Polytechnic University of the Philippines

College of Social Sciences and Development

Department of Psychology

Sta. Mesa, Manila

Behavior Modification

Group V

Control of Antecedents

Landicho, Jhezelle Joy D.

Lavarias, Pia Luize A.

Legaspi, Sheena O.

Magsisi, Laarni Joy D.

Malanday, Rhea Grace S.

Mangabat, Kimberly Claire

Mangorangca, Lairah D.

BS Psychology IV – 6S

Professor Jonna Karla C. Bien

REPORTER: MANGORANGCA, LAIRAH D.

Discovering Antecedents

Antecedent is a term used in behavior modification describing a condition or

action that occurs immediately before a behavior. In technical terms, antecedents of

behaviour are stimulus events, situations, or circumstances that precede an operant

response.

       

How is the Antecedent-Behavior-Consequence (ABC) Chart used? 

An ABC Chart is a direct observation tool that can be used to collect information

about the events that are occurring within a student's environment. "A" refers to the

antecedent, or the event or activity that immediately precedes a problem behavior. The

"B" refers to observed behavior, and "C" refers to the consequence, or the event that

immediately follows a response.

An ABC Chart can also be used to identify antecedent events that are associated

with the nonoccurrence of problem behavior. Some intervention strategies involve

modifying a student's environment by introducing antecedents and consequences that

are associated with desirable behavior in other situations. For instance, a student may

raise his hand and participate in class discussions when his teacher frequently reminds

students to raise their hands and provides high levels of positive attention throughout

the class (antecedent events). This teacher provides positive feedback for hand raising

and participation (consequence).

Direct Observation

Direct observation, also known as observational study, is a method of collecting

evaluative information in which the evaluator watches the subject in his or her usual

environment without altering that environment. Direct observation is used when other

Antecedent Behavior Consequence

data collection procedures, such as surveys, questionnaires, etc., are not effective;

when the goal is to evaluate an ongoing behavior process, event, or situation; or when

there are physical outcomes that can be readily seen.

Direct observation can be overt, when the subject and individuals in the

environment know the purpose of the observation, or covert, when the subject and

individuals in the environment are unaware of the purpose of the observation.

The observation can be totally “free” or more structured i.e. where observers

record events as belonging to one of a number of discrete categories identified. The

number of categories adopted largely depends on what the observers intend the data

will be used for, and very broad categories may be used for some studies, whilst

detailed categories will be used for others. In some investigations a more free approach

may be used where the observer records all of their impressions during observation

rather than trying to group them in some way. However this introduces a high degree of

subjectivity into the evaluation process, and in practice it is usually better to try and

define the categories of behaviour that will be observed. One way of achieving this is to

perform a pilot study where free recording takes place, and then to use the results of

this to identify relevant categories for use in a wider study, and to define clearly the

criteria to be applied by observers in putting observed behaviour into particular

categories e.g. types of errors made. The degree of structure is related to the

“objectivity” of the method, as less structure may result in observations that are more

the result of the observers point of view than of the users behaviour, and in addition can

make it difficult to make comparisons when more than one observer is used. Where

more than one observer is used it is particularly important to ensure that all observers

are in agreement as to what they are recording and the criteria they are using.

The data captured during direct observation can include objective as well as

subjective information, as it is possible for observers to accurately record the amount of

time taken to perform particular activities and the errors that they make in use. However

more subjective information can also be valuable, e.g. any anxiety or frustration

observed, and the observers impressions of the state of mind of the user.

Direct observation has the highest degree of ‘ecological’ validity in that direct

observation attempts to monitor usage of a product in settings which are close to actual

usage. However there are effects of having observers present as we have already

indicated, and for this reason it is recommended that any direct observation study

should allow time for those being observed to become less aware of the observers

presence and view them more as being a “fly on the wall”, rather than another person p

resent. This can be promoted to some extent by making the observers role clear to

those being observed, and the observer not allowing themselves to be drawn into social

interactions with those being observed. Observation is often needed over an extended

period as it is important to try and ensure that the periods being observed cover the

range of usage that the product might face in actual use. Thus it can be important to

ensure that a person is observed whenever they might normally use the product, and

not just at set times which may in fact be atypical. One common approach is to try and

observe “a day in the life”, when a products usage is observed throughout the day, from

getting up, going to bed, and where appropriate getting up in the night.

REPORTER: LANDICHO, JHEZELLE JOY D.

Aversive Stimulus

Organisms not only produce stimuli, they also get rid of them. Without negative

reinforcement, a child would not learn to escape from the cold by coming indoors or to

avoid others who might cheat at games or bully or lie. A rat does not ordinarily expose

itself to shock, and if shock does occur, the rat escapes from it given the opportunity.

Negative reinforcer refers to the stimulus itself and not to its removal; if removal of

shock reinforces a rat’s lever press, then shock, not the shock-free period that follows

the response, is the negative reinforcer.

In behavior analysis, “aversive” is an adjective for “stimulus” or “stimuli”. An

aversive stimulus is a negative reinforcer. Its onset following a response makes such

responses less likely to occur; its termination following a response makes such

responses more likely to occur.

Aversive stimuli tend to involve some type of discomfort, either physical or

psychological. Behaviors are negatively reinforced when they allow you to escape from

aversive stimuli that are already present or allow you to completely avoid the aversive

stimuli before they happen.

If presenting a contingent aversive stimulus punishes a response, removing or

preventing that stimulus may reinforce a response. When a response terminates or

prevents an aversive stimulus and becomes more probable for that reason, the stimulus

is called a negative reinforcer and the operation is called negative reinforcement.

Negative reinforcement involving the removal of a stimulus that is already

present is called escape. When it involves the postponement or prevention of a

stimulus that has not yet been delivered, it is called avoidance.

Tinkering

Teaching, if it is to be done effectively, involves experimentation. This is inherent

in the nature of the activity. Some children learn rapidly, others slowly; what is effective

for one may not be effective for another. From time immemorial teachers have had to

find out for themselves what works with which children and with which subject matter.

There always have been teachers who have been particularly reflective about general

principles and about particular techniques, and who have, as it were, systematically

experimented (Murnane and Nelson, 1984).

Both doctors and teachers are conscious of the artistic elements in their

professional practice. Teachers often take pride in the fact that their knowledge is

intensely personal, carved slowly over the years out of private (not collective)

experience. Although this is less evident among doctors because of the stronger

scientific base to their knowledge, they too constantly emphasize the artistic elements in

their diagnostic and therapeutic decisions, relating what they know from science to the

unique circumstances of the patient at hand.

Education and consulting are sectors where forms of “tinkering” are the main

mechanism for generating knowledge.

Tinkering is an important component in the practice of all professions and a form

of learning and of knowledge creation among scientists (cf. Knorr, 1979).

Several Functions of TinkeringTinkering serves several functions:

1. To test if something works.

Tinkering is a source of knowledge creation, because when something

does not work in practice, tinkering is a kind of experiment to discover something

that does work.

When the phenomenon at hand eludes the ordinary categories of

knowledge-in-practice, presenting itself as unique or unstable, the

practitioner may surface and criticize his initial understanding of the

phenomenon, construct a new description of it, and test the new

description of it by an on-the-spot experiment (Schön, 1983).

