , . 7. O . 8. . 9. . 10. . 11. O . 12. . 13. O . 14. O Arrhenius . 15. . 16. . 17. . 18. O H2SO3. 19. O O3 . 20. CH3COO-.
24
1. : ...................................... ...................................... . ................. ....................... . , ......................................., , ................... ......................, .................................... (......). (3,5 ) 2. : .......................................................................................................... (2 ) 3. : . .............................................. . ................................................. . .............................................. . ................................................. . .............................................. (2,5 ) 4. : . : ...................................... . O : ................................................ . : ................................ .............................. ........................... (3 ) . O : .................................... ............. (2 ) 5. : . ...........................................................................................................
1
25
1
. ........................................................................................................... . ........................................................................................................... . ........................................................................................................... . ........................................................................................................... (5 ) 6. () (): . . . O . . O O3-. (3 ) 7. : . : ..................................... . : ............................................................................... (2 )
15 min - !
26
O , , . O , : , . , .O
1
O
O
. ( ) . : O FClBrIS2 -1 -1 -1 -1 -2
27
: O O2O3ClOClO2ClO3ClO4CO32SO3SO4PO43 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -2 -2 -2 -3
1
: - -. O O O : xA x: : , ( ) , ( ) ( ).O
OOO .. HCl, HBr, H2S
OOO .. HClO3, H2SO4
28
OOOO O A. : HCl, HBr, HF, H2S, HI O: + () + + - ( ) HCl: HBr: H2S: B. O : HClO3, HO3, H3PO4, H2SO4 O: + HClO3: HO3: H3PO4: H2SO4:
1
1. : HClO: .............................................................................. : .............................................................................. O2: .............................................................................. H2CO3: .............................................................................. H2S: .............................................................................. HF: .............................................................................. H2SO3: .............................................................................. HCl: .............................................................................. 2. : : ................................................... : ................................................... : ................................................... : .................................................. : ................................................... : ...................................................
29
1.3 pH (-) : pH . pH. pH .
1
. 1. pH * ; pH . , pH 7 0, 25 C. , pH . + pH . O pH .* .. ,
30
.
pH
1
036,5g/L
13,65g/L
2
3
4
5
6
7
CI CI
pH
2. pH 25 C; , : 2O() +aq) + O-(aq) , , (+) O-, . : +(q) = O-(aq) (1)
pH , , (1) 7, 25 0C.
31
1
. 1. ; . , . 2. ; O : +(aq) = O-(aq) pH = 7, 25 C. 3. + - O - ; : +(aq) > O-(aq) : pH < 7 4. pH ;
32
, -
, pH. pH , 7. A pH 7 , pH . pH 0
1
; i. , . ii. , .
, : pH
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
pH
pH , 7. , .
33
5. pH ; pH . pH . , , pH . pH .
1
1. pH < 7; . . cola . . . . . . 2. pH : pH 2 5 3,5 7 4,5
34
. ...............................................................................................................
3. pH = 3. pH : . . . . . : i. pH = 1 ii. pH = 5 . pH = 3.
1
pH 7
pH 7
3
3
(1)
V
(2)
V
pH
pH 7
7 3
3
(3)pH
V
(4)
V
:7
.................. ..................
:
3
(i): .................. (ii): .................. (5)V
:
..................
35
1
4. pH , 10 ; . ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... 5. () pH = 4 (). () (). , () (), pH = 6 pH = 1; . ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... 6. . pH ; ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... 7. pH pH = 2 pH = 5 ; . ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... 8. ( ) pH ;pH 7 pH 7
36
(1) (2) ............................................................................................................... ...............................................................................................................
9. pH = 4 . : , , , : . . O . . O . . pH . 10. : HNO3 H2SO4 CH3COOH HCl pH 2 0,8 4 2,5
1
...............................................................................................................
: 1. . . . . 2. , . . . . pH
37
1
3. , 25 C, pH . 7 . 7 . 7 . 7 4. pH . . . . 5. : . 2O(aq) +(aq) + O-(aq) . 2O(l) +(l) + O-(l) . 2O(l) +(aq) + O-(aq) . 2O(g) +(l) + O-(l) 6. O O- . . . . 7. pH = 7 . . 25 C . . +(aq) = O-(aq) 8. . +(aq) < 7 . +(aq) < O-(aq) . +(aq) = O-(aq) . +(aq) > O-(aq) 9. pH . . , 7 . . , 7
38
10. , . +(aq) < O-(aq) . pH 7 . +(aq) O-(aq) . pH < 7 11. pH = 4 . pH . 3 . 5 . 6 . 4,5 12. pH = 3 . pH . 2 . 3 . 4 . 7 13. pH = 3,5 . pH . 2 . 3 . 3,5 . 4 14. pH = 3 pH = 5. pH . 3 . 4 . 5 . 6 15. pH = 3 pH = 3. pH . 3 . 6
1
39
1
. 9 . 4,5 16. pH = 2,7. O pH . . . .
: 1. , ....................................... . 2. pH ................................................... ....................................... 3. ....................................... .............................................. , ....................................... . 4. , pH ............................. 7 .............................. 0, .............................. 5. pH ....................................... . 6. , ................ .............................. 7. : +(aq) ................... O-(aq) 8. pH ....................................... ( ) 7, ....................................... 9. : +(aq) .......... O-(aq). 10. ............................... , .............. ..................... +. 11. , pH ....................................... 7. 12. pH ..................................... ................................ .
40
() (); 1. pH . 2. . 3. pH 7. 4. pH 7. 5. pH , 25 C, 7. 6. : +(aq) = O-(aq) 7. pH = 1 pH = 2. 8. : 2O(aq) +(aq) + O-(aq) 9. , . 10. pH 7. 11. pH. 12. pH. 13. pH . 14. pH .
