VANQUISHED VICTORS NERVOUS NATIONALISM AND THE DECLINE OF THE EUROPEAN WORLD ORDER 1900-1929

CHAPTER 28

World War I and The Struggle of the European Order

Stereopticon Images of the Western Front

World War I from a Global Perspective

From a global perspective, World War I appeared as a European Civil War

Colonial and semi-colonial powers witnessed the catastrophic failure of a system that seemed invulnerable

European powers would call upon its colonies for help and turn over colonial responsibilities to indigenous people

An outside power (United States) would be needed to tip the balance of war

The experience of this war transformed the relationship between Europe and the world

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Key Questions: Europe and the Great War What forces that propelled Europe to world

dominance would incite the First World War? How did the growing instability of the European

system lead to its collapse and the outbreak of war in 1914?

How did Germany hope to defeat two powerful enemies on its flanks? How did it almost succeed?

How did the catastrophe of 1914 mark the beginning of the end of the European era? How did it reshape the continent and the Middle East?

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From a European Perspective…

The forces of industrialism, nationalism and liberalism that supported Europe’s ascendency and confidence imploded The cultural self confidence and certainty that

had been building since the Age of Reason would end by 1915

The peace that ended this war in 1919 was only temporary: The World Wars could be viewed as one continuous war with a 20 year cease fire

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Europe in 1914•What nations of modern Europe did not exist 100 years ago?•What nations had vastly different borders?

Europe on the Eve of World War I

World War I and the Post War Era: In A Nutshell

The economic, political and social forces that had been building since Napoleon incited conflict within the European system Nationalism- fulfilling national destinies Capitalism- control of markets and resources Autocracy and democracy- internal dynamics and the balance of power

The imperialism that brought European rule over most of the world made this conflict global in nature

The growth of technology and its application in warfare made this war much longer and bloodier than anticipated

The unifying and divisive forces of nationalism dominated the post-war settlement of Europe, but European imperialism would repress nationalist movements in most of their colonies

The peace settlement was to bitter to be accepted by the losers and too mild to keep the losers down

Open the door for Marxist challenges to nationalism, liberal democracy and imperialism

The victors were vanquished and or disillusioned Set the stage for an even more brutal war 20 years later

World War I: The Causes Way to remember the causes of World War I: ANIMAL

Alliances- dividing Europe into armed camps

Nationalism- emotional bond and sense of destiny

Imperialism- global reach for empire

Militarism- focus on solving disputes through military engagement

Anarchy- lack of international law and mediation

Leaders- leaders who sought popular support and led nation to war

Alliances and The First World War: Creating a chain reaction

Following Franco-Prussian War France felt insecure- allied with Russia to check Germany (1894)- A Defensive Pact

Germany’s Growing Sea Power threatens British interests- Britain joins Russia and Britain in 1907 (Triple Entente)- Cooperative Agreement

Germany counters with alliance with Austria-Hungary and Italy (Triple Alliance)- (1882)A Defensive Pact

Most stable and powerful nations allied to the most unstable- the actions of one nation could spark a general war

Italy did not join Austria and Germany in 1914- joined Britain France and Russia in 1915

Nationalism and the Rush to War France and wounded nationalism

French set on revenge since 1871- loss of Alsace and Lorraine territory

Nationalism and the Powder Keg of Europe: The Balkans Aspirations for independence- Greater Serbia Bosnia- Absorbed into Austria- Serbia outraged Balkan Wars: 1912 and 1913-Challenge to Turkey and a fight

for the spoils Assassination of the Austrian Archduke by a Serbia

Nationalist – spark that set off war… Russia as the supporter of Serbian Nationalism

Russian interests in Southeastern Europe checked by Austria Austria feared Slavic nationalism and its Russian

supporters Saw Germany as a counterweight to Russia

National indignation hard for governments to check- popular press and jingoism- militant chauvinistic nationalism

German Nationalism: Scene All Quiet on the Western Front (1930)

How does this scene in the movie capture the spirit nationalism and the virtues of war? How does it beckon back to the writings of von Treitschke?

How might nationalism set off an assassination and magnify the response to it? All Quiet on the Western Front

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Imperialism and The Great War By 1900, the major European powers ruled the

world Every colonial claim had the potential for

conflict Germans challenged Britain and

France in Africa Italy wanted an African empire

Imperial conquests and nationalist rivalries Germany’s drive for colonies and naval build up

threatened British naval dominance Challenge the imperial status quo

Warring powers would draw men and material from colonial populations

Japan (an ally of Britain) saw war as the opportunity to gain German territories

Militarism: The Nationalist Response to Self Preservation

Military buildup beginning in the late 19th Century Most nations adopted universal conscription German and Austrian military expenditures doubled between

1910 and 1914 Naval arms race between Britain and Germany Military leaders held overwhelming influence

