INTRODUCTION TO TRAINING –HRM 113

TOPIC ONE – INTRODUCTION TO TRAINING

Training

- “is a continuing investment in the most valuable of all our national resources.....the energies of our people....”. (UK scholar)

- is a learning process that involves the acquisition of knowledge, sharpening of skills, concepts, rules or changing of attitudes and behaviours to enhance the performance of employees.

- A systematic and planned process to change the knowledge, skills and behaviour of employees in such a way that organisational objectives are achieved. (Erasmus BJ and Van Dyk PS, Training Mgt in RSA, 1999)

- It is activity leading to skilled behaviour.

- It is about knowing where one stands (no matter how good or bad the

current situation looks) at present and where one will be after some

point of time.

- It is about the acquisition of Skill, Knowledge and Abilities (SKA) through

professional development.

- Usually a short term process specifically for job related purposes (task

oriented) and targeting mostly non managerial personnel.

- training standards are primarily derived from job description/task

requirements of a particular job.

- It is about change.

Development

- A strategy designed to enhance skills of existing or potential managerial

employees.

- Refers to philosophical and theoretical educational concepts for general

purpose knowledge.

- Focuses on a broad range of skills including interpersonal and

managerial decision making.

- It is aimed at the long run and takes place continually throughout one’s

career.

Learning

- A continuous process by which a person acquires and develops new

knowledge, skills, capabilities and attitudes in the normal course of life.

- It is goal directed, based on experience and involves some recognisable

change in behaviour.

- A permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a result of exercise or

experience or both.

Importance of Training

- To meet the current and future organisation’s strategic, business and

operational goals through a competent, skilled and knowledgeable staff,

possessing the right attitude.

- It enhances performance of employees and the organisation to achieve

sustainable competitive advantage through quality and customer

oriented strategies.

- To stay abreast of technological advancement as well as sustaining

socio-economic pressures within the business environment (PESTELI).

- To avoid managerial obsolescence i.e failure to keep pace with new

methods and processes that enable employees to remain effective.

- Is a powerful socialisation processes for potential, new and existing

employees as it aids create a brand as an employer of choice (corporate

image is thus enhanced).

- Talented people (achievement oriented individuals) want to work for an

organisation that grows them (career mgt) thus building on employee

commitment and loyalty.

- Developed staff tends to exhibit organisational citizenship behaviour

than poaching fully trained individuals.

- Leads to increased operational productivity and company profit.

- Creates a learning culture characterised by a healthy organisational

climate, team spirit, healthy working environ, shared vision, reduced

staff turnover and absenteeism, accepting change etc.

- Increases one’s worth in the labour market (employability) as well as

entrepreneurial skills.

NB: in RSA 2.7% of total employment costs is channelled towards training, in

USA 5%, Japan 10% (strong cultural pressures and clear legislative

structure). In Zimbabwe 1% of total wage bill is training allocated.

Training and Human Resource Management

- Training is an investment because other departments such as marketing,

sales, finance, production and HR depend on it for survival.

- If training is not considered as a priority or not seen as a vital part in the

organisation, then it is difficult to accept that such a company has

effectively carried out HRM.

- Training provides the opportunities to raise the profile development

activities in the organisation.

- It helps increase commitment levels of employees and growth in quality

movement (key HRM concepts).

Training Philosophy

-It expresses the degree of importance an organisation attaches to training. It

underlies top management’s commitment to training intervention, usually

expressed by the percentage of funds allocated towards the training budget or

embedded within the mission statement of the organisation.

- it should be based on an integration of job content training as well as

leadership training and management skills, in accordance with career levels.

Training Policy

-It is an expression of intent that sets out what an organisation is preparing to

do in terms of developing its employees.

-it establishes the broad framework for its training plan which expresses the

priority training interventions of an organisation and the strategies to be

followed during a given period of time.

-the attitude of an organisation towards training and development is reflected

in its policy; this policy governs the priorities, standards and scope of its

training activities.

