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W r1t1ng and Allred Technologres rn Middle-

earth

Lester E. Simons

Abstract:This paper discussesthepossible (and probable) methodsby which the inhabitantsofMiddle-earth at the end ofthe Third Age kept permanent records. A number ofconcepts are introduced anddefined: substrate, medium, implement,glyphs and last, but not least, scribe! Suggestions regarding the

possibility oftheexistence, late in the Third Age, ofprintingwill be presented.

Keywords: binding, glyph, ink, medium, paper, pen, printing, scribe, substrate,vellum, writing

The various Speaking Peoples ofMiddle-earth had, by the However, collections ofpaper leaves may be gathered,end of the Third Age, developed a range of writing sewn together along their top edges and then rolled into atechnologies, some ofwhich they sharedwith others, some cylindrical form. This is a simpler method ofmaintainingofwhich remaineduniqueto the devisers. paper than the other method (book-binding), which is

The concept ofwriting,the committing ofthoughts and discussedelsewherein thispaper.ideas to a permanent medium, requires the development

of The Elves, however, may have relied on their memoriesforseveral variously-linked procedures.It is not the purposeof most of their long-tenn information storage, althoughthis paper to discussthe origin, in Middle-earth or elsewhere, Elronds house did have a library (Bi1bo . _ _ had used all

ofthe actual concept ofwriting,just the various aspects ofit the sources available to him in Rivendell, both living andas presented in thelateThirdAge. written. (Tolkien, 1954-5, Prologue

Noteon the Shire

These can be expressed in general terms assubstrate",the Records"2)_ He did, after all, translatethe Books ofLore as

material on which the writing is to be carried;medium, in part ofthe Red Book). Again, paper and vellum were used

which the writing is expressed;implement, used to by the Elves, as well as various metals: the Doors ofMoria,

performthewriting;andglyphs,

the signs, pictures and so although constructed by the Dwarves, had been engraved to aon which are used tocarrythe meaning. design by the Elves (possibly one of the last acts of

cooperation between those two Peoples for many a long

Substrates year). Whether CelebrimborofHollin drewthesigns himselfConsidering Middle-earth, even just as presented in TheLord directly on the mithril, or provided the designs for aof the Rings, there is a wide variety of substrates, not Dwarf-engraver, is open to debate.necessarily divided by usage according to People. The Dwarves employed the skills of the stone-mason in

Hobbits used paper, in sheets (for correspondence) and carving their runes, as demonstrated on theTomb ofBalin in

bound in book form (for diaries, family records and so on); Moria. The existence ofThorins Treasure Map, with itsthey also had thicker material (card) which would have obvious cartography and rather-less obvious moon-runes,

appeared to be traditionally used forformalinvitations(with bespeaks a certain familiaritywiththe techniquesofwritingor without gilded edges); the earliest Shire records would (as opposed to engraving), as does the Book ofMazarbill;

seem to be inscribed on vellum, a substrate which in although the map was notlikely to have been one ofaseries,European history has been used for the most formal and the recordofthe Dwarf-colony in Khazad-dumwas intended

permanentdocuments;the so-calledYellowskin document for continuance. It may be worth considering that even

ofthe Thains library may indeed be vellum, ifthe nameis thoughthe enmitybetweenthe Elves and Dwarves was wellany guide to the material. established, the Dwarf-scribe still used the tengwar

Even at the beginning ofthe Fourth Age, the Hobbits were occasionally (He could write well and speedily, and oftenstill using scrolls (also, itmightbe supposed, ofvellum); for used the Elvish characters." Tolkien, 1954-5, Book 2,example, following the Battle ofBywater, the names ofall ChapterV).those who took part were made into a Roll." (Tolkien, 1954- Ents may have relied even more strongly than the Elves on5, Book 6, Chapter VIII ) their memories. The thought of Ents using paper raises a

' Page numbers are notgiven because ofthe wide variation ofpaginationindiferenteditionsin existence.

The

Note

on the Shire Records" is in the Prologue ofthe Second Edition (1966).