2. To adapt abstract knowledge to one’s own circumstances.

Furthermore, if the knowledge is new, some learning is required to

transform it from an abstract, decontextualized idea into something one can use

in one’s own practice, and/or its application has to be modified to fit local

circumstances. Implementing new knowledge is necessarily a small-scale

version of R&D. In professional work, the task of application, with the necessary

fine tuning and adjustment, simultaneously involves an act of knowledge creation

(Rosenberg, 1982).

3. To integrate with one’s previous knowledge.

Moreover, the new knowledge has to be integrated with the rest of one’s

knowledge relevant to this practice, and this process of integration can be slow

and difficult, in part because the new knowledge is likely to be explicit –

something one has read about, been told about or observed – whereas to be

usable the new knowledge has to be integrated with pre-existing tacit knowledge.

Indeed, the act of tinkering may be the way in which one acquires the tacit

element that is inherent in the new knowledge.

4. As a means of sharing knowledge with other practitioners.

Lastly, tinkering is often easier if it is done with another person or group. If

two or more tinker together, they can share ideas, support one another and

combine application with the creative elements that are part of the modifications

made through tinkering. As we have seen, teachers tend to work alone in their

classrooms. Though team work among teachers has increased in recent years, it

is by no means a common or normal way of working. Novice teachers often feel

the need to hide their problems, on the grounds that to expose them is to display

one’s incompetence. Mutual tinkering is one route to enabling teachers to explore

professional learning through mistakes and failures, which are inherent in

tinkering. Most schools have much to learn from knowledge-intensive firms

where learning through failure is part of the culture of success.

Whatever science might contribute to their practice, both doctors and teachers

have to exercise considerable professional judgment in making their higher-level

decisions; they have to "read" both client and context and be prepared to adapt their

treatment until they find something that "works" with the client, whether patient or pupil.

In short, they learn to tinker, searching pragmatically for acceptable solutions to

problems their clients present. In other words, all professionals have to develop a craft

aspect to their practice, whereby through accumulated practical experience they add to

their formal knowledge-based mental schemata that provide typical solutions to typical

problems presented by typical clients (Schutz, 1964) - whether it be "a difficult child in

the playground who must be watched if trouble is not to start" or "an uncooperative

patient in clinic who needs to be cajoled into accepting the procedure". These schemata

become tacit or intuitive, until they do not work as expected, at which point the

professional chooses to tinker, drawing upon the whole of the knowledge-base, in a

novel way to discover something that does work. This tinkering is a very small scale,

spontaneous and mundane way of solving minor, everyday problems of a professional's

life. But sometimes this tinkering is on a grander and more formal scale, a more

carefully considered and radical way of dealing with a persistent problem: it then

becomes research for knowledge creation.

Tinkering is, in effect, an uncontrolled experiment and in this sense every

treatment of a patient by a doctor and every treatment of a pupil by a teacher is in the

nature of experiment.

Tinkering is strongly linked to personal knowledge, in which through

experience, including trial and error and other forms of learning-by-doing, the individual

builds up and seeks to integrate a professional knowledge-base and develop expert

professional judgment.

REPORTER: MAGSISI, LAARNI JOY D.

Antecedent –Based Activities

Overview

Antecedent-based intervention (ABI) is an evidence-based practice that is

derived from applied behavior analysis (ABA) and are used to address both interfering

(e.g., disruptive, repetitive, stereotypical) and on-task behaviors.

By definition, the principle of ABI describes a relationship between a behavior

and an antecedent stimulus; that is, an event or condition that occurs before or as a

behavior is used. In other words, individual interfering behaviors (e.g., hitting, kicking,

hand flapping) are more likely to occur when particular environmental conditions/events

accompany the behavior and provide reinforcement for its use (Alberto & Troutman,

1999).

When seeking to identify the potential causes of interfering behaviors, four key

concepts are essential: behavior, antecedent stimulus, consequence, and setting event.

Each of these factors is extremely important to fully understand what might be causing

an interfering behavior to occur. The table above provides an example.

A functional behavior assessment (FBA) is often conducted to accurately identify

these four concepts. Through this process, teachers/practitioners, parents, and other

professionals observe learners within the environments where interfering behaviors are

occurring to identify the factors that might be prompting learners to engage in the

behaviors.

ABI focus on modifying the environment to change the conditions in the setting

that prompt a learner with ASD to engage in an interfering behavior (Kern, Choutka, &

Sokol, 2002). In many cases, interfering behaviors continue to occur because the

environmental conditions in a particular setting have become linked to the behavior over

time. ABI are designed to prevent the occurrence of interfering behaviors (Luiselli,

2008).

ABI are particularly useful because they focus on identifying the conditions in the

environment that may be contributing to the occurrence of the interfering behavior.

Because interfering behaviors often are situation-specific, the conditions identified in a

particular environment are modified to prevent the behavior from occurring in the future.

Antecedent-Based Intervention Strategies

The goal of ABI is to identify factors that are prompting learners to use interfering

behaviors as well as what might be reinforcing their use of these behaviors during

particular activities through implementation of a FBA. Once these factors have been

determined, teachers/practitioners can then identify particular antecedent-based

intervention strategies that can be used to modify the environment or activity so that the

interfering behaviors are no longer reinforced. The results of the FBA will guide the

selection of intervention strategies and will vary according to the needs of individual

learners with ASD as well as the demands associated with particular activities (Kern &

Clemens, 2007).

Common antecedent-based intervention strategies include:

o arranging the environment;

o changing the schedule/routine;

o structuring time;

o using highly preferred activities/items to increase interest level;

o offering choices;

o altering the manner in which instruction is provided;

o enriching the environment so that learners with ASD have access to sensory stimuli

that serve the same function as the interfering behavior (e.g., clay to play with

during class, toys/objects that require motor manipulation); and

o implementing preactivity interventions (e.g., issuing a warning about the next

activity, providing information about schedule changes).

Each of these strategies is discussed in further detail in the sections that follow.

Step-By-Step Instructions

The module authors have identified four essential steps for antecedent based

interventions. These include:

o Identifying the interfering behavior

o Collecting baseline data

o Implementing the appropriate antecedent based intervention, and

o Monitoring progress.

These steps are outlined more specifically in this section of the module.

Step 1. Identifying the Interfering Behavior

Teachers/practitioners identify an interfering behavior demonstrated by a learner

with ASD that they would like to decrease. In most cases, the interfering behavior is one

that is interfering with learning and development (e.g., self-stimulation, repetitive, self-

injurious, stereotypical). Therefore, teachers/practitioners complete a high-quality FBA

to identify the function of the interfering behavior and select an ABI strategy that

addresses the function of the behavior and can be used to decrease the interfering

behavior.

Teachers/practitioners use direct observation methods that generally include

using:

o A-B-C data charts and

A-B-C data charts help determine what happens right before the behavior (the

antecedent), the behavior that occurs, and what happens directly after the behavior (the

consequence). These data provide insight into why the learner is engaging in a

particular behavior.

o Scatterplots.