-a training policy defines the relationship between the objectives of the

organisation and its commitment to the training function, as well as providing

operational guidelines for management. Furthermore, it provides information

for employees and enhances public relations.

-a training policy is subject to change as decided by top management in line

with organisational goals.

- it contains information with regards to induction of new staff, procedure for

selecting trainees, types of programmes funded or conducted by the

organisation, roles of various stakeholders and their obligations,

administration e.t.c

Training Plan

-a detailed statement of the training that will be implemented over a specific

period. It emanates from a reconciliation of priority training needs, the training

policy and the resources available (budgets).

-should comprise of detailed time plan (monthly, quarterly, half-yearly) of the

training requirements of each department, training outcome, responsibility,

training strategy to be implemented, summary of budget allocation per

department etc.

Training Costs and Budgets

-as part of the planning task, training should be presented as cost effectively as

possible, through using a budget.

-budgets are used as a financial control instrument for a specified period.

-should be flexible to allow for unknown factors to be factored.

-training budgets can be in 3 forms: a central budget by the training manger,

individual budgets by line managers or a shared budget where the training

department budgets for generic aspects and line managers for specific unique

items.

-training expenses must be justifiable in terms of the overall business plans of

the enterprise. The following aspects must receive attention when a training

budget is prepared;

Existing training and future needs e.g. induction and supervisor training.

Facilities. which ones need to be purchased at what cost etc

Suitable personnel. Make provision for the recruitment or retraining of

training personnel.

Salaries of training personnel.

Personnel development.

Sundry costs including travelling expenses, bursaries, training material,

refreshments, meals and accommodation, fees for consultants etc.

Training Options

-there are four options that an organisation can consider before providing

training to its employees:

Internal training. Either by setting an internal division for training or by

recruiting external trainers and call them to the company site using

their tools to conduct training.

Product related training. The dealer who delivers the machine or

installs the system offers initial training. The user may negotiate with

the dealer for regular up-grade of product related know how or

expertise instead of once- off training.

Independent professionals. Considering the emerging threat and

opportunities, professionals need to keep themselves updated of the

developments and avoid obsolescence. The responsibility of training

entirely lies on the individual, as a better trained professional will

always have better market worth than others.

Outsourcing. Exempts the organisation to concentrate on its core

business. It includes tying up with some reputable training or

educational institutions, sending employees for training. This way the

coy avails to its staff the required expertise and high quality training

program and saves money on content development, recruiting and

maintaining training team. Training quality has to be frequently tracked

so as to ensure the trainer’s performance and training effectiveness.

TOPIC TWO – LEARNING

Conditions for effective learning (principles)

Motivation- adopt a ‘buy them in’ approach. Involve and clarify to trainees,

performance gaps, training objectives and outcome/ purpose in line with

personal and organisational goals.

Expectations- positive expectations matter. If the trainee perceives the training

as a waste of time and resources, training will fail.

Organisation- presentation of material should build on one another, avoiding

contradictions or ambiguities. Consider the learning pace of each

trainee.

Repetition- practice makes perfect. Ask trainees to repeat the information or

behaviour as a way of recalling and refreshing.

Active Participation- trainees learn best by making active responses and learn

best by doing and getting involved, not just listening e.g. through

discussions, tutorials, role plays...

Reinforcement- learning proceeds most effectively when the trainee’s correct

responses are promptly strengthened/supported.

Feedback- reduces anxiety and lets students know areas to improve on in line

with training objectives.

Application-practice in a variety of settings will increase the range of situations

in which learning can be applied and enhances transfer of learning for

effective performance.

Only the learner can learn. The trainer acts as a facilitator, but the learner

must be able to learn independently. The responses that the trainee

makes are limited by their abilities and by the sum total of their past

responses.

Setting objectives. Outcome should be clearly indicated. The objectives should

serve as the basis for the achievement assessment.

Theories on Learning

1. The Behaviourist theory

- Asserts that learning occurs as a result of a reward or punishment.