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AND ALLIED TECHNOLOGIES IN MIDDLE:-EARTH 341

number ofinterestingproblems,notthe least ofwhich being dark-browncolour and is in any case expensive; squid-ink,whether they would call each sheet a

leaf!unlikelyfor Hobbits,althoughthe seaboard Elves may have

We shall assume that the city-state ofGondor had an manufactured some' for sale inland; lamp-black, whichestablished bureaucracy with its attendant requirement for although permanent, requires a vehicle (the liquid in whichrecord-keeping and the likely use ofpaper for this purpose. thematerialis carried) with certain characteristics:itmustbeThe Ruling Stewards kept a library ofantiquarian records, suciently fluidto permitthe use ofvarious implements(tobut they were not accessible to the general public; even be discussed later); it must not be so thin as to presentGandalf had some diculty in obtaining access to them problems ofthe substrate wrinkling or a very long drying

(grudgingly he permitted me to search among his hoarded time; and it must provide some adhesive properties.scrollsand books.Tolkien, 1954-5,Book 2, ChapterII). Medieval scribes used a variety ofmaterials (flour size,Cloth can be used for carrying information, woven or thinned egg white, animal glue) so we should be safe in

painted, but whether Middle-earth knew the use ofsilk is assuming that the Hobbits used the same variety.unsure; however, fine linen can be used instead, probably in The red ink (beloved, itseems, ofShire bureaucrats) poseslocations such as Rivendell and Minas Tirith. The banners problems, as it is likely to have been a mineral (forand tapestries ofRohan, though not written,still convey permanence)andthis would have hadto have been imported,meaning and can thus be considered as a formofwriting. most probably from the Dwarves. Naturally-occurring red

We are notcertainaboutthe method ofproductionofthese dyes, such as madder, may have been possible, but vegetablewoven items; whether the Rohirrim had progressed from the dyes can be fugitive and it would not be logical to assumefloor-standing loom, which may be little more than a that the hobbit scribes would use temporary pigments for

rectangular frame, to a sophisticated loom with multiple permanentrecords.heddles"

(orhealds) operatedby a complex mechanismof We also know that the more wealthy (or eccentric) Hobbits

levers and pulleys is outside the scope ofthis paper. (This used metal-based inks Bilbos invitation to thematter may well be the subject of another paper in the Sackville-Bagginses, written in gold ink, is a classicfuture.) example. In thiscase, the metal would indeed have been gold

Small items, of mainly decorative or commemorative itself, although the technique would be the same with apurpose, made ofcarven and engraved mfrmakivory would non-preciousmetal. A block ofthe metal is filed (and thehave commanded a high price anywhere in Middle-earth, finer the file, the better the result) and the filings suspendedalthough any traveller's description oftheanimal from which in a suitable vehicle. This will have to have a somewhatthe item was derived might have been disbelieved, especially stronger adhesive power than the one forordinary pigments,in theShire! as un-bound metal filings might well loosen in time and

Metal engraving was known (the Doors of Moria, for flakeofthe substrate. Ifthe Hobbit scribes madetheir ownexample) but little is recordedofthe craft. It is debatable inks for daily use, I think that the production ofthe metalwhether the creation ofthe Letters ofFire on the One Ring inks would have been left to the Dwarves - with the

represent an Elven skill or one peculiar to Sauron. In either interestingimplication thateven theElves would have had tocase, the letters themselves are the Elven tengwar, somewhat transact some business with them ifthey required thosestylisedto reflect the natureofthe process required to reveal materials.them (tire).

As a digression, itcan be supposed that Sauron may have Implementsbeen annoyed, frustrated or even angered because the Ruling The range ofimplementsis almost as wide as the choice ofRing was engraved with the script ofhis arch-enemies and substrates and inks. The simplest pen would have been thehebeing unable to rectifythatparticularannoyance. In the cut reed (easily obtained and cheap), although such pens doOne-volumeIndia paper edition ofThe Lord ofthe Rings the require moreattentionto retain a sharp edge to the nib andRing-inscription is printed in bright red ink (Tolkien, 1954-5, provide a clear impression. Reeds are, ofcourse, aquaticBook 1, .Chapter II) to enhance the contrast between the plants, which would cause the Hobbits some concem, as theordinariness ofthe hobbit-homeand the power contained care and maintenanceofreed-beds cannot be carried outwithin the Ring.

exclusively from dry land-

a boat is essential, even ifonly a_ shallow-draftvessel little more than a ferry-style platform,'Medlaand that securely tethered to the bank.