1
1. : .................................. ......................... ...................................... . ...................... .......................................
41
1
, ..............................., ............................ 7 ................................... 0, ....................................... (4,5 ) 2. : ............................................................................................................... (2 ) 3. : . pH = 7 . pH = 2,5 . pH = 5,5 . pH = 4 . pH = 0 . pH = 6 ............................................................................................................... (1,5 ) 4. : . pH = 7: ..................... . pH: ............................. . : .................................... . : ................................................ (2 ) 5. pH = 3,5. pH : . ...................................................................................................... . ...................................................................................................... (2 ) 6. () (): . pH . . pH = 7. . +(aq) = O-(aq). . pH . (4 )
42
7. () pH = 3 (). () . (). pH () (), . . pH = 7 . pH = 0 . pH = 4 . pH = 3 . pH =6 ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... (4 )
1
15 min - !
43
1
2. O 2.1 2.2 Arrhenius 2.3 pH : . Arrhenius. , . , . . pH . pH. pH .
. 1. ; .
44
. :
. . . . . . 2. Arrhenius; O Arrhenius (O-) ( ). : , , (O-). Arrhenius, , aO, O. Ca(O)2, Ba(O)2 .. ! , (3). 3. ; , . : +(aq) < O-(aq) 4. pH ; pH . , pH 7 14, 25 C.
2
45
1
, pH . O- pH . O pH . ! + pH
, 25 C : 7 < pH < 14
pH
7
8
9 pH
10
11
12
13
14
46
. 1. . . . . . O . 2. : , , , , aOH OH Ca(OH)2 Ba(OH)2 3
2
3. . aOH (s)H2O
Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)
47
OH (s)H2O
1
+(aq) + OH-(aq)
H2O
Ca(OH)2 (s)
Ca2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq)
H2O
Ba(OH)2 (s)
Ba2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq)
3(aq) + 2O(l) 4+(aq) + O-(aq)
4. pH ; , , pH. pH , 7. A pH 7 , pH .
48
pH 14
2 ; i. , . ii. , . , : ( ) ( / )
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
: pH 7
0
pH
14
49
1. : , , , , , , , , , , . 2. . , ; ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... 3. pH = 11. . pH ; . p = 10 . p = 8 . p = 9,3 . pH = 12 4. / : / . . O . . . / aO pH 7,2 9,3 13,4 8 13 / . . . . . pH 11 7,5 8,5 11,5 12,5
1
............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... 5. . ( ):
50
3,
H2SO4,
NaOH,
NaCl,
Ca(OH)2,
CaCO3,
CH4, CH3COOH, O, HCOOH, AgOH HNO3, ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... . :H2O
2
i. ........................
+(aq) + OH-(aq) Ca2+(aq) + ..................... ..................... + O-(aq) ........................ + O-(aq)
ii. Ca(OH)2 (s)
H2O
iii. aO (s)
H2O
iv. 3(aq) + 2O(l)
6. pH = 11. pH : . . . . : i. pH = 11 ii. pH = 13 iii. pH = 9pH pH 14 14 11 11
(1)
V
(2)
V
51
pH 14
pH 14
1
11
11
(3)
V
(4) : : (i): ................ ................ ................
V
pH 14
11
(ii): ................ (iii): ................ (5)V
7. pH = 10 . : , , , : . pH .......................................... . O .......................................... . .......................................... . O .......................................... . .......................................... . .......................................... 8. pH pH = 13 pH = 10 ; . ...............................................................................................................
52
...............................................................................................................
9. pH ;pH 14 pH 14
2
7
7
(1)
O-
(2)
O-
............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... 10. pH = 11 , . . : , , , : . .......................................... . ............................... . .......................................... . .......................................... . pH .......................................... . ......................................... 11. () pH = 11. (). () (). , () (), pH = 12. , . ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... ...............................................................................................................
53
12. ; ............................................................................................................... ...............................................................................................................
1
: 1. . . . . 2. . . . . 3. . . . . 4. , . . . . 5. O , , . . . . 6. . O. O+
54
. . + 7. . . . . 8. Ca(OH)2 (s)H2O
2
Ca2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq)
. . . . 9. , . . . . pH 10. , 25 C, pH . 7 . 7 . 7 14 . 7 11. pH . . . . 12. : . OH (aq)H2O
+(aq) + OH-(aq)
55
. O (s) . O (l) . O (s)
H2O H2O H2O
+( aq) + O-( aq) +( aq) + O-( aq) +(s) + O-(s)
1
13. . +(aq) > O-(aq) . +(aq) < O-(aq) . +(aq) = O-(aq) . O-(aq) > 7 14. pH . . , 7 . . , 7 15. , . +(aq) O-(aq) . pH 7 . +(aq) < O-(aq) . pH < 7 16. pH = 13 . pH . 14 . 13 . 10 . 7 17. pH = 10 . pH . 8 . 9 . 10 . 11 18. pH =12 pH = 10. pH
56
. 12 . 10,5 . 10 . 2
2
: 1. pH .............................................. 7 14. 2. .................................... ................................................ 3. ............................................. .............................................. . 4. ........................................ ................................................ 5. .............................. ................................................ 6. O ......................... 7. ............................................ , ................................................ , ................................................ 8. : +(aq) ............ O-(aq). 9. , ......................................., : 14 > pH ............... 7. 10. , , , ............................. pH , 7. 11. pH.........7. 12. .......................................... ................................................. ................................................ pH. 13. ............................. 14. O ................................................ . 15. ................................... :
57
Ca(OH)2 (s)
H2O
Ca2+(aq) + ...............
1
16. : ...............................................................................................................