- Learning has to do with a person’s response to stimulus. Thorndike

regarded training as a trial and error process and advanced his ‘law of

effect’ theory which states that if an organism finds the link between a

stimulus and a response satisfactory, the link will be strengthened and

the opposite is true. Skinner’s operant conditioning theory also applies.

- The theory is premised on the notion that learners must be rewarded

when they respond correctly and reprimanded when they fail.

2. The Humanistic theory

- Humans are sensitive and inquisitive (curious) and act with a view of

achieving personal objectives.

- The theory adopts McGregor’s theory X and Y as well as Maslow.

- The trainer and learner must regard themselves as unique individuals in

a complex interactive process, where the trainer’s task is to help the

learner understand learning objectives, to create favourable learning

situations and to evaluate learning outputs.

- The learning process is the focal point, where the learner must achieve

full potential and set own objectives with the trainer merely facilitating

training.

- It encourages self discovery and self directed training.

3. The Gestalt theory

- Learning is perceived as a cognitive process involving the whole

personality. People develop their own understanding of the world.

- Its proponents argue that learning takes place by means of assimilation

(expansion) or revision of the learner’s understanding of the world.

Learning Styles

Individuals learn in different ways.

1. Neurolinguistic Programming

Suggest that people have a preferred way of learning and communicating

that is tied to senses. When one wants to remember certain information,

one tries to access a certain ‘file’ in the brain where one would have stored

the information-either in visual, auditory or physical feelings form.

2. Whole brain theory

Emphasise the preference of either the right or left hemisphere. The right

side of the brain is considered the seat of creativity and emotion, while the

left side is the seat of logic and reason. It argues that a logical approach will

work for some people while an appeal to emotions may be more successful

with others.

3. Kolb’s 1974 model (Organisational Psychology)

He views learning as circular and a perceptual process whose key stages are

experience, observation of and reflection on experience, analysis of the key

learning points arising out from experience and the consequent planning

and trying out of new /changed behaviours.

4. Honey & Mumford model

They concluded that people’s predominant learning styles tended to fall into

one of the following categories;

Activists. Involve themselves fully in new experiences, are open minded and

not sceptical. They are enthusiastic about anything new, enjoy brainstorming

but tend to be bored with implementation.

Reflectors. Enjoy collecting and analysing data about experiences and events

but tend to postpone reaching conclusions for as long as possible. They

prefer to take a back seat in meetings and enjoy observing other people in

action. When they act, it is part of a wide picture which includes the past and

present and others’ observation.

Theorists. Tend to be detached, analytical and dedicated to rational

objectivity rather than anything subjective or ambiguous. They adopt a

logical approach to problems and prefer to maximise certainty and feel

uncomfortable with subjective judgements.

Pragmatists. Keen on trying out new ideas, theories and techniques to see if

they work in practice. They do not like ‘beating around the bush’. They are

impatient with lengthy or unending discussions. They are essentially down to

earth and like making practical decisions and solving problems. Their

philosophy is ‘if it works, it’s good’.

Developing a learning culture

-should be accepted by all.

-there is a shared vision.

- builds on commitment, empowerment, self managed learning and long term

capacity building.

Transfer of Learning

-is the ability to use previous learning to ease new learning. It is positive if it is

helpful and negative when previous knowledge hinders performance in a new

situation. It can be maximised by:

*maximising the similarities between the training and the job.

*providing as much experience as possible with the task being taught.

*providing a variety of examples when teaching concepts/skills.

*labelling/ identifying important features of a task.

*making sure that training is rewarded on the job.

*designing the training so that trainees can see its applicability.

*use questions to guide trainees’ attention.

*generalising from basic principles and providing prompts and hints as well as

opportunities for practice.

TOPIC THREE – TRAINING MODELS

A) Systematic Training Model

- is simple, logical and illustrates the dependency relationship between

different steps.

