World War I. Formation of European Alliances Triple Alliance Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy. ...

World War I

Formation of European AlliancesTriple AllianceGermany, Austria-Hungary, and

Italy.Germany under Bismarck’s

leadership had triumphed in the Franco-Prussian War and had imposed a humiliating peace treaty on France.

Germany did not want France to try and retaliate so Bismarck pursued policies to isolate France and gain allies for Germany.

Triple Alliance

Formation of European Alliances

Bismarck sought an alliance with Austria-Hungary, whose expansion into the Balkans conflicted with Russian ambitions.

In 1879 Germany and Austria-Hungary joined in a defensive military alliance. (Central Powers)


Italy was mad at France because they seized Tunisia in 1881 and upset Italian plans of controlling the land there.

In 1882 Italy agreed to a defensive military alliance with Germany and Austria-Hungary, thereby completing the Triple Alliance.

The weaknesses of the Triple Alliance were Italy’s historic hostility for Austria-Hungary and Italy’s desire for the remaining Italian-inhabited Austrian territories.


Triple EntenteFrance, Russia, and BritainFrance aspired to regain European

leadership and win back its “stolen provinces” of Alsace and Lorraine from Germany.

They had lost the territory during the Franco-Prussian War in 1870.

Triple Entente


France was looking for allies, particularly Russia.

They were having a tough time overcoming Bismarck’s skillful diplomacy, which kept Russia friendly to Germany.

Bismarck was dismissed as chancellor in 1890, and Germany refused to renew its treaty of friendship with Russia.


France thereafter extended military and industrial loans to Russia and gained its confidence.

In 1894 Russian and France entered into the Dual Alliance.


Britain considered its industrial leadership and colonial empire threatened most by Germany.

Although they were threatened by Germany, they clashed with France in 1898 over the control of the Sudan in the Fashoda Affair.

The Fashoda Affair


Because both nations feared Germany more than the other, they agreed to a peaceful settlement.

Eventually Britain gave France a free hand in Morocco, and France confirmed British dominance in the Sudan.


By this settlement in 1904, Britain and France began a close diplomatic understanding, the Entente Cordiale.Beyond the immediate concerns of colonial expansion

addressed by the agreement, the signing of the Entente Cordiale marked the end of almost a millennium of intermittent conflict between the two nations.

In 1907 Britain and Russia settled differences over spheres of influence in Persia and China. This agreement completed the Triple Entente.

Franz Ferdinand Assassinated

World War One had been long in the making; the spark was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914.

Ferdinand's death at the hands of the Black Hand, a Serbian nationalist secret society, set in train a mindlessly mechanical series of events that culminated in the world's first global war.

Franz Ferdinand

Gavrilo Princip

Leading up to WWI

It took Austria Hungary three weeks to react to Ferdinand being killed

Argued that the Serbian government was implicated in the machinations of the Black Hand.

Leading up to WWI

The Austro-Hungarians opted to take the opportunity to stamp its authority upon the Serbians, crushing the nationalist movement there and cementing Austria-Hungary's influence in the Balkans.

It did so by issuing an ultimatum to Serbia which, in the extent of its demand that the assassins be brought to justice effectively nullified Serbia's sovereignty.

Leading up to WWI

Austria-Hungary's expectation was that Serbia would reject the remarkably severe terms of the ultimatum, thereby giving her a pretext for launching a limited war against Serbia.

However, Serbia had long had Slavic ties with Russia, an altogether different proposition for Austria-Hungary.

Leading up to WWI

While not really expecting that Russia would be drawn into the dispute to any great extent other than through words of diplomatic protest.

Austria-Hungary sought assurances from her ally, Germany, that it would come to their aid should Russia declare war on Austria-Hungary.

Germany readily agreed, even encouraged Austria-Hungary's warlike stance.

War is Declared…

Austria-Hungary was unsatisfied with Serbia's response to her ultimatum and declared war on July 28 1914.

Russia, bound by treaty to Serbia, announced mobilization of its vast army in her defense, a slow process that would take around six weeks to complete.

One Thing Led to Another

Germany, allied to Austria-Hungary by treaty, viewed the Russian mobilization as an act of war against Austria-Hungary, and after scant warning declared war on Russia on 1 August.

France, bound by treaty to Russia, found itself at war against Germany and, by extension, on Austria-Hungary following a German declaration on 3 August. Germany was swift in invading neutral Belgium so as to reach Paris by the shortest possible route.


Britain, allied to France by a more loosely worded treaty which placed a "moral obligation" upon her to defend France, declared war against Germany on August 4.