1. pH / : . pH < 7 . pH = 7 . pH > 7 .... 1. .... 2. .... 3. .... 4. cola .... 5. .... 6. .... 7. .... 8.
2. : . aO . O . Ca(OH)2 . Ba(OH)2 . NH3 .... 1. .... 2. .... 3. .... 4. .... 5.
() (); 1. . 2. pH 7. 3. O . 4. .
58
5. . 6. , . 7. , . 8. O Ca(OH)2. 9. : Ba(O)2 (s)H2O
2
Ba2+(aq) + O-(aq)
10. : +(aq) < O-(aq). 11. pH 7 14. 12. , 25 C, : 14 > pH >7. 13. pH. 14. pH. 15. , pH, pH pH . 16. .
1. : .......................... .................... . ............................. . , ............................, , ........................., ................... (......). (3,5 ) 2. : ............................................................................................................... (2 )
59
1
3. : . O ........................................................................................ . Ba(O)2 ........................................................................................ . aO ........................................................................................... . 3 .............................................................................................. . Ca(O)2 ....................................................................................... (2,5 ) 4. : . O : .............. . : ............................................ . O : ......................... . : .................................... (2 ) 5. () (): . pH = 11 pH = 13. . . . Ca+. (3 ) 6. : . pH = 7 . pH = 8,5 . pH = 7,5 . pH = 14 . pH = 11 . pH = 12,4 ............................................................................................................... (3 ) 7. pH = 12. pH : . ...................................................................................................... . ...................................................................................................... (4 )
60
15 min - !
OOOO O . O : (O)y y: : : O () a+ + g+ Ca2+ a2+ Mg2+ Zn2+ l3+ +1 +1 +1 +2 +2 +2 +2 +3
2
: + aO: O: Ca(OH)2: Ba(O)2:
1. : Mg(OH)2: .............................................................................. KOH: ..................................................................................... Zn(OH)2: ............................................................................... AgOH: .................................................................................. Al(OH)3: ................................................................................ Ca(OH)2: ...............................................................................
61
2. : : ...................................................... : ....................................................... : .................................................... : ............................................
1
62
3. 3.1 : . . .
3
. 1. ; . (+) (O-) , , : +(aq) + OH-(aq) H2O(l) , , , .
63
1
. 1. ; . 2. , ; , : , , , , . 3. ; . . . . 4. ;
64
.
. , , , , . , .. , .
3
1. pH , ; ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... 2. pH , ; 0 7 14 pH 0 7 14 pH 0 7 14 pH ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... ...............................................................................................................
65
1
3. pH = 3. . pH ; . p = 3 . p = 5 . p = 7 . pH = 9 ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... 4. . : . 3 / aO . 2SO4 / O3 . Ca(OH)2 / CH3COOH ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... 5. pH = 11. pH pH = 2;pH 11 pH 11
7
7
(1)
V
(2)
V
............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... 6. pH = 3. : . . pH = 12. () ();
66
pH
pH
37 3 7 3
(1)
V
(2)
V
............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... 7. , pH = 10, :
OHOH-
OHOH-
() 1 - 4:
(A)
OHOH-
OHOH-
OHOHOH-
H+ OHOHH+ H+ H+ H+
H+
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... 8. : . , . ,
67
1
, ; ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... 9. pH = 11 pH = 2. : , , , : . .......................................... . .......................................... . O .......................................... . pH .......................................... 10. () pH = 11. (). () (). , () (), pH = 3. , . ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... 11. (, ), , : 12.
OH-
OHOH-
+
H+ H+
H+
?
68
OH-
(A)
()
()
, : . (); .............................................. . ; .......................... . ; .......................................... . () ; ............................................. . pH 7 .... 1. .... 2. .... 3. .... 4. .... 5. .... 6.
() (); 1. ( ) : +(aq) = O-(aq) = 0. 2. , . 3. , +(aq) = 0. 4. . 5. . pH = 7. 6. , .
72
7. +(aq) O-(aq) . 8. +(aq) O-(aq) . 9. : 2O(l) +(aq) + O-(aq)
3
10. pH = 7, . 11. pH < 7, 25 C, . 12. , , , . 13. . . 14. pH = 11, 25 oC, , . .
73
1
1. :
: . ; ...................................... . , ; ............................................. . . i. ; ............................... ii. ; ....................................... iii. ; ............................................. (5 ) 2. : ............................................................................................................... (2 ) 3. ; . ( ) . . (2 )
74
4. : . : ................................................ . : ................................................ . pH = 7 25 C. ; ............................................ (3 ) 5. () (): . , . . O . , + O- . (3 ) 6. O : Cl(aq) +(aq) + Cl-(aq)H2O
3
aO (s)
a+(aq) + O-(aq)
. . ............................................................................................................... . ; ............................................................................................................... . pH ; ............................................................................................................... (2 + 1 + 2 )
15 min - !
75
1
4. : . . . .
. 1. a+ Cl-, HCl aO, ; aO HCl, 2O, . , . 2. HCl aO; :
76
a+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
NaCl(s)
3. ; . 4. ; : + +
4
. 1. ; O , 2SO4, , Ba(O)2. (+) (SO42-), , : H2SO4 (aq) 2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) (Ba2+) (O-), , : Ba(OH)2 (s)H2O
Ba2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq)
, :
77
1
. + O- (). +(aq) + OH-(aq) H2O(l) . , , . O : Ba2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) BaSO4 (s) 2. ; . Ba2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) BaSO4 (s)
. a+(aq) + Cl-(aq) NaCl (aq)
. Ca2+(aq) + 2NO3-(aq) Ca(NO3)2 (aq)
3. ; , .. (NaCl), (AgNO3) .. , .. (CaSO4), (AgCl) ..