-it has 5 steps (IDDIE):

1. Identify and Analyse training needs- a diagnostic stage for setting training

objectives and help identify and analyse a performance gap that can be

bridged through training. The focus is on the department, the job,

employees, who needs training, what they need to learn, estimate the

training cost etc. Develop a performance measure on the basis of which

actual performance would be evaluated.

2. Design and provide training- to meet identified need. Develop objectives of

training, identifying the learning steps, sequencing and structuring the

contents.

3. Develop- list activities in the training program that will assist the participants

to learn, selecting delivery method, examining the training materials,

validating information to be imparted to ensure it accomplishes all the

goals and objectives.

4. Implementing-hardest part because one wrong step can lead to failure of

whole training program.

5. Evaluation-each phase to ensure it has achieved its aim in terms of

subsequent work performance and making amendments for

improvements.

B) Transitional Training Model

- It focuses on the organisation as a whole. The outer loop describes the

Vision, Mission and Values of the organisation on the basis of which

training (inner loop) is executed.

- Vision focuses on the milestones the organisation would like to achieve

after a defined point in time. It may include bringing some internal

transformation.

- Mission explains the reason of organisational existence. It identifies the

position in the community. The reason of developing a mission

statement is to motivate, inspire and inform the employees regarding

the organisation. It tells about the identity that the organisation would

like to be viewed by the customers, employees and other stakeholders.

- Values entail the translation of vision and mission into communicable

ideals. It reflects the deeply held values of the organisation and is

independent of current industry environment e.g. social responsibility,

excellent customer care etc.

- The objectives of training are formulated keeping the 3 (V/M/V) in mind

and then the training model is further implemented in the inner loop

(which constitutes objectives, planning, implementing and evaluating).

C) Instructional Systems Development Training Model

- Widely used model as it is concerned with the training need on the job

performance.

- Training objectives are defined on the basis of job responsibilities and

job description and on the basis of the defined objectives individual

progress is measured.

- it helps determine and develop favourable strategies, sequencing the

content and delivering media for the types of training objectives to be

achieved.

- is a continuous process that lasts throughout the training program. It

highlights that feedback is an important phase throughout the entire

training period.

- it comprises 5 stages:

1. Analyses-consists of training needs assessment, job analysis and target

audience analysis.

2. Planning-consists of goal setting of the learning outcome, instructional

objectives that measures behaviour of participants after the training,

types of training materials, media selection, methods of evaluating the

trainee, trainer and the training program, strategies to impart

knowledge i.e selection of content, sequencing of content etc.

3. Development-this phase translates design decisions into training material. It

consists of developing course materials for the trainer including

handouts, workbooks, visual aids etc for the trainee.

4. Execution- focuses on the logical arrangements, such as arranging speakers,

equipment, benches, podium, food facilities, cooling, lighting, parking

and other training accessories.

5. Evaluation- it ensures that the training program has achieved its aims of

work performance. It consists of identifying strengths and weaknesses

and making necessary amendments in order to remedy practices.

D) Systems Training Model

- It views training as a subsystem of an organisation. It establishes a

logical relationship between the sequential stages in the process of TNA,

formulating, delivering and evaluating.

- 4 inputs i.e technology, man, material and time are required to produce

products/services. Every system must have some output from these

inputs in order to survive.

- it is planned creation of training program using step by step procedures

to solve problems.

- it stipulates that planned training will work effectively only if it is fully

integrated with the systems of relationships, structures,

interdependency and work in the organisation.

TOPIC FOUR – TRAINING NEEDS

Training Needs Identification and Analysis

- Seeks to establish a performance gap (between what employees ‘must

do’ and what they ‘actually can do’) that will be addressed through

training.

- In identifying the need the formula is P- KD = N, where P represents

expected performance, KD what the employee already knows and n for

the needs.

- It ensures that training is provided in areas it is needed and that

programs designed are relevant.

- It will establish if training is the solution at all. (alternatives include

counselling, disciplinary action, financial injection, machinery change...)