Scatterplots help determine, (a) the possible functions of the behavior, (b) when

the behavior is occurring, and (c) the times of the day when an intervention might be

implemented to reduce the interfering behavior.

Teachers/practitioners use direct assessment results to identify:

o where the behavior is happening;

o with whom the behavior is occurring;

o when the behavior is happening;

o activities during which the behavior occurs;

o what other students are doing when the behavior starts;

o what teachers/adults are doing when the behavior starts;

o proximity of other students, teachers, and/or adults;

o the noise level in the environment;

o the number of individuals in the area;

o other environmental conditions (e.g., lighting, door open/closed); and

o the function of the behavior (i.e., to get or obtain something--obtaining internal

stimulation, wanting something because it feels good, obtaining attention, obtaining

activities or objects; or to escape or avoid--obtaining internal stimulation, not

wanting something because it feels bad, escaping or avoiding attention, avoiding

tasks or activities).

Teachers/practitioners develop a hypothesis statement for the interfering

behavior that includes:

o the setting events (i.e., the environment or conditions in which the behavior

occurs), immediate antecedents, and immediate consequences that surround the

interfering behavior;

o a restatement and refinement of the description of the interfering behavior that

is occurring; and

o the function the behavior serves (i.e., get/obtain, escape/avoid).

EXAMPLE: Kenny repeatedly bangs his head on his desk when his teacher asks

him to complete an in-class assignment because he does not want to complete

the task.

His teacher then walks away, and Kenny does not have to do his work.

Teachers/practitioners identify an overall goal for the learner that will be

accomplished as a result of the intervention.

EXAMPLE: Kenny will complete in-class assignments without banging his head.

EXAMPLE:

o Mary will engage in minimal hand flapping and body rocking when the bell rings at

the end of each class period.

o Mary will not yell when the bell rings at the end of each class period.

o Mary will walk to class independently when the bell rings at the end of each class

period.

Step 2. Collecting Baseline Data

Once the interfering behavior has been identified, teachers/practitioners collect

baseline data to determine how often the learner with ASD is currently engaging in the

interfering behavior.

Teachers/practitioners measure a learner's engagement in the interfering

behavior before implementing ABI by collecting

o Frequency data and

Frequency data measure how often a learner engages in a particular behavior.

Event sampling, a method for collecting data on behaviors that rarely occur, is used to

record every instance of the interfering behavior. Data are then used to identify a

potential pattern of a learner's behavior over a period of days or weeks.

o Duration data.

Duration data are used to record how long a learner engages in a particular

behavior during a class, activity, or treatment session. For example, a teacher might

collect data on how long a learner with ASD engages in hand mouthing during math

class.

Baseline data give teachers/practitioners a starting point from which they can

evaluate whether the interfering behavior decreases as a result of using ABI.

Teachers/practitioners collect baseline data for a minimum of four days before

implementing ABI.

Teachers/practitioners collect baseline data in numerous settings and/or

activities.

It often is useful to have more than one practitioner collect baseline data over the

course of several days to compare findings. Also, by collecting data in multiple settings,

teachers/ practitioners may be able to recognize patterns of behavior. For example,

does the learner engage in the interfering behavior more often in one setting than

another? This kind of information helps teachers/practitioners identify activities or

settings that can be modified using antecedent-based intervention strategies.

Step 3. Implementing ABI

Teachers/practitioners now identify and put forth ABI strategies that directly

address the function of the interfering behavior to prevent it from happening in

the future.

Teachers/practitioners identify one of the following ABI strategies that directly

addresses the function of the interfering behavior:

o using learner preferences,

o changing schedules/routines,

o implementing preactivity interventions,

o using choice making,

o altering how instruction is delivered, or

o enriching the environment

Teachers/practitioners implement the selected ABI strategy by creating a lesson

plan that includes:

o weekly objectives for the learner with ASD that will lead to a decrease in an

interfering behavior;

o a statement of the strategy and what the teacher will do (e.g., adapting instructions

for assignments); and

o the materials needed to implement the antecedent-based intervention strategy.

The lesson plan provides teachers/practitioners with a structure for identifying

what will be needed to implement the strategy effectively and how the environment will

be modified to decrease the occurrence of the interfering behavior.

Teachers/practitioners provide no reinforcement for the interfering behavior when

it occurs.

Extinction often is used in conjunction with ABI strategies. With this evidence-

based practice, teachers/practitioners no longer provide reinforcement for the interfering

behavior by ignoring it, which eventually leads to a decrease in or elimination of the

interfering behavior.

EXAMPLE: Mrs. Banks gives Kenny written instructions for how to complete an

in-class math assignment. Kenny immediately starts banging his head. Mrs. Banks

ignores the behavior and points to the sentence strip, which says, "Complete these

math problems." Kenny looks at Mrs. Banks and starts banging his head again. Again,

Mrs. Banks points to the sentence strip. Kenny bangs his head two more times and then

starts the assignment.

Teachers/practitioners provide learners with reinforcement each time they:

o do not engage in the interfering behavior, and

o complete the weekly objective.

EXAMPLE: During math class, Mrs. Banks gives Kenny written instructions for

how to complete an in-class assignment. Kenny bangs his head on his desk one time

and then follows the checklist instructions provided with the math worksheet. After 10

minutes, Kenny completes the assignment, and Mrs. Banks tells Kenny that he can play

on the computer for 10 minutes.

Step 4. Monitoring Learner Progress

Teachers/practitioners use progress monitoring data to evaluate whether the

interfering behavior is decreasing as result of the intervention.

The same data collection sheets that were used to collect baseline data can be

used to track learner progress.

Teachers/practitioners use progress monitoring data to adjust intervention

strategies if the interfering behavior does not decrease.

If the interfering behavior is not decreasing, teachers/practitioners must try to

identify potential reasons for this. Seeking answers to the following questions may be

helpful during this problem-solving process.

o Is the interfering behavior well defined? That is, is it observable and measurable?

o Are ABI strategies being implemented consistently by all staff?

o Do the ABI strategies directly address the function of the behavior identified during

the FBA?

Case Study: Tommy

Tommy is a 4-year-old boy with ASD who receives services within a self-

contained early childhood autism classroom. There are three permanent staff members

in the classroom, consisting of the teacher, Ms. Smith, and two teaching assistants.

Although Tommy was diagnosed with autism at 2 years of age; this is his first

experience in a group setting.

Ms. Smith has noted that Tommy screams, kicks, and throws himself to the floor

when any demands are placed upon him. Currently, the classroom staff are using a

picture schedule with Tommy to help him transition from one activity to another. Ms.

Smith is frustrated with Tommy's behavior and does not know what to do. As a result,

the autism consultant for the program, Ms. Miller, meets with Ms. Smith to help her

address Tommy's behaviors.

During their meeting, Ms. Miller asks Ms. Smith about Tommy and his behavior,

including what types he engages in and when they occur most often. Ms. Smith tells Ms.