78
1. ; , , (+) (O-), . (+) (O-) , : +(aq) + OH-(aq) H2O(l) , : a+ = CI- > + = OH2. : Ca2+ = Cl , ; : HCl(aq) +(aq) + Cl-(aq) (2) : Ca(O)2 (s)H2O
4
Ca2+(aq) + 2O-(aq)
79
, : + < O, !
1
1. : 1: 2: 3: 4: . : ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... 1 2 3 4 O HCl KOH H2SO4 Ca(OH)2
80
. : . 1 2. . ............................................................................................................... . ; . ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... . 3 4. . ...............................................................................................................
. ; . ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... . 4 34 , () (). ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... 2. 4 34 , : NaCl AgNO3 CaCO3 AgCl O a+(aq) + Cl-(aq) NaCl (aq)
4
3. ; ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... 4. . :
. :
. ; ............................................................................................................... . ( ); ...............................................................................................................
81
1
. ; ............................................................................................................... 5. : 1: HCl 2: HNO3 3: H2SO4 4: NaOH 5: AgOH 6: Ca(OH)2
. 2, 3, 5 6. ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... . aO3, CaSO4 AgCl; aO3 CaSO4 AgCl x + y
. , ( 4 34 ); ............................................................................................................... 6. , ; O3, aCl, CaSO4, Ba(NO3)2, Na2SO4, AlCl3, K2SO4, AgCl :
82
7. : NaClO3, K2CO3, O ClO3 MgCl2, AlBr3, BaSO3, Al2(SO4)3, NaO Ca(NO2)2, Ag3PO4 NaClO3 MgCl2 BaSO3 Ca(NO2)2 K2CO3 AlBr3 Al2(SO4)3 Ag3PO4
4
:
8. pH = 11 pH = 3. pH = 5. . N : ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... . ; .............................. . ; ................... . ; . ........................................................................... . pH = 7; i. HCl ii. 2O iii. NaOH ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... 9. pH = 3. . pH = 9; i. O ii. 2O iii. 2SO4 ...............................................................................................................
83
1
. ; .............................. . ; ..................... . ; . ............................................................................................................... . pH;pH 9 pH 11
7
9
(1)pH
V
(2)pH
V
7 3
9 3
(3)
V
(4)
V
84
10. , pH = 13, pH = 2. pH = 3,5. . pH ; ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... . ; ........................ ............................................................................................................... . ; ................... ............................................................................................................... . pH;
pH
pH
47 7
(1)
V
(2)
V
: 1. , 25 C, . pH =7 . pH =7 . . 2. : . H2O(aq) +(aq) + O-(aq) . +(aq) + O-(aq) 2O(g) . H2O(l) +(aq) + O-(aq) . +(aq) + OH-(aq) H2O(l) 3. : . a+ = Cl. a+ = O. a+ = + . a+ < O4. , 25 C, , : a+ = SO42 : . pH = 7 . pH > 7
85
1
. pH < 7 . pH 7 5. , , , , . : . . pH = 7 . . 6. a+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
aCl(s)
: . . . . 7. : . . . . a+ Cl- 8. . . BaSO4 . BaSO4 . BaSO4
86
9. (BaSO4) . . . . 10. . . . . 11. : . + + . + + . + + . + + 12. . 2SO3 . BaSO3 . 2SO4 . BaSO4 13. aO2, O2, O3, O3, O2, Ca(NO3)2 . NaNO2, HNO2 . HNO3, KNO3 . NO2, Ca(NO3)2 . KNO3, Ca(NO3)2 14. . . . . 15. . AgCl . NaCl
4
87
1
. AgNO3 . CaSO4 16. . . 25 C . .
: 1. ...................... aO HCl, 2O, ............................. 2. , ...................................... ....................................., ........................ ..................................... . 3. 2SO4 Ba(OH)2 .................................... ................................... 4. O : Ba2+(aq) + ........................ ........................... 5. .......... ..................... .................... . 6. : + .............................. ............................ + 7. ........................................ .................................. . 8. ...................................... ............................................., , ...................................................
88
9. ..................................... ........................................... 10. ........................................ ......................................... (. . 34 ) .
4
1. , : . HCl . HNO3 . Ba(OH)2 . H3PO4 . KOH . AgOH . NaOH . H2SO4 . Ca(OH)2 . H2CO3 ........ 1. NaNO3 ........ 2. AgCl ........ 3. K2SO4 ........ 4. CaCO3 ........ 5. Ba3(PO4)2 ........ 6. CaCl2 ........ 7. AgNO3 ........ 8. BaSO4 ........ 9. Na2CO3 ........ 10. KNO3
2. ; ........ 1. NaNO3 ........ 2. AgCl ........ 3. CuSO4 ........ 4. CaCO3 ........ 5. BaSO4 ........ 6. CaCl2 ........ 7. AgNO3 ........ 8. NaCl ........ 9. CaSO4
. .
89
1
() (); 1. Arrhenius . 2. . 3. . 4. . 5. . 6. . 7. : BaSO4(s) Ba2+(aq) + SO42-(aq)
8. O . 9. BaCl. 10. . 11. , , . 12. . 13. . 14. .
1. . . .
90
............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... . ; , . ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... . ; ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... (3 + 3 + 3 ) 2. , : ............................................................................................................... (2 ) 3. : . ........................................................ . ........................................................ . ........................................................ . ........................................................ (4 ) 4. : , . . : i. ........................................................ ii. ........................................................ iii. ........................................................ . ; O: ........................................................ : ........................................................ . : ............................................................................................................... (1,5 + 2 + 1,5 )
4
15 min - !
91
O : xAy y+: x+ : x: y: . : xy+ + yx+ xAy ! . , , , . . . CaF2 . 1 : CaF2 Ca2+ F- (..: , , 1 ). 2 : Ca2+ + F- CaF2 3 : . .
