World Religions

CHAPTER FOUR:

Hinduism

Fundamental questions1. What is the human condition?

– Hindus believe humans are caught in samsara: the atman (soul) is condemned to an endless cycle of reincarnation as a result of karma (actions). Bad karma has a corrupting effect on the universe.

2. Where are we going?– To a favourable or unfavourable reincarnation after death– To moksha (liberation) from samsara and the consequences of

karma 3. How do we get there?

– either performing actions pertinent to the dharma (law or teachings) of Hinduism or to the law or teachings of jati (one’s caste): that is, the varnashramadharma (pertinent to higher castes)

– or following one of the yogic paths, for example, Jnana (path of knowledge), Bhakti (path of devotion), or Karma (path of action).

Learning Objectives

1. Learn about the basic religious teachings and rituals of Hinduism.

2. Come to understand the ways in which Hinduism has changed over time.

3. Come to understand the caste system.

4. Learn about relationships between Hinduism and other religions of India.

5. Learn about Hindu/Muslim/Christian conflict in historical and contemporary contexts.

Key Names, Concepts, and

Terms Page 73

1. Varnas2. Vedas3. Upanishads4. Bhakti5. Trimurti6. Ahimsa7. dharma8. Aryan 

Text1. Agni2. Aranyakas3. Arjuna4. Atharva Veda5. Avatar6. Avidya7. Bhagavad Gita8. Brahman9. Brahmana10. Brahmin11. Dasehra12. Horse sacrifice13. Indra14. Kali15. Karma16. Krishna17. Kshatriya18. Manu19. Maya20. Moksha21. Nyaya22. Raja23. Rig-Veda24. Sanma Veda25. Samkhya26. Samsara27. Sannyasi28. Shiva29. Suttee30. Thugs31. Vaisheshika32. Vaishya33. Vishnu34. Yoga

c. 8000-6000 BCE c. 2500-1500

c. 2000-900c. 1500

c. 1000-500 BCEc. 400 BCE-200 CEc. 400 BCE-400 CE

200 BCE 100-300 CEc. 600-1800

711c. 788-8201556-17071836-18861857-1947

Traditionally, Vedas heard by rishisIndus Valley civilizationSupposed Aryan invasions of N. IndiaEarly Vedas composedUpanishads systematized by VyasaRamayana (present form)Mahabharata (present form)Traditionally, Patanjali edits Yoga SutrasCode of Manu compiledBhakti movement flourishesMuslim invasions beginShankara reorganizes VedantaMogul EmpireLife of RamakrishnaBritish rule of India

Timeline

I) Introduction: The Oldest and Most Complex Religion

A. Hinduism is Very Ancient and Immensely Complex1. Name derived from Sanskrit name for River Indus, Sindhu

• Muslim conquerors used generic term “Hindu” for all in India who refused to convert to Islam

• British colonialists used “Hindu” in same way2. Origins in Third Millennium B.C.E.3. Includes almost any form and style of religion ever known to

humanity, with millions of major and minor gods4. Several distinct schools of thought, no identifiable founder

B. Hinduism is Source of Three Other Religions1. Jainism2. Buddhism3. Sikhism4. Hinduism survives as mainstream religion of India by

absorbing and assimilating potential rivals

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II) The Origins of Hinduism

A. Pre-Aryan India before Aryan Migration in Second Century B.C.E1. Very little is known about the pre-Aryan people of

India

2. Native peoples of India had many highly developed cities along the Indus River

3. Pre-Aryan Indian civilization had written language

4. Pre-Aryan India had developed religion that might be source of some later Hindu gods and practices• Many statutes and amulets (possibly a fertility god)

suggested a religious belief• Ceremonial buildings were also found

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II) The Origins of Hinduism

B. The Coming of the Aryans1. Aryan has been used to describe many peoples, but it includes North

Indians

2. Aryans migrate into India through Persia (modern Iran) between 1750 and 1200 B.C.E. • “Aryan”: Sanskrit word meaning “noble ones”• Similarities between Persian Zoroastrianism and early Hindu Vedic literature• Early Aryan migrants to the Indus Valley were nomadic shepherds led by tribal

chieftains called rajas

3. Early Aryan civilization in India sixth century B.C.E.• The rajas develop minor kingdoms• Aryan civilization develops into four basic classes, or varnas that become basis for

later caste system– (1) Kshatriyas: chieftains and warriors– (2) Brahmins: priests who serve city cults– (3) Vaishyas: commoners and merchants– (4) Shudras: conquered pre-Aryan peoples who are servants and/or slaves of Aryan servants

(not full members of society)

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II) The Origins of Hinduism

C. Aryan Religion1. Difficult but possible to discern pure Aryan religion

from the Vedic literature

2. Aryans were Indo-European polytheists whose gods personified natural forces (storm, sun, moon, soil, fertility) and hence have animistic roots

3. Chief manner of worship was sacrifice• open air sacrifices on altars and in fire • Animals, food, drink, plants sacrificed• Vedas have extravagant formula for sacrificial offerings• Aryan horse sacrifices the most expensive and elaborate

in any religion

III The Vedic EraA. The Vedas: The Oldest and Most Sacred Books of Hinduism

1. Basic source of Hindu understanding of universe upon which all later Hindu texts comment• Word Veda means knowledge, sacred lore• Uncertainty regarding time of composition• Oral tradition likely began before Aryans• Aryans developed oral tradition and created texts• Final form of Vedas written in language called Vedic, a predecessor of early Sanskrit• Vedas function in modern Hinduism analogously to the way the Hebrew scriptures

function in Christianity and Islam

2. Four basic Vedic books• The Rig-Veda: collection of over 1,000 hymns to Aryan gods, containing their basic

mythology• The Yajur-Veda: collection of rites and material to be recited during sacrifices to the

gods• The Sama-Veda: collection of chants and verses from basic hymns sung by priest at

sacrifices • The Atharva-Veda: collection of rituals and prayers for domestic use, as well as

spells and incantations to ward off evil

III The Vedic Era

A. The Vedas: The Oldest and Most Sacred Books of Hinduism3. Four basic parts to each of the Vedic books

• Hymns (mantras) to the gods, considered to be the most ancient material in the Vedic literature