Miller that the behaviors are most problematic during free play and at lunch. She notes

that Tommy tantrums when any staff member prompts him to engage in an activity

during free play. She also tells Ms. Miller that Tommy wanders the room during the

duration of free play unless they try to get him engaged in an activity. Currently, they

take him to an area numerous times during free play to help him interact with materials;

however, he yells and throws himself to the ground when this happens. Ms. Smith

explains that lunch is very problematic because Tommy will not stay seated at the table

for longer than one minute. When he is told to eat his food, he pushes his chair out,

screams, and throws himself on the ground.

After hearing Ms. Smith's report, Ms. Miller decides to observe Tommy in the

classroom during free play and lunch. During the observation, Ms. Miller notes that

Tommy consistently engages in the interfering behaviors when he is taken to

nonpreferred play areas during free play. Lunch also is a nonpreferred activity for

Tommy. Ms. Miller then meets with Ms. Smith again after the observation is complete.

Based on the initial interview with Ms. Smith and the observations conducted

within the classroom, Ms. Miller and Ms. Smith conclude that Tommy is engaging in the

interfering behaviors because he is trying to escape from the activities that are not his

favorites or that do not include preferred materials/items.

Once they have identified the function of the interfering behaviors, Ms. Smith and

Ms. Miller must decide which ABI strategies to use. They determine that offering

choices (using objects) and using highly preferred materials during free play might

motivate Tommy to participate in the activity because it appears that he trying to escape

or avoid activities that he does not prefer. From observing him in the classroom and by

talking with his mother, Ms. Smith knows that Tommy loves puzzles and toy people. Ms.

Miller and Ms. Smith decide that they will offer Tommy two choices during free play.

Initially, both object choices will be highly preferred materials so that Tommy will be

motivated to participate in the activity. Ms. Smith and Ms. Miller anticipate that Tommy

will initially engage in the interfering behaviors despite the use of highly preferred

materials. Therefore, Tommy will only be required to stay at the area for 2 minutes;

however, he must not engage in any interfering behavior during this time. After Tommy

participates in the activity for 2 minutes with no occurrences of the interfering behavior,

he will be permitted to leave. At first, Ms. Smith plans to offer Tommy two highly

preferred choices three times during free play so that Tommy gets used to the

intervention strategy. As Tommy begins to make choices without engaging in interfering

behaviors, she will begin to offer choices more often during free play. At this time, she

also plans to incorporate one nonpreferred item when offering Tommy choices so that

he begins to understand the concept of choice making.

Ms. Smith and Ms. Miller also discuss lunchtime. Ms. Miller tells Ms. Smith that

during her initial observation, she noted several factors in the environment that might be

causing Tommy to engage in the interfering behaviors. For example, she observed that

there was a lot of food on his plate, which might be overwhelming. She also noted that

Tommy did not seem to like the food that he was offered. For these reasons, Tommy

may not be that motivated to stay and eat his lunch. Therefore, Ms. Miller suggests the

following recommendations: (a) reduce the amount of food on his plate so that he

knows his choices and (b) include at least one of his favorite foods so that he likes what

is being offered. Ms. Miller feels that these environmental modifications might motivate

Tommy to stay seated. She also recommends that Tommy initially be required to take at

least one bite of food and stay seated without any interfering behaviors for 2 minutes

before being allowed to leave. Ms. Miller feels that the combination of the preferred food

items with the reduced amount of food will motivate him to stay seated by eliminating

the potential causes of the interfering behaviors.

During their intervention planning meeting, Ms. Smith and Ms. Miller also identify

additional supports that might be needed to ensure the intervention will be successful.

Ms. Smith tells Ms. Miller that she is very nervous about implementing the intervention

and would like Ms. Miller to show her how to do it and coach her through the process

when she attempts to implement it. They decide to implement the intervention the

following week.

On Monday, Ms. Miller comes to Ms. Smith's classroom to help her implement

the ABI. They both observe Tommy as he wanders the classroom, unengaged in any

activity. Ms. Miller suggests that Ms. Smith go get a puzzle piece and a toy person to

offer Tommy choices. Ms. Smith brings the objects to Ms. Miller, who then walks over to

Tommy and says, "Tommy." He looks at Ms. Miller, who then says, "Puzzle or people?"

while holding them up for him to see. Tommy turns and walks away; however, Ms. Miller

follows him and repeats the request. Tommy lightly touches the person in Ms. Miller's

hand, and Ms. Miller then says, "People. You chose people." Ms. Miller puts the person

in Tommy's hand and takes him to the classroom area where the people are located.

Tommy begins to yell and throws himself to the ground. Ms. Miller then asks Ms.

Smith to help her lift Tommy off the ground. They help Tommy walk to the play area

where the toy people are sitting on the floor. Tommy continues to scream and tries to

leave the area several times; however, Ms. Miller stands at the entrance to the play

area and does not let him get out. Ms. Miller then prompts Ms. Smith to start putting the

toy people in the bus. Ms. Smith says, "I'm putting the people on the bus. Bye-bye," and

drives the bus around the floor. Tommy looks in Ms. Smith's direction and then walks

over and sits down on the floor. He takes the people and starts putting them on the bus

as well. Tommy stays at the activity for 5 minutes before attempting to leave. Because

he engaged in the activity for more than 2 minutes without any interfering behaviors, he

is allowed to leave. Ms. Smith and Ms. Miller repeat this process two more times during

free play. After the third opportunity, Tommy makes a choice and walks to the area

independently; however, he screams as he does so. He also stays at this activity for 5

minutes without any interfering behaviors.

During lunch that same day, Ms. Miller hands Tommy a spoon, which signals that

it is time for lunch. Tommy runs away and screams. Ms. Miller then goes to Tommy and

says, "Time for lunch," and takes him to the table. Ms. Miller sits behind Tommy so that

he cannot push his chair out. The teaching assistant who set up lunch while Ms. Smith

conducted circle time placed small portions of the day's lunch on his plate and also gave

him a small serving of goldfish crackers, his favorite food.

After he is seated at the table, Tommy immediately begins yelling and tries to

push his chair out, even though he has not even looked at his plate yet. Ms. Miller then

says, "Look, Tommy. Goldfish," while pointing at his plate. Tommy looks at his plate and

grabs a few goldfish and begins eating. He stays at the table for 2 minutes eating his

goldfish without any interfering behaviors; however, he does not try to leave after he

eats his goldfish. Instead, he tries to grab the bag of goldfish that is just out of reach on

the table. Ms. Miller then prompts Tommy to say, "More." He vocalizes, "Muh" and gets

more goldfish.

This ABI strategy is producing a more motivating environment for Tommy as well

as providing additional opportunities to work on language and communication. As

Tommy begins to transition to lunch independently and sits at the table with few

interfering behaviors, staff members will require Tommy to start eating some of the

other food on his plate before getting the goldfish. Classroom staff will collect data on

how often Tommy engages in the interfering behaviors during nonpreferred activities,

particularly lunch. Data from this activity in particular will help the teacher and other

classroom staff make decisions about when Tommy should be required to try new foods

before getting goldfish. Classroom staff determine that new foods will be introduced

when Tommy is not engaging in interfering behaviors for at least 80% of the time. They

expect his interfering behaviors to return when they introduce new foods; however, they

feel that the ABI strategies that they have identified will prevent these behaviors from

becoming too severe.