The real reason for entering the conflict lay in another direction: Britain was obligated to defend neutral Belgium by the terms of a 75-year old treaty.

With Germany's invasion of Belgium on 4 August, and the Belgian King's appeal to Britain for assistance, Britain committed herself to Belgium’s defense later that day.


Like France, Britain was by extension also at war with Austria-Hungary.

With Britain's entry into the war, her colonies and dominions abroad variously offered military and financial assistance, and included Australia, Canada, India, New Zealand and the Union of South Africa.


United States President Woodrow Wilson declared the U.S. to be absolutely neutral.

This stance would last until 1917 when Germany's policy of unrestricted submarine warfare - which seriously threatened America's commercial shipping forced the United States to finally enter the war on April 6, 1917.


Japan, honoring a military agreement with Britain, declared war on Germany on August 23, 1914. Two days later Austria-Hungary responded by declaring war on Japan.


Italy, although allied to both Germany and Austria-Hungary, was able to avoid entering the war by citing a clause enabling it to evade its obligations to both.

In short, Italy was committed to defend Germany and Austria-Hungary only in the event of a 'defensive' war; arguing that their actions were 'offensive' she declared instead a policy of neutrality.


The following year, in May 1915, Italy finally joined the conflict by siding with the Allies against her two former allies.

They were promised land if they fought on Britain’s side.

U.S. Entry into WWI

The United States government, under Wilson's firm control, called for neutrality "in thought and deed."

Apart from an Anglophile element supporting the British, public opinion went along with neutrality at first. The sentiment was strong for neutrality among the Irish Americans, German Americans, and Swedish Americans, as well as many Southern farmers, church leaders and women.

However, the citizenry increasingly came to see Germany as the villain after news of atrocities in Belgium in 1914.

The Rape of Belgium

German troops, afraid of Belgian guerrilla fighters, burned homes and executed civilians throughout eastern and central Belgium, The victims included women and children.

Over 1,000 civilians were killed.

Burning of Leuven Library

On August 25, 1914 the German army ravaged the city of Leuven, deliberately burning the University's library of 300,000 medieval books and manuscripts with gasoline, killing 248 residents and expelling the entire population of 10,000.

Leuven, Belgium

The Rape of Belgium

Civilian homes were set on fire and citizens often shot in the place they stood. Over 2,000 buildings were destroyed and large amounts of strategic materials, foodstuffs and modern industrial equipment were looted and transferred to Germany. These actions brought worldwide condemnation.

In Brabant nuns were ordered by Germans to strip naked under the pretext that they were spies; in Aarschot between August and September women were repeatedly victimized; looting, murder, and rape was widespread.

U.S. Entry into WWI

At the outbreak of the war the United States pursued a policy of non-intervention, avoiding conflict while trying to broker a peace. When a German U-boat sank the British liner Lusitania in 1915, with 128 Americans aboard,

U.S. President Woodrow Wilson claimed that "America is too proud to fight" but demanded an end to attacks on passenger ships. Germany complied.

German Submarine

RMS Lusitania

U.S. Entry into WWI

Wilson unsuccessfully tried to mediate a settlement. However, he also repeatedly warned that the U.S.A. would not tolerate unrestricted submarine warfare, in violation of international law and U.S. ideas of human rights.

After the sinking of seven U.S. merchant ships by submarines and the publication of the Zimmerman telegram, Wilson called for war on Germany, which the U.S. Congress declared on April 6, 1917.

Zimmerman Telegram

A 1917 diplomatic proposal from Germany to Mexico to declare war against the United States. The proposal was intercepted by British intelligence. Revelation of the Telegram angered Americans and led in part to a U.S. declaration of war in April.

Military Technology

Trench Warfare

Artillery

Poison Gas

Air Warfare

Tanks

Naval Warfare

Flame Throwers

Trench Warfare

This is a form of occupied fighting lines that consists of large trenches dug into the ground. The trenches keep soldiers sheltered from small arms fire and artillery.

Trench warfare is a form of attrition warfare. The use of the trenches allow for a slow wearing down of opposing forces.

Trench Warfare

Many new weapons were being designed and used during World War I.

Application of these weapons made it difficult or nearly impossible to cross defended ground.

No Man’s Land

Between the trenches was no man's land. It was pitted with craters and blackened tree stumps from constant shelling. The difficulties of successfully taking an enemy's trenches defended with machine guns and lined with barbed wire meant that the war on the western front lapsed into stalemate.