These'varied almost as much as theqsubstrates.By

no means Afterthe reed comes the quill, less easy to cut but retaining_all Hobbits were lettered, but those who were wrote the sharpness forlonger(given a well-preparedsubstrateand

- . ." (Tolkien, 1954-5,Prologue. Section 3:Of acareful scribe,ofcourse). Quill cutting needs a very sharp

the Ordering ofthe Shire). They-appeared to use black ink blade, so it is possible that, at some stage, the"pen-knife"

preference, but they used red ink for the signatures of made its appearance in Middle-earth.witnesses to wills. This may simply indicate a Quills are time-consuming to prepare, as they have to belong-established custom unique to testamentsor a standard dried completely, then have the membrane sheathing the

'Pflcticeforany legal document. shaft removed.The usual way now is to embedthe relevant

There are three main natural sourcesofblack forthe ink: part ofthe quill in hot sand and there is no reason to believeQflkigall, which, although initially black fades in time to a that the practice in Middle-earth would have been any

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342 J.R.R. TOLKIEN CENTENARY CONFERENCE

diferent. Writer" (Tolkien, 1954-5, Prologue:Note on the Shire

Another problem with quills is the obtaining ofthem. Records) has aformal title, which implies an ocially

eathers which are loose and fall away from birds are appointedpost,possibly as a successor to the Scribeofthe

unlikely to be ofthe best quality, thus there would be a need Ruling Stewards, and, presumably, theHobbits had a number

or quills plucked from birds. Geese are the most likely ofsuitably-skilledindividuals: their existence is implied by

ource ofdomestic quills, althoughtherewere swans on the statementThe original Red Book has not been

he Brandywine and almost certainly in Lothlrien and preserved, but many copies were made,especially ofthe first

erhaps a few colonies on theAnduin. Would swans have volume . . . (Tolkien, 1954-5,Prologue:

Note on the

een a royal bird as they were (and indeed still are) in Shire Records). It would be a monumental task for onengland? Ifso, the prerogative may well have been adopted scribe to produce

manycopies", so a Hobbitic scriptorium

by the Oldbucks,being (or at least claiming to be) the most shouldnot be seen as animpossibility.

eniorofthe Hobbit families. The idea ofHobbitsattempting

he practice ofswan-upping"brings certain hazards to Glyphs

mind; an iratecob-swancan breaka full-sizemansleg with There weretwo maintypes ofglyphs used in theThird Age.

blow from its wing, so the Hobbits would certainly have The tengwar in the various modes (Quenya,Sindarin,

reated the birds withrespect! Beleriand andWestron) had the wider distribution,while the

This problem would not afect the other Speaking (andcirthdid seem to be used almost exclusively by the Dwarves.

Writing) Peoples, so we can assume that Elves and Men (and This is not, however, asclear-cuta division as it might

ven, perhaps, Dwarves, ifany swans used the lakes round seem,because the fireworks broughtby Gandalf for the

heLonely Mountain) had access to the quills oftheirchoice. Long-expectedPartywere

eachlabelled with a large red G

The Dwarves could even have imported the quills they [tengwaungwe']

and the elf-rune, [g-

name unknown]

eeded from Laketown; feathers are used in archery (the and thehobbit-childrenseem to have recognised one or both

etchings on an arrow provide stability and reliability inofthemG forGrandltheyshouted . _ .(Tolkien,1954-

flight)so the raw material is present. 5, Book1, Chapter I).