Inflexibility of military planning: Germany and the von Schlieffen Plan

Germany expected a two front war: France and Germany Russia slow to mobilize: dedicate few resources east Rush a bulk of resources west (disciplined railroad application)-

envelop Paris- Then transport troops against Russia Russian mobilization would force Germany to quickly attack

France

The West and the von Schlieffen Plan

Von Schlieffen’s plan was adapted by Helmut von Molke to include invading Belgium- This would bring Britain into the war

Anarchy: The Lawlessness Among Nations

International community an anarchy with no effective enforcement of international law

International cooperation extended only as far as narrow military alliances

No permanent international forum to mediate disputes

Limited opportunity for neutral negotiations- In lawless communities, force is the law

One of the results of the war- The League of Nations

Leaders: Deciding for War

•“Prosecuting an active foreign policy would smother internal troubles”•Leaders were rewarded by popular support for standing their ground and threatening war to settle disputes.•Many leaders were more afraid of not fighting war than fighting- much different 20 years later•Struggling Hapsburg Empire benefits from Wilhelm II’s saber rattling foreign policy•Growing nationalized mass society demanded assertive leadership•The three emperors pictured in the bottom row would effectively be the last for their nations

The Guns of August: The Animal UnleashedJune 28: Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary

assassinated in Sarajevo by a Serbian nationalist- Austria presents Serbia with an ultimatum

July 28: Austria-Hungary declares war on Serbia.July 29: Russia, Serbia's ally, orders the mobilization of troops.August 1: Germany, an ally of Austria-Hungary, declares war on

Russia and demands the neutrality of Russia's ally France; France refuses and mobilizes. (remember von Schlieffen Plan)

August 3: Germany declares war on France.August 4: Germany invades neutral Belgium, as per the Schlieffen

plan to knock-put France; Britain responds by declaring war on Germany.

November 5 Ottomans join Central Powers (anti-Russian)Italy joins the Allies April 1915Americans declare neutrality but economically support allies

The Allies and Central Powers 1914

The Declaration of war by Britain in 1914 would include the British Empire including Australia, New Zealand and Canada

Expectations in the Summer of 1914

War would be quick and decisive Germany’s wars in 1860’s and 1870’s

were largely 1 battle affairs (New technology and the modern state?

War would bring glory to people and nations- War as cultural hygiene (von Treitschke) France- Revenge and return of Alsace- Lorraine Germany- Support Austria and check Russia- end

alliance that threatened security Austria- End Russian influence in South Eastern

Europe- check Slavic nationalism

Britain did not want a single nation dominant on the continent

The Western Front in 1914: An Unexpected Stalemate

Failure of the von Schlieffen Plan August-September 1914 Belgium actively resisted

Germany’s march through their country

German armies unable to flank the French north of Paris (far western line)

By October, both sides set opposite lines of defensive trenches- little movement and much destruction

Bleeding the Opponent: The Somme, Verdun and the War of Attrition

The Germans and Austrians able to hold the underequipped Russian army

Attempts to “break out” on the western front in 1916 degraded into a war of attrition- Victory measured in enemy blood Verdun- The French Gettysburg February-December

1916 French fortress town Attacked to “bleed France white” France lost 550,000 and the Germans 434,000

The Somme-(February-November 1916) British offensive to take pressure off French at Verdun

British lose 420,000- 58,00 on first day Germans lose 500,000 French lose200,00

Nations exhausted but unwilling to quit the field French armies began to refuse to engage the enemy

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Readings: The Battle of the SommeThe Battle of the Somme PBS The War

The War of theIndustrial Revolution:

New Technology from

http://www.henhudschools.org/webpages/alupien/resources.cfm?subpage=730973

The War of theIndustrial Revolution:

New Technology from

http://www.henhudschools.org/webpages/alupien/resources.cfm?subpage=730973

Trench WarfareTrench Warfare

Trench WarfareTrench Warfare

““No Man’s No Man’s Land”Land”

““No Man’s No Man’s Land”Land”

War Is HELL !!War Is HELL !!

German submarine U9 (1914)

A Canadian soldier with mustard gas burns, ca. 1917-1918

British 55th Division troops blinded by tear gas await treatment at an Advanced Dressing Station near Bethune during the Battle of Estaires, 10

April 1918, part of the German offensive in Flanders.

German infantry improvising gas masks during the First World War (probably 1915)

British Vickers machine gun crew wearing anti-gas helmets, July 1916

A German trench in the swamp area near the Hell Lakes on the Eastern Front , 1915

Sacrifices in WarSacrifices in War

French Renault TankFrench Renault Tank

British Tank at YpresBritish Tank at Ypres

U-BoatsU-Boats

The AirplaneThe Airplane

“Squadron Over the Brenta”Max Edler von Poosch, 1917“Squadron Over the Brenta”Max Edler von Poosch, 1917

The Flying Aces of World War I

The Flying Aces of World War I

Eddie Rickenbacher,

US

FrancescoBarraco, It.