- It is conducted at 3 levels:

1. Organisational Analysis. Analyse organisation’s wide performance.

Indicators for the need of training include accident and injuries statistics,

absenteeism, turnover, productivity, quality, labour and operating costs,

sexual harassment charges, structural changes, competition, macro

environmental demands etc. Business and HR plans give information on

the types of skills and competencies the organisation need now and in

future. Examine organisational goals, resources, climate of training,

internal and external environmental constraints (e.g. through a SWOT

analysis).

2. Operational or Task analysis. Involves a description and breakdown of

the tasks which make up a job into simple elements and analysing how it

should or is being performed (actual v desired) to establish performance

gaps. Information can be collected through job descriptions, person

specification, defined performance standards, job observation, surveys

and performance reviews.

3. Personal Analysis. Identify individuals that need training, what SKA

need to be acquired or strengthened. Data can be collected through

management committees, assessment centres, attitude surveys, group

discussions, questionnaires, skills test (e.g. typing or driving),

observation of behaviour, performance appraisals, performance

documents, exit interviews etc.

Stages in TNA

Preparation- determine scope of TNI and agree on time scale and resources to be used to collect data.

Data Collection- at any of the 3 levels cited above

Interpretation of Data- assess the results and the extent, is there a need for training?

Recommendation- training proposed, resources required, time scale of training programme, arrangements and evaluation of programme training, estimated costs

Action plan- identify trainers and time scheduling of training.

Tools necessary in selecting needs assessment method

1. Employee involvement 2. Management involvement

2. Time 4. Cost

5. Needs assessment information must be relevant and quantifiable.

Training Objectives

- A statement comprising, various activities that have to be mastered by a

student.

- After TNA, SMART training objectives should be written to reflect what

the participants should be able to do on completion of training including

skills, knowledge, abilities and attitudes.

- Help determine appropriate training methods to adopt by focusing on

areas of employee performance that need change.

- Help clarify what is to be expected of both the trainer and the trainees

- Become a point of reference for evaluating the program.

- Should be explicit/ unambiguous.

- Should be aligned to overall strategic business objectives.

To the trainer

- Helps measure progress of trainees and make required adjustments

- Helps establish a relationship between objectives and training segments

- Aids in preparing / purchasing relevant material.

- Helps deal effectively in an unexpected situation / control purposes.

To trainee

- Helps reduce anxiety (feeling of going/ doing the unknown)

- Helps increase in concentration

- Helps increase the probability of success in training for participants in a

motivating manner.

To Evaluator

- Becomes easy to measure progress as objectives define the expected

performance of training.

Qualities of good training objectives

- A statement of outcome behaviour

- A description of the conditions under which the outcome behaviour is

expected to occur.

- A statement of the minimum level of achievement that will be accepted

as evidence that the employee has accomplished what was required.

- Involve employees when reviewing formulated objectives prior to

training and factor in their expectations

An example of a training objective for a typist;

Terminal Behaviour : to word process

Condition : given a standard word processing operator’s exam

Min. Achievement : 60 words per min. With error rate of less than 2%

TOPIC FIVE – TRAINING DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION

Training Design

- HRD or Training staff should construct a plan to help schedule and plan

what training courses will be offered within a certain time frame. They

should draw up a checklist to help ensure that everything is ready for

the training program.

- Is undertaken when clear training objectives have been produced.

- Cole (1997) states that if a training program is to be relevant and

effective the following questions with regards to the CONTENT must be

answered by the trainer:

What are we trying to achieve in this program?

What do we expect participants to achieve?

What content is required to achieve the aims?

How feasible is the content in light of time and resources available?

How should this content be structured?

What learning methods should we employ?

Who should conduct the training program?

Where and when should training take place?

To what extent should the participants be consulted about the nature

and scope of the training program?

How should we evaluate the success of the training program?

- The sequencing of the material to be learnt should be considered. The

trainer based on trainee SKA will decide whether to move from the

known to the unknown/ the simple to the complex / theory to pursue

practice / the concrete to the abstract / general to the particular / unit

to whole /building on previous knowledge/ dependent relationship.