1
92
Ca2+ + 2F- CaF2
1. a(O3 )2 . a(O3)2 a2+ O3-. : a2+ + O3- a(O3)2 . : a2+ + 2O3- a(O3)2 2. Al2(SO4 )3 . Al2(SO4)3 Al3+ SO42-. : Al3+ + SO42- Al2(SO4)3 . : 2Al3+ + 3SO42- Al2(SO4)3 , . . :
4
y+
x+
xAy93
a+ Ca2+ Ba2+ Zn2+ Ca2+ Ba2+ Al3+ Al3+ FClS2NO3SO42PO43+ CO32+ PO43+ NaF CaCl2 Ba2S2 BaS* Zn(NO3)2** Ca2(SO4)2 CaSO4* Ba3(PO4)2** Al2(CO3)3** Al3(PO4)3 AlPO4*
1
* 1 . ** .
O , , , ( ) ( ).
OOO .. aCl, Br, a2S
OOO .. Ca(ClO3), 2SO4
A. : NaCl, KBr, Ag2S O: + - + aCl: Br: Ag2S: B. O : aClO3, KO3, Ba3(PO4)2, K2SO4 O: +
94
aClO3: O3: Ba3(PO4)2: K2SO4:
4
1. : Cla+ Ca2+ Al3+ NH4+ Mg2+ K+ 2. : ClO: .............................................................................. a: .............................................................................. Ca(O2)2 .............................................................................. BaCO3: .............................................................................. Na2S: .............................................................................. AlF3: .............................................................................. K2SO3: .............................................................................. AgCl: .............................................................................. 3. : : ................................................... : ................................................... : ................................................... : ................................................... : ................................................... : ................................................... Ca(OH)2 OHCO32PO43S2NO3-
95
1
1. , , : ClO: .............................................................................. a: .............................................................................. Ca(O2)2 .............................................................................. BaCO3: .............................................................................. O: .............................................................................. AlF3: .............................................................................. K2SO3: .............................................................................. AgO: .............................................................................. 2. . : : ................................................... : ................................................... : ................................................... : ................................................... : ................................................... : ................................................... : ................................................... : ................................................... : ................................................ : ................................................... . ( ); ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... 3. : . 2SO3 .... 1. . Mg(OH)2 .... 2. . AlBr3 .... 3. . KClO4 .... 4. . H2S .... 5. . Na3PO4 .... 6. . H2CO3 .... 7. . Al2(SO4)3 .... 8.
96
, .. . , , . . . , , , .
4
1. (CaSO4 ) . 100 g , 25 C, 0,21 g . . g 250 g ; 0,21 g 100 g x; g 250 g = 0,21 250 100 = 0,525 g
, 0,525 g . . g 0,63 g ; 0,21 g 100 g 0,63 g x; g = 0,63 100 0,21 = 300 g
, 300 g .
97
1
. g 200 g 0,5 g ; 0,21 g 100 g x; g 200 g = 0,21 200 100 = 0,42 g
, 0,42 g 0,50 0,42 = 0,08 g . . (0,08 g), ; . , . 2. (aCl) . 100 g , 25 C, 36 g . 200 g , 25 C, . 20 C, g ; 20 C, 10 g 100 g . (200 g), 25 oC... 36 g 100 g x; g 200 g = 36 200 100 = 72 g
... 20 oC: 10 g 100 g x; g 200 g
98
=
10 200 100
= 20 g
, . , 72 20 = 52 g . 3. (O3) . 100 g , : / C g / 100 g 20 30 40 60 60 110 80 170 100 250
4
. . g / 100g
250 200 150 100 5037 x x x x
x
2025
40
60
80
100
/ oC
. ; . . 25 C; 37 g 100 g .
99
1
. g 300 g , 60 C; 110 g 100 g x; g 300 g = 110 300 100 = 330 g
, 330 g .
1. (KNO3) 400 g 120 g, 20 C. 20 C. 2. 25 C 50 g 37 g (CaCl2). 25 C; 3. (aNO3), 100 g , 25 C, 87 g. g 125 g . 4. (CaSO4) . 100 g , 25 C, 0,21 g . g 300 g ; 5. (CuSO4), 100 g , 25 C, 20,5 g. g 4,1 g .
100
6. g , 25 C, 3,7 g (CaCl2); , , 74 g 100 g . 7. ( ) 70 g (NaCl) 200 g , 25 C; 100 g , 25 C, 36 g. 8. (CaSO4), 100 g , 25 C, 0,21 g. ( ;) 4 g 2 Kg . 9. 100 g , 40 C, 60 g (O3). , 65 g ; ; 10. O (O3), 100 g , 60 g 40 C, 170 g 80 C,. , 50 g , 80 C 40 C.
4
101
1
5. , 5.1 5.2 : , 5.3 5.4 : , . , . . . pH . , , . .
. 1. ;
102
-
(SO2, SO3) (O, O2) . (SOx) , , (). O , , ..: S + O2 SO2 , SO2 . (NOx) , . , . O , . . SOx (H2SO3) (H2SO4) Ox (O3). 2. ; (, ) . O : . , , , , Taj Mahal .. . , , , , . . Ox SOx . . pH -
5
103
1
, . . pH , , .
. 1. . : . , . . , . . , . . O . . pH 4,7 8, , ( ). 2. ; pH = 2 . (, ). , ( ) . 3. pH ;
104
pH = 7,4, . -
pH . pH 7,2 , 7,6 . 4. ; , , . 5. ; (.. ) . () . 6. pH ; ; , , , pH 5 5,6. , . , . 7. ; ( ) a+ . a+ . .