Rene PaukFonck, Fr.

Manfred vonRichtoffen,

Ger.[The “Red Baron”]

Willy Coppens de

Holthust, Belg.

Eddie “Mick”Mannoch, Br.

The ZeppelinThe Zeppelin

FlameThrowers

FlameThrowers

GrenadeLaunchersGrenade

Launchers

Poison Gas

Poison Gas

Machine Gun

Machine Gun

The Western and Eastern Fronts: World War I

The Widening War British and Empire forces attack the

Ottoman Empire Campaign to seize control of straits

failed at Gallipoli in 1915 British and Arab allies take Ottoman

provinces of Mesopotamia (Iraq), Syria, Palestine and the Arabian peninsula

War in the Far East Japan takes German lands in the

Western Pacific and China War and the New World

Germany’s blockade of Britain would draw in The United States in April 1917

The Armenian Genocide: Nationalism, Identity and the Horrors of Modern War

Ottoman Turkey had been moving to become a modern nation state This compromised its rule of Arab Muslims Control over Christian Armenians particularly

tenuous. Armenians blamed for losses to Russia

Turkish generals assaulted Armenian population- Population rounded up for a forced march to Syria- up to a million dies

Ethnic cleansing became a model for asserting sovereignty in the 20th century

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One of thousands of mass Armenian graves

Turkish Genocide Against Armenians

Turkish Genocide Against Armenians

A Portent of Future Horrors to Come!A Portent of Future Horrors to Come!A Portent of Future Horrors to Come!A Portent of Future Horrors to Come!

World War I and the Arab Middle EastThe Suez Canal would be an important target

in both World WarsRussia’s persistent appetite for Turkish

territory made it a natural German allyBritain’s attempt to seize Istanbul in 1915

Gallipoli attack a significant failureBritain shifted strategies to make alliances

with Turkey’s restive Arab population

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Britain and Arab Nationalism

British operatives courted Arab nationalists in their attempt to defeat the Ottomans Famous Lawrence of Arabia (T.E.

Lawrence) as an agent Promise of independence for Arabs

who were alienated by Young Turks and Turkish nationalism

Helped the British take Jerusalem and Baghdad

Post-war land grab in the Arab Middle East by France and Britain a bitter disappointment

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Zionism and The Balfour Declaration Zionism- a movement of Diaspora Jews to return to

their ancestral homeland- a form of nationalism Zionists had been buying land from Palestinian

absentee landlords (ayan) Balfour Declaration- Made by British Foreign

secretary- promise to promote a Jewish homeland in Palestine after the war- Britian also promised Arab leaders that they would control these lands Arabs saw the British mandate of Palestine a double

betrayal “ A land without people for a people without land”-

Zionist perspective

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The Breakdown of the Eastern Front: The Fall of the Romanov Family

Russia was unprepared militarily and technologically for war

Eastern Front much more dynamic than the Western Front Two million soldiers killed six million wounded or captured

by 1916 Tsar Nicolas and wife influenced by Siberian mystic

Gregory Rasputin- murdered 1916 March 1917- A general strike in Petrograd

Army refuses to disperse the crowds Duma (Russian Parliament) urges Tsar to step down

New provisional government continues the war Workers and peasants do not support war Committees of workers and peasants Soviets grow in many regions

Radical Marxists- mainly lower classes of workers, peasants and dissatisfied soldiers Included Bolsheviks (violent revolutionary Marxists small faction of Russian Marxists)

Tsar’s family is exiled and eventually murdered in July 1918

America and Turning the Tide: 1917-1918

1917- A bad year for the Allies Collapse of the Eastern front French exhausted by Verdun and the

SommeItalian front collapsingGerman gamble- risk war with the

United States with a blockade of Britain (unrestricted submarine warfare) Germany entices Mexico to declare war

on America- The Zimmermann TelegraphAmerica declares war on Germany 6

April 1917 Psychological boost for the allies AEF (American Expeditionary Forces)

would not arrive in numbers until 1918

America Prepares for the War to End All Wars

America, Germany and Breaking the Stalemate: 1918

Germany commits to a grand offensive in 1918 Move troops from Eastern front Win the war before American

soldiers can relieve the allies German attack stalls in July 1918

Allies supported by 140,000 fresh troops

Front is still in France and Belgium- Stab in the back mythology

Two million Americans would lead a counter offensive

Wilhelm II abdicates- New socialist government signs armistice 11/11/1918 (Armistice Day)