- The following should be taken note of:

The trainer- trainer should analyse his technical, interpersonal,

judgemental skills so as to deliver quality content.

The trainees- close scrutiny of trainees and their profiles in terms of

age, experience, needs and expectations is necessary.

Training climate- comprises of support, tone feelings and positive

perception for the training climate.

Trainees’ learning style- learning style, age, experience, educational

background of trainees must be kept in mind in order to get a right

pitch to design the program.

Training strategies- including translating objectives into specific

training areas and modules. Prepare a priority list of what must be

included.

Training topics- decide on content to be delivered, breaking it into

headings, topics.

Sequence of content- explained above

Training tactics- choose most appropriate techniques, depending on

trainees’ background, time allocated, style preference of trainer, level

of competence of trainer, availability of facilities and resources etc.

Support facilities- include printed and audio visual (white boards, flip

charts, markers etc)

Constraints-should be taken note of. Include time, accommodation,

facilities and their availability, furnishings, equipment, budget etc

Training Implementation

- Putting training program into effect according to a definite

plan/procedure.

- Once the staff, course, content, equipment, topics are ready, training is

implemented as timed.

- 75% of information is easily taken visually and learning by doing is

encouraged.

- Watch body language and check by asking questions.

- It requires continual adjusting, redesigning and refining.

- Preparation is the most important factor to taste success. Therefore the

following facts be kept in mind while implementing training program:

The Trainer- be mentally prepared before the delivery of content,

prepare materials and activities well in advance, set grounds before

meeting with participants by making sure that he/she (trainer) is

comfortable with course content and is flexible in approach.

Physical set-up- good physical set up is pre-requisite for effective and

successful training program because it makes the first impression in

participants. Classrooms be arranged to bring people together both

physically and psychologically, with right amount of space allocated

to every participant.

Establishing rapport with participants by:

o Greeting participants in a simple way to ease initial tense

moments.

o Encourage informal conversation

o Remembering their first names

o Pairing up the learners and have them familiarised with one

another.

o Listening carefully to trainees’ comments and opinions

o Telling the learners by what name the trainer wants to be

addressed.

o Getting to class before the arrival of learners.

o Starting the class promptly at the scheduled times.

o Using familiar examples

o Vary in instructional techniques

Reviewing the agenda- at the start of the training program, review

the program objectives. Tell the participants the goal of the program,

what is expected out of them at the end of the program and how it

will run. The information to be included includes; kinds of training

activities, schedule, setting group norms, housekeeping

arrangements, flow of program, handling problematic situations etc.

TOPIC SIX – TRAINING METHODS/TECHNIQUES

- They are cognitive/ behavioural and management development

methods.

Cognitive Methods- focus more on giving theoretical training to

trainees, providing the rules on how to do something, written/verbal

information and demonstrating relationships among concepts. These

methods are associated with changes in knowledge and attitudes by

stimulating learning. They include lectures, demonstrations,

discussions and computer based training.

Behavioural Methods- focus more on giving practical training to

trainees. It allows trainees to behave in a real fashion. It is best used

for skill development. It includes business games and simulations

(behaviour modelling, case studies, role plays and in basket

technique).

Management Development- more future oriented and more

concerned with education of employees to become better

performers. It attempts to instil sound reasoning processes. It is

divided into on the job training including coaching, mentoring, job

rotation and job instruction technique as well as off the job training

through sensitivity training, transactional analysis, lectures and

simulation exercises. Management are usually exposed to

programmes intended to prepare them for higher positions, which

have to make them aware of a wide range of subjects that may affect

the success of the enterprise.

ON THE JOB TRAINING TECHNIQUES

- Typically involve job instruction given by an employee’s supervisor or an

experienced co-worker on a day to day basis or as part of a specially

tailored program.

- Most of training in Zimbabwe is performed on the job through learning

by doing.