5
105
1
8. () ; () (CaCO3). . . 9. ; . (3), (aO). ( ). 10. ; . , RCOOH, (aO). RCOOH + NaOH RCOONa + H2O , , RCOO- a+. RCOOa RCOO- + a+ RCOO- ( ) (R-) (-COO-).
106
() (R-)
(-COO-)
, . , . (), . 11. ; pH ; . , , , , . . (.. ) , . . pH 4 8. pH 7. (+) . pH . pH Ca(OH)2. pH 6,0 7,0 5,4 5,0 4,9 5,5 6,0
5
107
1
12. ; , , , , , . (w/w) , ( P2O5) ( 2O).
1. ; ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... 2. () : . . ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... 3. , .. ; ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... 4. ; ............................................................................................................... ...............................................................................................................
108
5. ; ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... 6. . ; ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... 7. , . , ; ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... 8. . ; ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... 9. ; ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... 10. : pH 6,0 7,0 6,0 7,0 5,0 6,5 4,6 5,6 6,0 8,0
5
. ; . ;
109
1
. o ; ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... 11. : . 5 9 - 6 . 6 7 11 . 12 8 10 ; ............................................................................................................... 12. , ; ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... 13. . pH 7; ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... 14. ; . ............................................................................................................... ...............................................................................................................
1. 50 Kg : 12 5 8. . ;
110
. Kg (P2O5) ; . . Kg (K2O) ; . % w/w , (P2O5) (2O) . 100 Kg 12 Kg , 5 Kg ( P2O5) 8 Kg (2O). . : 5 Kg P2O5 100 Kg x; Kg P2O5 50 Kg = 5 50 100 = 2,5 Kg P2O5
5
. : 8 Kg 2O 100 Kg x; Kg 2O 150 Kg = 8 150 100 = 12 Kg 2O
2. 250 Kg 20 Kg , 35 Kg ( P2O5) 30 Kg ( K2O). ; : 20 Kg 250 Kg x; Kg 100 Kg = 20 100 250 = 8 Kg
: 35 Kg 250 Kg x; Kg 100 Kg = 35 100 250 = 14 Kg
111
1
: 30 Kg 250 Kg x; Kg 100 Kg = 30 100 250 = 12 Kg
8 14 12.
: 1. . . . . 2. . . . . 3. , pH 2 . . . . 4. . . . . 5. . . . .
112
6. . . . . 7. . + . a+ . + . O8. , , . . . . 9. () . . . . 10. . HClO . HClO2 . HCl . HClO4 11. O . . . . 12. : . . . .
5
113
1
13. . . . . 14. . . . . 15. . . . . 16. pH . 4 - 8 . 5 - 9 . 5 - 8 . 4 - 9 17. . aO . O . Ba(O)2 . Ca(OH)2 18. . Na, P, K . N, P, Ca . N, P, K . N, F, K 19. . . . .
114
20. . HNO2 HClO3 . HCl H2SO4 . HNO3 H2SO4 . HClO3 H2SO3
5
: 1. pH ......................................, ................................................. . 2. ................................... pH = .................... 3. O pH pH ................................................ 7,2. 4. .................................. ....................................., , .......................... 5. , .................. ................... 6. ........................................... ..................................................... 7. .............................. ..................................... . 8. () ................................................... , ............................................... 9. ............................ 10. ................. 11. ..................................... ........................................ 12. ............................. . 13. ............................ , ............................ ................................. 14. ....................................... , ................................................. . 15. (...........), ( .........................) ( ...............).
115
1
......................................... pH ...................... .................................. . (SOx) .................................... (NOx) ................................... 20. ..................................... .
16. 17. 18. 19.
1. : . . . .... 1. .... 2. .... 3. () .... 4. .... 5. .... 6. .... 7. .... 8.
2. : . aO . CaCO3 . Ca(OH)2 . HNO3 . NH3 . HCl . H2SO4 . NaCl .... 1. pH .... 2. .... 3. SOx .... 4. a+ .... 5. () .... 6. .... 7. .... 8.
116
() (); 1. . 2. pH 7,4 . 3. . 4. . 5. a+ . 6. . 7. . 8. () . 9. , , . 10. , . 11. . 12. O . 13. , . 14. Ca(OH)2. 15. Ox . 16. . 17. NOx O3 SOx 3SO4. 18. .
5
117
1
1. 25 Kg. : 7 11 6. . Kg ( P2O5) ; . . Kg ( K2O) ; 2. 300 Kg 24 Kg , 36 Kg 27 Kg . ; 3. Kg ( K2O) , 50 Kg, : . 8 12 - 6 . 9 4 8 . 6 5 - 7 4. 50 g , 2,5 g , 3 g 4,7 g . ; 5. % w/w : . 8 12 - 6 . 9 4 8 . 7 5 - 7 50 Kg. 6. 50 Kg 4 6 10 150 Kg 8 6 6, ;
118
1. : ....................................... , ............. .......................... .........................., ...................... ................................ (5 ) 2. ( ) : . : ................................. . pH : ................................. . : ................................. . : ................................. . () : ............................ . : ................................. (3 ) 3. , : . . .... 1. .... 2. .... 3. .... 4. (4 )
5
4. : . O : ............................ . O : ................................................ . : ............... . : .......................................... . O : ................................................. (5 ) 5. 6% w/w ( 2O), 10% w/w N 4% w/w P ( P2O5); (3 )
15 min - !
119
1 1. : () . . ; ......... .............................. . () (, , ); .............................................................................................. . (); ............................................................... . ; ................................................. . pH , 25 C; ................................. . ; .................................... . ; ........................................... . : ...................................................................... (4 ) 2. : . , : ................................ . pH , 25 0C: .................... . : ................................. . : ................................. . : ................................. . : ....................................................................... (3 )
1
120
3. ( ). . , : O O
1
. : ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... . ; ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... . : ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... . ; ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... (5 ) 4. pH = 3, 25 C: . ; ............................................................................................................... . . ............................................................................................................... . i. ii. ; ...............................................................................................................