REPORTER: LEGASPI, SHEENA O.

Two-Stage Process for Consummatory Behaviors

Undesired consummatory behaviors can be reduced by a two-stage process.

In stage 1, avoid the antecedent. For example, don’t go to parties where you

will be strongly tempted to smoke, or don’t confront yourself with high-calorie food. Your

plan should include reinforcement for this avoidance and a way of substituting other

pleasant activities.

In stage 2, build new behaviors, so that you can be in tempting situations but

not perform the overindulging or addictive behavior.

Reinforcement is integrated into two-stage process. In stage 1, you reward

yourself for simply avoiding the tempting antecedent situation. In stage 2, you reward

yourself for performing a new, desirable behavior in the presence of the tempting

antecedent situation.

Larry, a man who had tried unsuccessfully several times to quit smoking, did an

analysis of the situations in which he returned to smoking after having quit for a few

days. Taking coffee break or eating lunch with his colleagues (several of whom smoked)

was the most likely time for backsliding. Smoking seemed such a pleasure under those

circumstances that he just didn’t resist.

In stage 1 of his plan, Larry avoided these antecedent situations for two weeks,

explaining to his friends what he was doing and reinforcing himself for successful

avoidance. He was not tempted so much on the weekends, because he spent them with

his wife, who didn’t smoke. After he had been off cigarettes for several weeks, he

entered stage 2, in which he rewarded himself specifically for not smoking with his

friends at lunch. After this had worked for a week, he returned to coffee breaks in his

daily schedule and reinforced himself specifically for not smoking at coffee breaks. Now

Larry’s task was to remain vigilant for tempting antecedents and to reinforce himself for

not smoking when they occurred. The morning cup of coffee, a meal, a tense period,

another smoker, a party- these were the kinds of tempting antecedents that he had to

learn to deal with.

Avoiding Antecedents

If all you have in front of you is two pieces of celery and a bowl of soup, you have

already avoided some of the antecedents of overeating the sight of a heaping plate of

spaghetti, for example. Chronic alcoholics who successfully control drunkenness often

do so by never confronting the crucial antecedent of overdrinking. Most people who stay

off cigarettes also follow a policy of not having the first one. If you are a habitual

overeater or smoker or drug user, sometimes almost nothing is as reinforcing as your

“habit”. For such behaviors, perhaps the most promising type of self-modification plan is

one in which you avoid the antecedents that set the time and place for your

consummatory behavior behavior that is consummated, or climaxed, by its own

ends, such as eating, drinking, or sexual activity. The smoker avoids cigarettes, the

drinker avoids drinks, and the overeater avoids fattening foods. They all know that if

they are exposed to those stimuli, they will very likely perform the undesired behavior

again. Therefore, people with this kind of problem can work out self-direction plans in

which they avoid the antecedent.

A middle-aged, overweight man wanted to diet but reported that progress was

always followed by disaster. So he began to record the antecedents of his eating binges

and realized that, although he normally stayed on his diet quite regularly, there was one

situation in which he always ate too much. This was when he and his wife were invited

to someone else’s house for dinner, something that occurred fairly often. Their friends

were good cooks, and the result was that the man always overate. He solved his

problem by setting a simple rule, to which his wife agreed. Until he had lost 20 pounds,

they wouldn’t accept any dinner invitations. When someone called to invite them for

dinner, he would explain that he had to lose weight and that, because his would-be host

or hostess was such as excellent cook and he couldn’t possibly resist the food, he must

regretfully decline.

Self-control becomes most difficult when you are around others who are

indulging. Marlatt and Parks (1982) have conducted extensive research on people with

addictive behaviors, particularly consumers of drugs, such as alcohol, heroin,

marijuana, or tobacco. They report that relapse in persons resisting addictive behaviors

is very likely to occur when in the presence of others who are engaging in that behavior.

Social cues may need to be avoided for a variety of behavioral goals. For

example, Heffernan and Richards (1981) studied students who had self-initiated

attempts to improve poor study behaviors. Those who were successful were more likely

to use the simple procedure of studying in an environment where they would not have to

interact or talk with other people.

Avoiding antecedents for drinking, drugs, smoking, or overeating is particularly

important when you are emotionally upset. Feelings of anger, fear, depression, or

disappointment are certain to make indulgence more tempting, and thus more likely.

Antecedents can sometimes be avoided by narrowing the problem behavior

down to a very restricted antecedent-smoking or sulking, for example, only in a special

place reserved for that behavior. Narrowing by allowing only desirable behavior to occur

in special places can also be effective. Thus, you should leave the special desk if you

are not studying, or leave the bed if you are not able to sleep.

Antecedents can also be “avoided” by perceiving them-by attending to their

“cool”, abstract qualities rather that their “hot”, pleasurable features. Or temptations can

be lessened merely by distracting yourself with thoughts of something else.

Developing New Behavior

Rehearsing a behavior, over and over, in the actual situation is the best way of

mastering that behavior. When rehearsals are difficult to arrange in real life, imagined

rehearsal may be used in the initial stages. Imagined rehearsals must be vivid and must

include both situation and behavior. When imagining behaviors is feared situations, use

relaxation. But imagined rehearsal is only a prelude, a bridge to actual rehearsal in real-

life situations. Your ultimate plan must include actual performance in actual situations.

Effective behaviors can be identified by observing models who are achieving the

goals that you want. Identify a model, analyze the model’s skills and use those skills as

your standard. Don’t hesitate to ask your model’s help in explaining or even coaching

those skills. If you have difficulty imagining yourself rehearsing your goal behaviors,

imagine your models performing. Imagine more than one model in the situations that

are difficult for you. Imagine them coping, self-instructing and succeeding. This should

be only the first step, however. Next, imagine rehearsals with yourself as the

performer. The third step is the most important: transfer these behaviors into real

life. It is the rehearsal in the actual situation that brings about long-lasting change.

REPORTER: LAVARIAS, PIA LUIZE A.

Antecedent Methods: Self-Help Methods Used Prior to the “Target” Behavior

1. Change the environment to change your behavior

The environment has a powerful influence on subsequent behavior. It

influences our actions. Within the change-the-environment method there are two

basic techniques for self-control: (1) avoiding situations that lead to unwanted

behavior and (2) providing stimuli that prompt desired behavior.

Purposes

· To decrease the frequency of undesirable responses. Examples: overeating,

procrastinating, "bad" habits, irritability, self-criticism, etc.

· To increase the frequency of desired responses. Examples: doing chores,

studying, being understanding, being assertive, etc.

2. Learn new behavior; follow a model; use self-instructions; try the “as if” method.

Self-observation and self-evaluation may result in our feeling a need to

change. One way to change our behavior is to change the environment, as we

have just discussed. Another way is to learn some new and better way to

respond in the old situation.

Purposes

· To develop new and better ways of responding to a situation by observing

models or reading and discussing it with others.

· To learn how to utilize self-instructions to modify behavior and increase self-

control.

· To understand the need for repeated practice of a new response before we

become accustomed to using it and it eventually becomes an established habit.