The Armistice and the Victors Peace of Versailles

Delegates of victorious powers meet in Paris to create an “eternal Peace”- Versailles focused on war against Germany

President Wilson proposed Fourteen Points as a basis for peace- main principles

Disarmament Self determination- align regional nationalism with political borders

Disregard for balance of power and claims of great powers End secret treaties General association of nations Anger and revenge and fear among European allies compromised

Wilson’s ideas Germany to accept blame for the war- payment of reparations Too brutal to forget and too mild to destroy Germany Seeds planted for a larger war in 20 years America disillusioned and withdrew from European affairs

Non-European peoples hoped for self determination meant the end of colonial rule- not so

Arab territories controlled by France and Britain (Mandate system) German territories taken by France Britain Australia and Japan Colonial empires maintained

World War I CasualtiesWorld War I Casualties

01,000,0002,000,0003,000,0004,000,0005,000,0006,000,0007,000,0008,000,0009,000,000

10,000,000RussiaGermanyAustria-HungaryFranceGreat BritainItalyTurkeyUS

Managing the Post War World: The 1920’s and the West

Germany is isolated and saddled with limitations from Versailles Civil unrest through early 1920’s- hyperinflation and

French occupation Last years of decade more peaceful

Soviet Union withdrawn from world events to 1930’s France – feared US and Britain’s unwillingness to

continue a military alliance Presses Germany hard on Versailles Treaty

General peace an prosperity from 1924-1929

Nationalism: Self Determination and the New Europe

•What new nations were created at Versailles? From what nations were these territories constituted?•Germany agreed to accept full responsibility for the War.

• Payment of reparations to Britain and France.

• Demilitarized

The Post Versailles World

The Experience of War and Illiberal Peace

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Communist Russia: The Spawn of World War I

Germans facilitate the entry of Vladimir Lenin into Russia (Reading 72 What is to be Done?)

Three slogans Peace, bread and land Worker control of production All power to the Soviets

Petrograd soviet seizes the provisional government November 6-7 1917

Power turned over to soviets Bolsheviks- Renamed Communists- take control of government

Negotiated the end of the war with Germany and Austria- The Treaty of Brest Litovsk

Russia lost Finland, the Baltic States, Poland and much of the Ukraine Lenin argued that boarders were not relevant- international movement would sweep

through Europe

Civil War between Reds (Communists) and Whites (anti-Communists)

Whites had support of European powers and Japan (over 100,000 troops in 1919) but were politically divided between monarchists and liberals

Reds had discipline and a popular program supported by terror Cheka- secret police Revolutionary Terror “To break an omelet, a few eggs must be broken” War Communism- seizing private property to defeat enemies

By 1921, Lenin’s Communists had established party control over most of the old Romanov Empire

The Far East and the Post War Era Japan

Japan’s export economy booms with war time demand Four giant Zaibatsu control Japanese industry

Japan’s hand in China and the Pacific greatly strengthened Take German territories in China and the Pacific Twenty One Demands on China- Make China a Japanese

protectorate Japan’s political and economic interests in China grow

China Qing Dynasty ends 1911- Replaced by Sun Yat –sen and

Guomindang Party Westernized reform and republican government Opposed by warlords- local anarchy continued.

Sun and the Guomindang party bring in Chinese communists Sun dies in 1925- Chiang-Kai shek takes over Guomandang

Breaks power of the warlords Splits with Communists in early 1930’s Unable to produce meaningful reforms like Bolsheviks or Meiji

emperors

World War I and The Future of the Far East ca 1930

Japan is growing militarily and economically

European states are weakened by the war

China struggles to unify and reform under effective government

What do you see happening in the Far East in the 1930’s?

The Spanish Influenza: 1918-1919

Movement of people and conditions of camps with crowds of men invited the rapid spread of H1N1 Influenza virus.

First wave in Spring 1918 Aided by modern transportations systems and

malnourished populations Killed people in all inhabited continents Estimated to have killed 3-5% of the earth’s

population- wiped out entire villages in Alaska and decimated Pacific Islands

Second more deadly strain in August 1918 Estimated final toll 50-100 MILLION

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The War and Africa

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India in the Years between Wars

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The New Order in the Middle East

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Egypt in the Post-War Era

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Dada: Art and the Reaction to the First World War

Dada art- Art against art?

A rational response to the irrationality of war

Otto Dix- German artist and war veteran

The punk rock of art

The Seeds of its Own Destruction: The End of the European Age The divisions and rivalries that drove the age of

European exploration would explode into a “European Civil War”

The industrialization and military technology that brought European rule to much of the world would turn on itself to create a war of unprecedented destruction.

World Trade would not recover to 1914 levels to The conflict that would follow the assassination of the

archduke would help to unravel the myth of European cultural and intellectual superiority (Though Hitler would exalt such myths in his Thousand Year Reich).