It was not until the end of the war that a weapon capable of breaking the stalemate was invented, the tank.

Trench Warfare

Because attacking an entrenched enemy was so difficult, tunneling underneath enemy lines became one of the major efforts during the war.

Once enemy positions were undermined, huge amounts of explosives would be planted and detonated as part of the preparation for an overland charge.

Trench Warfare

Sensitive listening devices that could detect the sounds of digging were a crucial method of defense against these underground incursions.

The British proved especially adept at these tactics, thanks to the skill of their tunnel-digging "sappers" and the sophistication of their listening devices.

Artillery

Of all the types of weapons in existence in 1914, artillery underwent the most revolutionary and scientific advances. During the war, the following improvements were made: the wire-cutting No. 106 fuse, was developed, specifically

designed to explode on contact with barbed wire, or the ground before the shell buried itself in mud, and equally effective as an anti-personnel weapon

the first anti-aircraft guns were designed out of necessity

the creeping barrage was perfected

factors such as weather, air temperature, and barrel wear could for the first time be accurately measured and taken into account when firing indirectly

The majority of casualties inflicted during the war were the result of artillery fire.

Creeping Barrage

Poison Gas

At the beginning of the war, Germany had the most advanced chemical industry in the world, accounting for more than 80% of the world's dye and chemical production.

Although the use of poison gas had been banned in the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907, Germany turned to this industry for what it hoped would be a decisive weapon to break the deadlock of trench warfare.

Poison Gas

Chlorine gas was first used on the battlefield in April 1915. The unknown gas appeared to be a simple smoke screen, used to hide attacking soldiers, and Allied troops were ordered to the front trenches to repel the expected attack.

The gas had a devastating effect, killing many defenders.

Eventually, mustard gas, phosgene, and other gases were used. Britain and France soon followed suit with their own gas weapons.

Poison Gas

The first defenses against gas were makeshift, mainly rags soaked in water or urine. Later, relatively effective gas masks were developed, and these greatly reduced the effectiveness of gas as a weapon.

Although it sometimes resulted in brief tactical advantages and probably caused over 1,000,000 casualties, gas seemed to have had no significant effect on the course of the war.

Air Warfare

Airplanes underwent many improvements during World War I. Early war aircraft were not much different in design from the original Wright Flyer.

While early air spotters were unarmed, they soon began firing at each other with handheld weapons and even throwing spears. An arms race commenced, quickly leading to increasingly agile planes equipped with machine guns.

Zeppelins

Interrupter Gear

A key innovation was the interrupter gear, a German invention that allowed a machine gun to be mounted behind the propeller so the pilot could fire directly ahead, along the plane's flight path.

Air Warfare

As the stalemate developed on the ground, with both sides unable to advance even a few miles without a major battle and thousands of casualties, planes became greatly valued for their role gathering intelligence on enemy positions and bombing the enemy's supplies behind the trench lines

Germany led the world in the design of Zeppelins, and used these airships to make occasional bombing raids on military targets, London and other British cities, without any great effect.

German Strategic Bombing

Later in the war, Germany began attacking English cities with long range strategic bombers. As with the Zeppelin attacks, Germany's strategic bombing of England had limited tactical value, but it was demoralizing and showed the British they could not be completely immune from the effects of the war in their own country.

Tanks

Although the concept of the tank had been suggested as early as the 1890s, few authorities showed interest in them until the trench stalemate of World War I caused serious contemplation of unending war and ever escalating casualties.

Caterpillar Track

Based on the caterpillar track (first invented in 1770 and perfected in the early 1900s) and the four-stroke gasoline powered Internal combustion engine (refined in the 1870s), early tanks were fitted with Lewis guns, armor plating, and their caterpillar tracks were configured to allow crossing of an 8-foot-wide (2.4 m) trench.

Tanks

Early tanks were unreliable, breaking down often. Though they first terrified the Germans, their use in 1917 engagements provided more opportunities for development than actual battle successes.

It was also realized that new tactics had to be developed to make best use of this weapon. In particular, planners learned that tanks needed infantry support and massed formations to be effective. Once tanks could be fielded in the hundreds, such as they were at the Battle of Cambrai in November 1917, they began to show their potential.

Naval Warfare

The launching of HMS Dreadnought (1906) revolutionized battleship construction, leaving many ships obsolete before they were completed.

Consequently, at the start of the war, many navies comprised newer ships and obsolete older ones. The advantage was in long-range gunnery, and naval battles took place at far greater distances than before.

The Battle of Jutland (1916) was the only full-scale battle between fleets in the war.