3. Using controlling or conditioned responses to change behavior.

Some of our actions are easy to control and, indeed, some desired

responses are conditioned to occur automatically.

Purposes

· To use an easily controlled response for "controlling" another response

· To increase a desired behavior, make it "conditioned" to a certain situation and

place yourself in that situation.

4. Relapse prevention; temptation resistance training; cue exposure.

Purposes

· To break the grip that certain urges have over our behavior.

· To avoid relapses after stopping the unwanted behavior.

· To avoid losing the gains we have made in self-improvement.

5. Motivation training—increasing your drive level.

Purpose

· To increase your drive and determination to achieve your important goals.

REPORTER: MANGABAT, KIMBERLY CLAIRE

Chaining

Prompts are used to evoke a behavior, and transfer of stimulus control is used to

eliminate the prompts and get the behavior to occur in the presence of the relevant

discriminative stimulus (SD). Most often, these procedures are used to develop simple

discriminations, in which one response occurs in the presence of one SD. For example,

a baseball player swings the bat to hit a baseball. A student reads a word correctly. You

plug the speaker wire into the right outlet. You say “Thank you” when someone gives

you something. Each of these examples involves one behavior occurring in the correct

situation. However, many situations call for complex behaviors that have multiple

component responses. A complex behavior consisting of many component behaviors

that occur together in a sequence is called a behavioral chain.

Example: Bobby works for an industrial laundry company. Her job is to fold

towels and put them into boxes so they can be shipped to the customers (e.g., hotels,

health clubs, hospitals). As they come out of the dryer, another worker brings the towels

over to Bobby in a big bin. Bobby’s job consists of the following behavioral chain: (1)

she grabs a towel from the bin, (2) lays it out flat on the table, (3) grabs one end and

folds it in half, (4) grabs one end of the half-folded towel and folds it in half again, (5)

grabs one end of the quarter-folded towel and folds it in half again, (6) picks up the

folded towel, and (7) puts it into the box. When the box is full, another worker loads the

box of towels on a truck. Bobby’s job of folding towels consists of a seven-step

behavioral chain.

Each behavior in the chain can be completed only after the previous behaviors in

the chain have been completed in sequence. Each component behavior in the chain

depends on the occurrence of the previous behavior.

Analyzing Stimulus-Response Chains

Each behavioral chain consists of a number of individual stimulus–response

components that occur together in a sequence. For this reason, a behavioral chain is

often called a stimulus–response chain. Each behavior or response in the chain

produces a stimulus change that acts as an SD for the next response in the chain. The

first response produces an SD for the second response in the sequence.

A behavioral chain continues only if the last response in the chain results in a

reinforcing consequence. The folded towel in the example is a conditioned reinforcer

because it is associated with other reinforcers, such as getting paid and being praised

by the boss.

As you can see, each response creates the stimulus situation that is the SD for

the next response. Therefore, the next response in the chain depends on the

occurrence of the previous response. A five-component stimulus–response chain can

be illustrated in the following way:

SD1 > R1

SD2 >R2

SD3> R3

SD4 > R4

SD5 >R5 > reinforcer

Ex: Analyze the seven stimulus–response components involved in Bobby’s job of

folding a towel and putting it into the box.

1. SD1 (a bin full of towels) R1 (grab a towel from the bin)

2. SD2 (towel in hand) R2 (lay towel flat on the table)

3. SD3 (towel flat on the table) R3 (fold towel in half)

4. SD4 (half-folded towel on table) R4 (fold towel in half again)

5. SD5 (quarter-folded towel on table) R5 (fold towel in half again)

6. SD6 (folded towel on table) R6 (pick up folded towel)

7. SD7 (folded towel in hand) R7 (place towel in box) reinforcer (folded towel in

box)

Once another worker brings a bin of towels over to Bobby, the full bin is the first

SD that has stimulus control over the first response in the stimulus–response chain.

Each subsequent response in the chain occurs because the previous response created

the SD that has stimulus control over that response.

Task Analysis

The process of analyzing a behavioral chain by breaking it down into its

individual stimulus–response components is called a task analysis. Any time your goal

is to teach a complex task involving two or more component responses (a behavioral

chain) to a person, the first step is to identify all the behaviors that are necessary to

perform the task and write them down in order. Next, you identify the SD associated

with each behavior in the task. Because teaching the task to the person involves

discrimination training with each stimulus–response component of the behavioral chain,

you must have a detailed task analysis that gives you an accurate understanding of

each stimulus–response component. A task analysis to identify the right sequence of

behaviors in a chain may be conducted in various ways (Cooper, Heron, & Heward,

1987; Rusch, Rose, & Greenwood, 1988). One way is to observe a person engage in

the task and record each of the stimulus–response components. For example, Horner

and Keilitz (1975) conducted a study in which they taught adolescents with mental

retardation to brush their teeth. The authors developed a task analysis of toothbrushing

by observing staff members brush their teeth. Another method is to ask a person who

performs the task well (an expert) to explain all the components in the task. Finally, you

can develop a task analysis by performing the task yourself and recording the sequence

of responses in the task. Bellamy, Horner, and Inman (1979) suggest that the

advantage of performing the task yourself when developing a task analysis is that it

provides the best information about each response involved in the task and the stimulus

associated with each response. That is, you can get the most information on a task from

your own experience with the task.

Different Ways to Conduct a Task Analysis

■ Observe a competent person engage in the task.

■ Ask an expert (a person who performs the task well).

■ Perform the task yourself and record each of the component responses.

Once you have developed your initial task analysis, you might have to revise it

after you start training. You might find that you can break some behaviors down into

component behaviors, or that you can combine two or more behaviors into a single

behavior. Whether you revise your task analysis depends on how well your training is

progressing. If the learner is having difficulty with a certain behavior in the chain, it might

help to break down the behavior into two or more component behaviors. However, if the

learner can master larger units of behavior, two or more component behaviors can be

combined into one. Consider the following example.

You want to teach a child with profound mental retardation to eat with a spoon.

You have established the following task analysis.

1. SD1 (bowl of food and spoon on the table) R1 (pick up the spoon)

2. SD2 (spoon in hand) R2 (put spoon into food in the bowl)

3. SD3 (spoon in the food) R3 (scoop food onto the spoon)

4. SD4 (food on the spoon) R4 (lift spoonful of food from the bowl)

5. SD5 (holding spoonful of food) R5 (put the food into the mouth) reinforcer

(eat the food)

There are five steps or components to this task analysis. Each step consists of a

stimulus (SD) and response. This task analysis might be ideal for some children

learning how to eat with a spoon. However, for people who can more easily master

larger steps, you might want to combine some steps. The task analysis with some

combined steps might be as follows.

1. SD1 (bowl of food and spoon on table) R1 (pick up spoon and put it into the

food in the bowl)

2. SD2 (spoon in the food) R2 (scoop food onto the spoon)

3. SD3 (food on the spoon) R3 (lift the spoonful of food and put it into the mouth)

reinforcer (eat the food)

As you can see, the only difference between this three-step task analysis and the

five-step task analysis is that the five-step task analysis breaks down the behavior into

smaller units. Each step is still characterized by a stimulus (SD) and a response, but the

size of the response is different. For some learners, the five-step task analysis might be

more appropriate; for others, the three-step task analysis might be more appropriate.