- Includes job rotation, lateral promotion, enlarged and enriched job

responsibilities, job instruction training, apprenticeship, coaching,

mentoring, committee assignments, demonstrations, sitting with Nellie

and secondment.

Benefits

- Employee is doing the actual work.

- Employee receives instructions from an experienced employee/

supervisor who has performed the task successfully.

- Training is performed in actual work environment under normal

conditions and requires no special training facilities.

- Training is largely informal, relatively inexpensive and easy to schedule.

- Training may build cooperative relationships between the employee and

the trainer.

- No re entry/ adjustment problems.

Challenges

- Trainer may not be motivated to train/ accept training responsibility;

thus may be haphazard.

- Trainer may perform the job well but lack the ability to teach others how

to do so.

- Trainer may not have the time to train and may omit key elements.

- Noise disruption and interruptions.

- Mistakes are costly and disruptive to work of sections.

- Pressure and inadequate time for concentration and analysis by trainees

OFF THE JOB TRAINING TECHNIQUES

- Any form of training performed away from the employee’s immediate

work area.

- Can be in-house (conducted within the organisation’s own training

facility by specialists from the training department /external

consultants) or off-site programs such as a college or university.

- Includes lecture, conference/ discussion, sensitivity training,

vestibule/simulation, technology based training, case study, role plays,

management games, in-basket exercise, assessment centres, wilderness

training, behaviour modelling and membership of professional

organisations.

Benefits

- Cost effective (training in groups)

- Makes use of more competent trainers

- Better planning and organisation (more time)

- Environment free from the normal pressures and interruptions of the

work place.

- Enables small companies with limited resources to train employees

without the formidable expenses of a large training staff and training

facilities.

Challenges

- Employees attending training are not performing their jobs (production

time lost).

- Transfer of learning may be difficult as most programs contain limited

applications for a trainee’s specific problems and situation.

On or Off the job training determinants

- Learning climate of the workplace.

- Goals and objectives of the training effort.

- Resources (budgetary/ HR /facilities etc)

TRAINING TECHNIQUES/ METHODS/ STRATEGIES (23)

Job Rotation. Can be in form of cross training or lateral promotions. It

involves placing employee on different jobs for a period of time in order

to understand how various work areas function.

Enlarged and enriched job responsibilities. Increasing autonomy and job

responsibility, redesigning the job to stretch and test the employee in

new ways. This ‘empowerment’ philosophy focuses on needs

satisfaction and motivation; employees grow in their jobs, taking more

personal responsibility and control.

Job Instruction. Includes preparation and presentation, performance try

out and follow up. Influenced by WW 11 to enable supervisors to train

their employees quickly and effectively.

Sitting with Nellie. Oldest and most common in organisations especially

in production and manufacturing. Trainee is assigned to an experienced

staff member similar to coaching. This staff member is often untrained

but uses experience to pass knowledge as quickly as possible in order to

make the trainee effective at the job.

Coaching. Involves helping an individual to make the best of their

potentials. The coach usually immediate supervisor sets goals and

provides assistance in reaching them by giving timely and constructive

performance feedback. The coach answers questions, lets employee

participate in decision making, stimulates the employee’s thinking and

helps when problems occur. Trust, cooperation and mutual respect are

imperative for coaching to be helpful.

Mentorship. Experienced person in the organisation acting as ‘parents’

providing guidance to the learner through advice, passing on of

experience and knowledge to develop employee. Often associated with

employees who have higher career aspirations. Formal and informal

mentorship can be employed.

Committee assignments. Managers spend more time serving in

committees, formed to solve current problems, plan for the future and

discuss and act on issues critical to the organisation. It enables learners

to strengthen a variety of skills especially for new recruits.

Lecture. A lengthy talk delivered uniformly to a large group in a timely

manner. A more favourable one adopts an integrative learning based

training program which creates a relaxed, positive atmosphere and uses

a wide range of methods including discussion, games, stories, poetry,

music etc.