HMS Dreadnought

Naval Warfare

Having the largest surface fleet, the United Kingdom sought to press its advantage. British ships blockaded German ports, hunted down German and Austro-Hungarian ships.

The German surface fleet was largely kept in the North Sea. This situation pushed Germany, in particular, to direct its resources to a new form of naval power: submarines.

Submarines

Submarines

The United Kingdom relied heavily on imports to feed its population and supply its war industry, and the German navy hoped to blockade and starve Britain using U-boats to attack merchant ships in unrestricted submarine warfare.

Britain started using convoys to protect it’s ships.

Flamethrowers

The Imperial German Army deployed flame throwers on the West Front attempting to flush out French or British soldiers from their trenches.

Introduced in 1915, the German Army had two main types of flame throwers during the Great War:

a small single person version called the Kleinflammenwerfer and a larger multiple person configuration called the Grossflammenwerfer. In the latter, one soldier carried the fuel tank while another aimed the nozzle. Both the large and small versions of the flame-thrower were of limited use because their short range left the operator(s) exposed to small arms fire.

Flamethrowers

Treaty of Versailles

The Treaty of Versailles was one of the peace treaties at the end of WWI. It ended the war between Germany and the Allies. It was signed on 28 June 1919, exactly five years after Franz Ferdinand was assassinated.

Although the armistice signed on November 11, 1918, ended the actual fighting, it took six months of negotiations at the Paris Peace Conference to conclude the peace treaty.

Treaty of Versailles

The treaty of Versailles included a war guilt clause, which Germany had to accept. It made Germany responsible for starting WWI.

The treaty also punished Germany by making them pay huge reparations to the Allied nations.

Vittorio Orlando of Italy, David Lloyd George of Great Britain, Georges Clemenceau of France and President Woodrow Wilson of the United States.

Territorial Changes

Alsace and Lorraine and—both originally Germany-speaking territories—were part of France, having been annexed by France′s King Louis XIV who desired the Rhine as a "natural border". After approximately 200 years of French rule, Alsace and the German-speaking part of Lorraine were ceded to Germany in 1871. In 1919, both regions were returned to France.

Part of Northeast Germany (the Polish Corridor) was added to Poland.

Territorial Changes

Important industrial areas and mineral resources in western Germany were placed under allied control.

Germany military forces were greatly reduced in size. No more than 100,000 soldiers. The import and export of weapons is prohibited. Poison gas, armed aircraft, tanks and armored cars are

prohibited. Blockades on ships are prohibited. Restrictions on the manufacture of machine guns and rifles.

The terms humiliated the German people.

Rise of Communism in Russia

The March 1917 revolution that ended the rule of the czars had many causes.

The immediate cause was the hardships brought on by WWI. The long-range causes had existed for many years.

March Revolution

In March 1917, the Russian Revolution began. Nicholas II was driven from his throne.

Prince George Lvov and Alexander Kerensky took control of Russia. They spoke to the people about constitutions, democracy, and reforms.

They failed to take Russia out of WWI and Russia’s hunger and misery continued.

Nicholas II

George Lvov & Alexander Kerensky

November Revolution

In November 1917 a revolution was led by Vladimir Lenin.

He promised the Russian people what they wanted most…Peace, food, and land.

Lenin’s party, the Bolsheviks (Communists), took over the government.

One of their first acts in 1918 was to take Russia out of WWI by signing the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany.

Lenin and Communism

Lenin reorganized the government and economy of Russia.

He tried to follow the ideas of Karl Marx. Workers and peasants elected representatives to local and regional councils called “soviets.”

Workers were encouraged to take over factories. The government declared that it owned all industries, banks, railroads, and land.

The Rise of Communism

Organized religious worship was discouraged and atheism (the belief that God does not exist) became the official government policy.

Class differences were ordered to be ended.

Russians were encouraged to address each other as “comrade.”

In 1922, Russia changed its name to the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics…The Soviet Union.

The Rise of Stalin

Lenin died in 1924 and Joseph Stalin gradually took control of the Soviet Union.

He forced peasants to give up their land and work on collective farms.

The forced collectivization caused the intentional deaths of millions of these peasants by starvation.

The Rise of Stalin

Rule by terror and force reached its peak under Stalin.

He would not tolerate any form of disagreement with his policies.

Millions of Russians and other Soviet people were put to death or imprisoned on Stalin’s orders.

He is considered to be one of the cruelest dictators in world history.

World War I. Formation of European Alliances Triple Alliance Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy. ...

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