There is no right or wrong number of steps in a task analysis. The only way to

determine whether you have the correct number of steps is to determine how well the

task analysis works for a particular learner.

Backward Chaining

Backward chaining is an intensive training procedure typically used with learners

with limited abilities. With backward chaining, you use prompting and fading to teach the

last behavior in the chain first. By starting with the last behavior in the chain, the learner

completes the chain on every learning trial. Once the last behavior is mastered (once

the learner exhibits the behavior on presentation of the SD, without any prompts), you

teach the next to last behavior. Once this behavior is mastered and the learner engages

in the last two behaviors in the chain without any prompts, the next behavior up the

chain is taught. This continues until the learner can exhibit the whole chain of behaviors

when presented with the first SD, without any prompts.

Forward Chaining

Forward chaining is similar to backward chaining in that you teach one

component of the chain at a time and then chain the components together, and you use

prompting and fading to teach the behavior associated with the SD at each step in the

chain. The difference between forward chaining and backward chaining is the point at

which you begin training. As you just learned, with backward chaining, you teach the

last component first, then you teach the next to last component, and so on; that is, you

move from the end of the chain to the front. In forward chaining, you teach the first

component, then the second component, and so on; that is, you move from the front of

the chain to the end.

To use forward chaining, you present the first SD, prompt the correct response,

and provide a reinforcer after the response.

SD1+ prompt R1 reinforce

You then fade your prompts until the person is engaging in the first response

without any prompts when the first SD is presented. To train the second component,

you present the first SD and the learner makes the first response. Because the first

response creates the second SD, you then prompt the second response and provide a

reinforcer after it occurs.

SD1 >R1

SD2 >prompt >R2 > reinforcer

You fade the prompts until the learner is making the second response without

any prompts. Now, every time you present the first SD, the learner makes the first two

responses in the chain.

When you are ready to train the third response in the chain, you present the first

SD and the learner makes the first two responses. The second response creates the

third SD, so as soon as it occurs you prompt the third response and provide a reinforcer

after the response.

SD1 > R1

SD2>R2

SD3 >prompt > R3 > reinforcer

Once again, you fade the prompts until the third response occurs when the third

SD is present, without any prompts. Now, every time you present the first SD, the

learner makes the first three responses because these three responses have been

chained together through training.

This process of teaching new components continues until you have taught the

last component in the chain and all the steps in the task analysis have been chained

together in the proper order.

Because you provide a reinforcer after each response in the chain during

training, the outcome of each response (the SD for the next response) becomes a

conditioned reinforcer. This is especially important with forward chaining because you

do not get to the natural reinforcer at the end of the chain until you train the last

component. As with backward chaining, once the learner exhibits all the behaviors in

the chain, you eventually switch from a continuous reinforcement schedule to an

intermittent reinforcement schedule to maintain the behavior. The ultimate goal is to

have the behavior maintained by natural reinforcers.

Similarities Between Forward and Backward Chaining

■ Both are used to teach a chain of behaviors.

■ To use both procedures, you first have to conduct a task analysis that breaks

down the chain into stimulus–response components.

■ Both teach one behavior (one component of the chain) at a time and chain the

behaviors together.

■ Both procedures use prompting and fading to teach each component.

Differences Between Forward and Backward Chaining

■ Forward chaining teaches the first component first, whereas backward chaining

teaches the last component first.

■ With backward chaining, because you teach the last component first, the

learner completes the chain in every learning trial and receives the natural

reinforcer in every learning trial. In forward chaining, the learner does not

complete the chain in every learning trial; artificial reinforcers are used until the

last component of the chain is taught. The natural reinforcer occurs after the last

behavior of the chain.

Total Task Presentation

Both forward and backward chaining procedures break down a chain of

behaviors into individual stimulus–response components, teach one component at a

time, and chain the components together. In total task presentation, by contrast, the

complex chain of behaviors is taught as a single unit. As the name of the procedure

implies, the total task is completed in each learning trial. In total task presentation

procedures, you use prompting to get the learner to engage in the entire chain of

behaviors from start to finish. You use whatever type of prompting strategy is necessary

to get the learner to engage in the entire task.

In many cases, physical prompts are used to guide the learner through the chain

of behaviors. Once the learner successfully completes the task with prompts, you fade

the prompts over learning trials until the learner engages in the task without any

assistance. Of course, you provide a reinforcer every time the learner completes the

task, with or without prompts. One type of physical prompting and fading often used with

the total task presentation procedure is called graduated guidance (Demchak, 1990;

Foxx & Azrin, 1972; Sulzer-Azaroff & Mayer, 1991). With graduated guidance, you use

hand-over-hand guidance to lead the learner through the task. Over trials, you gradually

provide less and less assistance and shadow the learner’s hand as the learner

completes the task. Shadowing means keeping your hand close to the learner’s hand as

the learner engages in the behavior. This allows you to initiate physical guidance

immediately if the learner fails to execute one of the component behaviors in the chain.

Shadowing prevents errors and should be done a number of times as the learner

exhibits the behavioral chain without assistance.

When to Use Total Task Presentation

■ Because the total task presentation procedure requires you to guide the learner

through the entire chain of behaviors, it is appropriate for teaching a task that is

not too long or too complex. If the task is too long or difficult, forward or backward

chaining procedures may be better because they focus on one component at a

time and chain the components together after they are mastered individually.

■ The learner’s ability level must be considered. Backward or forward chaining

may be more appropriate for learners with limited abilities.

■ Finally, the teacher’s ability level must be considered. Although training is also

needed to use forward chaining and backward chaining successfully, the total

task presentation procedure may be the most difficult to implement. This is

because it often involves the use of graduated guidance, a procedure in which

the teacher must alternately guide or shadow the learner with precise timing

through the entire chain of behaviors. Done incorrectly, graduated guidance may

amount to forcing the learner through the behavior without actually teaching the

learner to engage in the behavior independently.

Similarities Between Forward and Backward Chaining and Total Task

Presentation

■ They are all used to teach complex tasks or chains of behavior.

■ A task analysis must be completed before training with all three procedures.

■ Prompting and fading are used in all three procedures.

Difference Between Forward and Backward Chaining and Total Task Presentation

■ In total task presentation, the learner is prompted through the entire task in

each learning trial. In the two chaining procedures, the trainer teaches one component

of the chain at a time and then chains the components together.

Chaining Procedures

■Backward chaining: Teach the last behavior in the chain first; then teach each previous

behavior in the chain.

■Forward chaining: Teach the first behavior in the chain first; then teach each

subsequent behavior in the chain.

■Total task presentation: Prompt the whole stimulus–response chain in each learning

trial.

■Written task analysis: Use written descriptions of each step in the task analysis as

prompts.

■Picture prompts: Use pictures of each step in the task analysis as prompts.

■Self-instructions: Give yourself verbal prompts to engage in each component behavior

in a behavioral chain.