121
1
. pH ;pH 7 pH 7
3
3
(1)pH 7
V pH 7
(2)
V
3
3
(3)
V
(4)
V
(4 ) 5. 20 Kg 1,2 Kg , 0,6 Kg 2 Kg . ; ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... (4 )
1 - !122
2 T
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
123
1. O 1.1 ... 1.2 : O 1.3 1.4 ; : . . . .
1
. 1. ; . , .
125
2
O , , , . . , = 11 : 11Na. 2. ; , 1 , . , . 3. .
126
O .
4. ; O : 1 , , . 2 , . 17 . 18 .1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1
2
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
5. ; . , , . () 1. 1 . . , . , .
127
2
, . 6. ; . . , , , ... O , , . .
. 1. ; 1860 60 , . Newlands, . O Newlands . O 1870 Mendeleev. . O . . O Mendeleev
128
, . . 2. ; O : 1 2 2 8 3 8 4 18 5 18 6 32 ( 14 ) 7 : 2 3 8 4 5 18
1
1. ; ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... 2. . ; ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... 3. ; ............................................................................................................... ...............................................................................................................
129
2
4. . : Cs, K, I, He, Ca, Rn, Li, H, Be, Fr, Ne, Na, Sr, F, Mg, Xe, Cl, Br 5. . . : F, He, Ca, Rn, At, Li, Mg, Xe, Cl, Cs, K, I, Be, Fr, Ne, Na, Sr O
6. : .......................... ........................... . 7. 2 2 . ; ............................................................................................................... 8. : 1 18 81 12 O
130
2 86 88 20 55 11 . ; ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... . ; ............................................................................................................... . ( ). : ......................................................................................... : ....................................................................................... 9. , , , , 16, 12, 8, 20 38 ( ); ............................................................................................................... 10. 3 17 . : . ; ........................................... . ; ........................................................ . : ; : 1 2 , 2 3 8 , 4 5 18 . 2 88 1818!
1
131
2
1 . ! 2 3 3 12.1 3 4 12 21 54 9 2 10
. ; ........................ . ; ; ................................................ . , , . . : i. ; ..................... ii. ; ..................... iii. ; ..................... iv. ; ..................... 11. 4 2 . : . ; .................................... . ; ........................................................ . ; .................... . ; ................
132
12. 1 1 . . ; ........................ . ; ........................................................ . ; ........................................ . ; .......................................................................................
1
: 1. O (): . . . . 2. 1860 . 40 . 60 . 80 . 100 3. O Newlands . . . . 4. O . Mendeleev . Newlands . Bohr . Moseley
133
2
5. O . . . . 6. O . 7 . 18 . 18 . 8 7. 1 . . . . 8. . . . . 9. 18 . . . . 10. . . . . 11. . . . .
134
12. .
. . . 13. ( ); . - a . - e . He - Ne . Na Ne 14. ( = 56); . Z = 1, Z = 2 . Z = 1, Z = 19 . Z = 12, Z = 11 . Z = 12, Z = 20 15. . . . . 16. . . . .
1
: 1. ....................................................... 2. O Mendeleev ........................................ . 3. ................................. .
135
2
4. O ........................... , ..................................... ................... , .................... 5. ...................... , 4 5 .......................... . 6. ..........................................., ........................................ ............................. . 7. 1 , ...................................., .................................................. 8. ............................ . 9. .......................................... ............................................. 10. ............................................... ....................................... . 11. .......... .................... .................... . 12. ..................................... . 13. O .............................. 14. ..................................... .................................... .
1. : . . . . .... 1. 2 .... 2. 18 .... 3. 1 .... 4. 17
136
2. , ( );
. .
.... 1. Cl .... 2. Mg .... 3. Fe .... 4. F .... 5. H .... 6. N .... 7. Na .... 8. Br
1
() (); 1. O Mendeleev . 2. O . 3. O 18 . 4. 3 4 . 5. 1 . 6. 1 . 7. 2 . 8. . 9. . 10. . 11. . 12. O Mendeleev. 13. . 14. 6 . 15. . 16. .
137
2
1. : . .............................. . . ..................... , ..................... . . O ..................................... ............. O .............................. ............................ . (3,5 ) 2. : ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... (1 ) 3. ( ); , Fe, F, H, Ca, N, O, Mg, Cl, C, Na : .................................................................. : ................................................................ (5,5 ) 4. , , , , 1, 4, 8, 10, 11, 18. : 1 : .................................................. 2 : .................................................. 3 : .................................................. (3 ) 5. : 1 : .................................................. 2 : ..................................................
138
17 : ................................................ 18 : ................................................ (4 ) 6. () (): . 17 . . . O 7. (3 )
1
15 min - !
139
2
2. 2.1 2.2 : . . .
. 1. ; 1 . (Li), (Na), (K), (Rb), (Cs) (Fr), . 2. ; : . . , .
140
, . O , . , , . , (OH-) . , O-, . 3. ; O . 1 , , . 4. (.. ) ; . , , . , , , ( Coulomb ) . , , .