It would have been the Dwarves, the Middle-earth Other meansof communication existed: ideograms, or

metallurgists, who developed the metal-nibbedpen; theordinarypictures,used as badges (the

Eye, theRed Hand,the

uality ofthe metal mustbe fine, thenib flexible at need andWhite Horse); physicalobjects,mostnotablythe Red

Arrow

ard enough to retain an even edge while not destroying the (Tolkien,1954-5,Book 5, Chapter III) and, ofcourse,

seven

urface being used. Today, gold nibs tipped with iridium arestars, and seven stones,and one white tree.

mong the most long-lasting: would Middle-earth nibs haveOnce the written material is produced, there is the problem

een tipped with mithril?ofpreservation. Scrolls are easier to keep, as

theycan simply

Nibs and inks must be matched fortheir purpose; a reed berolled up and slipped into protective tubes, which may

be

en would not be much use with the heavy gold or silver inks made ofcloth, wood, leather,metalor even other

piecesof

nd even the standard quill requires careful handlingto parchment, or simply slid into a lattice-work

shelf (rather

btain a pleasing result.like a wine-rack).

No consideration of writing would be proper withoutParchment leaves, or paper, are more susceptible

to

adding the most important element ofthe list: the scribe damage,so they require collection and protection. There

is

him-, her- oritself).evidence ofbook-binding- Bilbos Diary, which seems

to

The various Councils mentioned in Middle-earth (for be moreofa notebook,

"a big book with plain red leather

xample, those ofElrond, Denethorand the Istari) might covers (Tolkien,1954-5,Book 6, Chapter IX). Given the

presumablyhave had to keep some writtenrecords, requiring likely thickness

ofthis tome (Chapter 80 was unfinished",

a scribe or scribes to keep up withthe flow of words, Tolkien, 1954-5,Book 6, Chapter IX) it must

surely have

although there seems to be no mention of such an been constructedin the manner ofbooks which have lasted

ccupation; perhaps only the humancouncils required well in our world, with the sheets

collected intosignatures",

xtemal storage - the Elves and Istari, being sewn together using a strongwaxed thread and the signatures

xcused the Gift of Mortality, might have developed boundwith ribbon laced through the stitches at the fold of

mnemonic techniques; indeed, they may have neededthem each signature, as is shown

in the sample [produced at the

imply to remain sane over thousandsofyears! This may presentationof

thispaper].

ven apply to the long-lived, though mortal, NtimenoreansIt is well within the abilities ofthe Hobbits to make such

and their descendants.sturdy and long-lasting volumes, although

the dye used on

It is recorded that by no means all Hobbits were lettered the leather (notto mention the production ofthe leather

ut those who were wrote constantly (Tolkien,1954-5, itself) poses afew questions.

rologue, Section 3:Of

the Ordering of the Shire") The art of printingseems not to be mentioned rn

lthough there seems to have been no apparentneed for Middle-earth,thoughit would surely

not have taxed the

Hobbit-minutesto have been kept, there being no obviousingenuity ofthe Dwarves to devise a moveable-type

system.

Hobbit-council to generate such things.The tengwar pose a problem, with

the use ofdiacriticsabove

There were a number of copyists in Middle-earth, and below variousletters and caniers. I believe that the

specially those in the Restored Kingdom:Findegil, King's Middle-earthtypesetterswould

not have tried to produce

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WRITING AND ALLIED TECHNOLOGIES IN MIDDLE-EARTH 343

blocks with every combination oftengwa and tehta, but establishmentor a printing-press.It is a purely personalwould have arranged the tengwa block so that there was impression, but I visualise the Rules as being poorly-printedspace above and below the body foran inserted tehta. on cheap paper, the ink smudgyand

feathering(leaking

When the Travellers retumed to the Shire, they found their into the paper because of a surface not adequatelyprepared)room at the Inn containedRules - indeedall the rooms had and the letters themselves notwell-designed- all ofwhichsuch notices. We can theorise that although the Hobbits contrasts withthe(presumed)elegance oftheElvish booksinthemselveshad not devised the printing-press,such would Rivendell and the sturiliness ofthe Book ofMazarbril_ Thehave been well within the ability ofSaruman (a mind of mere fact ofthe Rules being printed at all would be reasonmetal and wheels", Tolkien, 1954-5,Book 3, Chapter IV), enough forMeriadoc or Peregrin to considerthem an afrontand the publication ofthe Rules, to be placed in every room toa properly-raisedHobbit!of every inn, bespeaks either a massive scribal copying

References

Tolkien, J.R.R. 1954-5.The Lord ofthe Rings, threevolumes.London: George Allen & Unwin, 1954,1954,1955.