How to Use Chaining Procedures

If your goal is to teach a person a complex task, you may use one of the

procedures described in this chapter. All of the procedures described here are

considered chaining procedures because they are used to teach a chain of behaviors.

Thus, in the present context, chaining procedure is an inclusive term that refers to

backward and forward chaining, total task presentation, written task analysis, picture

prompts, and selfinstructions. The following steps are important for the effective use of

chaining procedures (see also Cooper et al., 1987; Martin & Pear, 1992; Sulzer-Azaroff

& Mayer, 1991).

1. Determine whether a chaining procedure is appropriate. Does the problem call

for behavioral acquisition, or is it related to noncompliance? If the person is not

completing a complex task because he or she is not capable, a chaining procedure is

appropriate. Conversely, if the person is capable of completing the task but is refusing

to engage in it, procedures for treating noncompliance are warranted.

2. Develop a task analysis. The task analysis breaks down the chain of behaviors

into individual stimulus–response components.

3. Get a baseline assessment of the learner’s ability. Cooper and colleagues

(1987) describe two methods for assessing the mastery level of the learner. In the

single-opportunity method, you present the learner with the opportunity to complete the

task and record which components the learner completes without assistance in the

correct sequence. That is, you present the first SD and assess the learner’s responses.

The first error by the learner in single-opportunity assessment will typically result in

errors on all subsequent steps in the task analysis. In the multiple-opportunity method,

you assess the learner’s ability to complete each individual component in the chain. You

present the first SD and wait for the learner to respond. If the learner does not respond

correctly, you present the second SD and assess the learner’s response. If there is no

correct response, you present the third SD, and so on, until the learner has had the

opportunity to respond to every SD in the chain.

4. Choose the chaining method you will use. For learners with the most limited

abilities, forward or backward chaining methods are most appropriate. If the task is less

complex or if the learner is more capable, total task presentation may be more

appropriate. Other procedures such as written task analysis, picture prompts, or self-

instructions may be appropriate, depending on the capabilities of the learner or the

complexity of the task.

5. Implement the chaining procedure. Whichever procedure you use, the ultimate

goal is to get the learner to engage in the correct sequence of behaviors without any

assistance. Therefore, the appropriate use of prompting and fading is important in all

the chaining procedures. Continue to collect data on the learner’s performance as you

implement the chaining procedure.

6. Continue reinforcement after the task has been learned. If you continue to

provide reinforcement, at least intermittently, after the learner is able to complete the

task without assistance, the learner will maintain the behavior over time.

REPORTER: MALANDAY, RHEA GRACE S.

Increasing Antecedents

In behavior analysis, ABC data is typically the preferred method used when

observing a behavior.  This involves directly observing and recording situational factors

surrounding a problem behavior using an assessment tool called ABC data collection.

An ABC data form is an assessment tool used to gather information on a certain

problem behavior or behaviors being exhibited by a child. ABC refers to:

Antecedent- The events, action(s), or circumstances that occur immediately

before a behavior

Behavior- The behavior in detail

Consequences- The action(s) or response(s) that immediately follows the

behavior

What is an antecedent?

In technical terms, antecedents of behavior are stimulus events, situations, or

circumstances that precede an operant response (Miltenberger,2004).

In Laymen terms, an antecedent is what was happening or what/who was

present right before the behavior occurred.

Why are antecedents important?

To understand and modify behavior, it’s important to analyze the antecedents

and consequences. When we understand the antecedents of a behavior we have

information on the circumstances in which the behavior was reinforced and was

punished (Miltenberger, 2004).

Since behaviors tend to occur more in situations in which it has been reinforced

and less in situations where it has been punished, having this valuable

information helps us to predict the situations and environments the behavior will

be more likely to occur.

List of questions to ask to gather information on the antecedents of a problem behavior:

When does the problem behavior usually occur?

Where does the problem behavior usually occur?

Who is present when the problem behavior occurs?

What activities or events precede the occurrence of the problem behavior?

What do other people say or do immediately before the problem behavior?

Does the child engage in any other behaviors before the problem behavior?

When, where, with whom, and in what circumstances is the problem behavior

least likely to occur?

Manipulating antecedents to evoke desirable behaviors

Present the cues for the desired behavior in the child’s environment.

For example, the cue for eating healthy foods is the presence of healthy foods in

the kitchen or in the individual’s lunch bag. If the healthy foods are not present,

the person or child will be less likely to eat such foods; if they are present and

readily available the person or child will be more likely to eat them.

Arrange the environment or set up a biological condition so that engaging in the

desirable behavior is more valuable to the child. In our food example, a biological

condition would be going without food for some time. This would make food more

reinforcing and therefore strengthen the behavior of getting and eating food. To

arrange the environment, you could buy a healthy food cookbook to make it more

likely that you will cook food that tastes good and more likely to eat it.

Decrease the physical effort needed for the child to engage in the desired

behavior.In other words, when a desirable behavior takes less response effort

than an alternative undesirable behavior, and both behaviors result in the same

outcome, the desirable behavior is more likely to occur.

For example, one way to decrease the effort needed for a child to be able to eat

healthy foods would be to keep only healthy foods in the house and not junk food. Also

by bringing a healthy lunch to school makes it more likely your child will eat the healthy

food which takes less effort than getting up and standing in line for an unhealthy school

lunch.

Three ways to manipulate antecedents to increase a desirable behavior are:

1)    Present the cues for the desired behavior in the child’s environment.

2)    Arrange the environment or set up a biological condition so that engaging in

the desirable behavior is more valuable to the child.

3)    Decrease the physical effort needed for the child to engage in the desired

behavior.

What Is Stimulus Generalization?

In conditioning, stimulus generalization is the tendency for the conditioned

stimulus to evoke similar responses after the response has been conditioned. For

example, if a child has been conditioned to fear a stuffed white rabbit, it will exhibit fear

of objects similar to the conditioned stimulus such as a white toy rat.

In the classic Little Albert experiment, researchers John B. Watson and Rosalie

Rayner conditioned a little boy to fear a white rat.

The researchers observed that the boy experienced stimulus generalization by

showing fear in response to similar stimuli including a dog, a rabbit, a fur coat, a white

Santa Claus beard and even Watson's own hair.

Stimulus Discrimination

Stimulus generalization can occur in both classical conditioning and operant

conditioning. However, a subject can be taught to discriminate between similar stimuli

and to only respond to a specific stimulus. For example, imagine that a dog has been

trained to run to his owner when he hears a whistle. After the dog has been conditioned,

he might respond to a variety sounds that are similar to the whistle. Because the trainer

wants the dog to respond only to the specific sound of the whistle, the trainer can work

with the animal to teach him to discriminate between different sounds. Eventually, the

dog will respond only to the whistle and not to other tones.

In another classic experiment conducted in 1921, researcher Shenger-

Krestovnika paired the taste of meat (the unconditioned stimulus) with the sight of a

circle. The dogs then learned to salivate (the conditioned response) when they saw the

circle. Researchers also observed that the dogs would begin to salivate when presented

with an ellipse, which was similar but slightly different that the circle shape. After failing

to pair the sight of the ellipse with the taste of meat, the dogs were able to eventually

discriminate between the circle and ellipse.