Conference/ Discussion. Focus on organisational problems, innovative

ideas and new theories and principles. It permits a dialogue between the

trainer and the trainee, as well as among the trainees, with two way

communication for effective feedback.

Simulation. Is about imitating, making judgement, opinion on how

events might occur in a real situation. Training area is created to

resemble the employee’s actual work area. It is performed with the aid

of an instructor, who demonstrates on the same kinds of machine and

uses processes the trainee will use on the job. It can entail role playing,

in basket exercise, management games, case studies etc.

Technology based systems. CD Rom approach and web based training.

Internet offers training opportunities not bound by either time or place.

Satellite linkages, compressed video and other video conferencing

techniques are technology based approaches that enhance

organisational communication and training.

Case Study. Is a narrative description of an organisational problem

requiring participants to identify and analyse specific problems, develop

alternative courses of action and recommend the best alternative. Often

done in teams, giving members insight into group dynamics and group

decision making processes. Its primary purpose is to enhance problem

solving skills.

Role playing. A dramatic enactment between 2 or more people intended

to represent a situation. Is a simulation in which each participant is given

a role to play. Trainees are given limited information (with no scripts)

related to description of the role, concerns, objectives, responsibility,

emotions etc. Then a general description of the situation and problem

each one faces is given e.g. a strike situation or interviewing and

counselling followed by a discussion.

Management games. A simulation designed to replicate conditions

faced by real organisations and usually involve competing teams that

both make decisions concerning planning, finance etc of a hypothetical

organisation. The winner is usually the team that achieves the highest

net profit at the completion of the game.

In-basket exercise. A simulation consisting of notes, letters, memos and

other information that is typically of the kind of printed material that

crosses a manager’s desk daily. Designed to develop analytical and

problem solving skills of lower level managers. It forces the trainee to

make immediate decision and to determine priorities. Participants must

quickly think through alternative courses of action, select the best

solution and determine how it should be implemented. E.g. a note from

a trusted and valuable employee who will resign if she does not get a

10% increase and an anonymous letter stating that alcohol and illegal

drugs are being consumed in cars in the company parking grounds

during lunch hour.

Assessment centres. A technique that requires managers to participate

in activities designed to identify their job related strengths and

weaknesses. It is primarily a devise to select new managers (also a

developmental tool for existing managers). Activities include interviews,

leaderless group discussions, role playing and in basket. Participants

then receive detailed, specific feedback on their performance and their

developmental and growth needs.

Membership of professional organisations. A way to keep pace of new

theories, principles, methods and techniques e.g. IPMZ. Monthly

meetings, conventions, members’ network, exchange ideas and discuss

common problems. Often coy pays membership fees and travel

expenses to annual meetings.

Wilderness training/ Outdoor learning. A term describing a variety of

management and executive development programs that take place in

outdoor settings and include golfing, boat cruise, white water rafting,

canoeing etc. Its purpose is to develop and nurture interpersonal skills

such as confidence, self esteem, team work, trust and goal setting. It

may help uncover hidden talent.

Behaviour modelling. A classroom oriented technique used to teach

problem solving skills to first level supervisors. It utilises role playing,

focusing on gaining skill on how to deal with common problems such as

absenteeism.

Sensitivity training. Individuals become more aware of their feelings and

learn how one person’s behaviour affects the feelings, attitudes and

behaviours of others. An open and honest ‘no holds barred, tell it like it

is’ discussion takes place among participants.

Shadowing. Involves being assigned to someone and observing him after

a fixed period.

Resource learning. Located parallel to learning centre systems such as a

library. A good resource centre should have books, journals, databases,

study packs, videos, computers, CDs and personnel to guide the users on

how to use the resource.

Open learning. Based around the individual and his/her requirements.

An individual seeks to improve his knowledge/skills and moves at own

purpose. Should be flexible and accessible to meet the needs of the

individual and should be relevant to the job. Conventional learning can

be restricted for the employee to undertake unlike open learning e.g.

studying through UNISA or ZOU or MSU’s online study.