2
141
A e
2
. 1. ; , , . 2. ; . . , (a+) (O-), (2), : 2Na(s) + 2H2O(i) 2Na+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) + H2(g) a+; a+ , -
142
. Cl- , . 3. , ; 1 , . +1. a0 Na+ + 1e 4. (.. , , ) ; . , , . 20C (C) Li Na K Rb Cs 3 11 19 37 55 0,53 0,97 0,86 1,53 1,88 180,5 97,8 63,6 38,9 28,5 (C) 1342 890 754 688 690
2
g/mL
143
1. , : . . . ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... 2. ; ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... 3. ; ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... 4. ; ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... 5. : 500 mL, 3/4 . , . . ;
2
144
............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... . ; ; ............................................................................................................... . , ;
2
()
()
()
............................................................................................................... . ; ............................................................................................................... . . ............................................................................................................... . ; ............................................................................................................... 6. ; ............................................................................................................... 7. : Na, Cs, Li, K, Fr, Rb. : . : ................................................... . : .............................................. 8. . ; ...............................................................................................................
145
9. : 11 19 20 e 2, 8, 1 2, 8, 8, 1 2, 8, 8, 2
2
. , ; ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... . , ; ............................................................................................................... ...............................................................................................................
: 1. . . . . 2. . Li, K, Na, Rb, Cs, Fr . Li, Na, K, Rb, Fr, Cs . Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr . Li, Na, K, Cs, Rb, Fr 3. 1 . . . . .
146
4. O . Ru . Ra . Rd . Rb 5. . . . . 6. Na . . . . . 7. . . . . 8. , . . . . 9. . . , . , , . 10. . . . .
2
147
2
11. . . . . 12. . . . . 13. . . . . 14. . . . . 15. O . . . . 16. . e . e . .
148
: 1. ........................ , ................................................ 2. ............................... . 3. , ............................................ , .........................................., ............................... 4. , ..........................., ............................................. 5. ................................................. ............................................ . 6. ............................................ . 7. ......................................, .................................. . 8. .......................... ................................., ............................................. 9. ......................... ..................................... 10. ................................... 11. ........................................ . 12. ........................................ , .......................................... . 13. .......................... , ............................. , : .................................... 14. : ................................................................................... 15. ...................................... ......................................... e . 16. , ............................................ , ................................ , , .
2
149
2
1. : . . . . . . .... 1. .... 2. .... 3. .... 4. Li, K .... 5. .... 6. 4
2. : . . . . . . .... 1. .... 2. Cs .... 3. a .... 4. Fr .... 5. Rb .... 6. Li
() (); 1. : 2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) 2Na+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) + H2(g) 2. . 3. .
150
4. 1 , . 5. 1 . , . 6. . 7. . 8. . 9. , . 10. e . 11. . 12. . 13. +1. 14. .
2
1. , : ...................................... . ......................................... . .............................. O ............................ .............................. ....................... . (3 )
151
2
2. . ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... (2 ) 3. ; , Fe, Cs, F, H, Rb, Ca, Fr, Li, N, O, Mg, Ra, He, Rn, C, Na ............................................................................................................... (3 ) 4. : ............................................................................................................... (3 ) 5. : . . ............................................................................................................... . . ............................................................................................................... . . ............................................................................................................... (6 ) 6. () (): . 1 . . +1. . 1 . (3 )
15 min - !152
3. 3.1 3.2 O 3.3 3.4 : . . . . . .
3
. 1. ; . .
153
2. ; : . . . . . , . , . .. (Na), , . 3. ; , +(aq) . 4. . HCl H+(aq) Cl- (aq) HCI(aq)H2O
2
+(aq) + CI-(aq)
154
: (aq) (s) (l) (g)
( , 2SO4), . , H+(aq), . , H+(aq), Mg2+(aq). , H2 (g), , , . . , , , +(aq), . , . , . : Mg(s) + 2H+(aq) Mg2+(aq) + H2(aq) 5. ; . O . , . . Mg > Al > Fe > H2 > Cu
3
155
2
6. . , CuSO4(aq), , Cu2+(aq) CuSO4(s) , : CuSO4(s)H2O
Cu2+(aq) + SO2-(aq)
, , , . O Cu2+(aq) Fe2+(aq) : Fe(s) + Cu2+(aq)H2O
Fe2+(aq) + Cu(s)
(Cu) , . , , - , Fe2+(aq). . ; (s) , . 7. ; . : Li > K > Ca > Na > Mg > Al > Zn > Fe > H2 > Cu > Ag > Pt > Au
156
. : Li > K > Ca > Na > Mg > Al > Zn > Fe > H2 -, - - () - : (Pt), O , (Cu), (Ag) (Au)! 8. ; , : . . , . . , , , , , .
3
. 1. ;
157
2
, . , , . 2. ; , , . 3. ; , . 4. ; . , , , . : O , , . O (), -, . , . , , , .. , , , , .
158
, . : . . . . ; , . O O 1 . 1 Zn(s) + H+(aq) Zn2+(aq) + H2(g) : +1 ... = 2 : +2 , 2 [2.(+1) = 2] 1 () [1.(+2) = 2] : / = 2 / 1
3
}
Zn(s) + 2H+(aq) Zn2+(aq) + H2(g) : 2 = 2 : 1 = 1 : / = 2 / 1 () 2 Al(s) + H+(aq) Al3+(aq) + H2(g) : +1 : +3
}
... = 3
159
2
, 3 [3.(+1) = 3] 1 () [1.(+3) = 3] : / = 3 / 1 Al(s) + 3H+(aq) Al3+(aq) + H2(g) : 3 2 ... = 6 : Al(s) + 6H+(aq) Al3+(aq) + 3H2(g) : 6 = 6 : 1 = 1 : / = 6 / 1. 2 . : 2Al(s) + 6H+(aq) 2Al3+(aq) + 3H2(g) : 6 = 6 : 2 = 2 : / = 6 / 2 = 3 / 1 () 3 Al(s) + Zn2+(aq) Al3+(aq) + Zn(s) : +2 ... = 6 : +3 , 3 [3.(+2) = 6] 2 [2.(+3) = 6] : / = 2 / 3 Al(s) + 3Zn2+(aq) 2Al3+(aq) + Zn(