• Ritual materials (Brahmanas)• Forest treatises (Aranyakas) for hermits• Philosophical materials (Upanishads)

4. The most important gods in the Vedas• Indra, god of the thunderbolt, clouds, rain, and ruler of heaven; object of

most hymns in Vedic literature; Indra conquers Vrtra, the personification of chaos

• Agni, god of fire, priests, and priest of the gods• Varuna, god who presides over the order of the universe and who forgives

sins• Vishnu and Rudra/Shiva receive only minor attention in Vedic books but

later become major gods in Hinduism

III) The Vedic Era

B. The Upanishads1. These early philosophical statements became the

basis of Hinduism

2. Collection of about 200 Vedic philosophical treatises

3. Fourteen principal Upanishads

4. Earliest Upanishad originated in ninth century B.C.E.

–Chandogya Upanishad

“In the beginning there was Existence alone--One only, without a second. He, the One, thought to himself: Let me be many, let me grow forth. Thus out of himself he projected the universe, and having projected out of himself the universe, he entered every being. All that is has its self in him alone. Of all things he is the subtle essence. He is the truth. He is the self. And that....THAT ART THOU.”

III) The Vedic EraB. The Upanishads

5. Upanishads’ place in Vedas: organic expression of Vedic hymns and rituals, or monistic philosophy contradicting Vedic polytheism?• Genre differs from rest of Vedas: philosophical treatises and dialogues• Contrary to the Vedas general polytheism, Upanishads teach the only reality is Brahman, and

Brahman is eternal, infinite, unknowable, sexless, impersonal• All other gods are expressions of Brahman• Human beings are bound up in the world of illusions and ignorance• It is false knowledge/illusion (maya) to consider one’s self/soul (atman), or anything, separate from

Brahman• Humans have a false knowledge when they believe that this life and our separation from the

Brahman are real• There is one true reality in the universe – Brahman• Upanishads contradict priestly/clerical orientation of Vedas, teach meditation, not sacrifice, is means

of worship• Overcoming ignorance (avidya) and illusion (maya), not performing rituals and sacrifice, is meaning

of life• All acts (karma) have spiritual consequences corresponding to their character• Karma: every action or thought has a consequence

– Does that definition of Karma sync up with our Western understanding of it?

• Wandering of the soul/life force after death into new body (samsara) • Goal of life: break cursed cycle of karma and samsara and attain freedom/release (moksha) from

burden of life• Upanishads abstract, esoteric philosophy popular only with intellectuals, not mainstream

III) The Vedic Era

C. The Law of Manu1. Traditional Indian literature produced around the

same time as the Vedas

2. Ethical text written between 300 B.C.E. and 300 C.E.

3. Illustrates ethical and social standards held as ideals during the classical era of Indian history and the effects of the religious/philosophical teachings of the Vedas on society

4. Reveals roots of social and religious traditions of modern Hinduism

III) The Vedic Era

C. The Law of Manu5. The varna system of social stratification, the first three classes are “twice born,”

and the Shudras are “once born”• The Brahmin (priest) at top of social strata• The raja (ruler) second in social strata• The Vaishya (artisans, merchants, farmers) third• The Shudra (servant) at bottom of social strata• Each caste has own proper duties (dharma)

– Members of lower castes can gradually move up to higher rank through reincarnation if they carefully follow dharma of caste in this life

– People could also move down in rank, even to animal and plant level, if they commit evil of body, speech, or mind

• The Law of Manu included early understanding of reincarnation• Upper caste males expected to pass through four successive stages in life

– Student of the Vedas– Marriage within caste and head household– Retreat from society to become hermit and learn non-attachment– Become a wandering beggar (sannyasi)

• Women have constricted social and domestic life– No independence allowed, perpetually under control of males– Bearing and raising children central

6. The law of Manu teaches cyclical view of time/history

III) The Vedic Era

D. Jainism and Buddhism1. Both Jainism and Buddhism broke from Hinduism by teaching that

personal achievement, not ritual sacrifice, was the path to obtaining release from life

2. Originate in sixth century B.C.E. and challenge mainstream3. Both reject sacrificial system of the Vedas in favor of doctrine of

release from life (moksha) through one’s accomplishments4. Both rejected Vedas as sacred scripture and the caste system;

release is possible for all who live rightly5. Both too austere to be acceptable to average person, eventually

main teachings absorbed by Hinduism6. Jainism taught asceticism, whereas Buddhism did not believe that

the extremes of asceticism were necessary

The Rise of Religions in India

III) The Vedic Era

E. Bhagavad Gita1. This epic poem is about a great battle and relates the

struggles of heroes and gods

2. Epic poem of Indian culture and religion, analogous to Homeric poems of Greek culture and religion

3. Bhagavad Gita is chapters 25 to 42 of the longer epic called the Mahabharata (13 volumes in English translation) • Mahabharata is story of struggles between two leading families

from beginning of Indian history• Mahabharata written over long period, but Bhagavad Gita written

and inserted into it between second and third century B.C.E.• Families in Mahabharata have final epic battle between 850 and

650 B.C.E.

III) The Vedic Era

E. Bhagavad Gita• The Bhagavad Gita is dialogue prior to battle between the warrior Arjuna

and his charioteer Krishna– Arjuna ponders folly of war, but Krishna lectures him that it is the religious duty

(dharma) of his caste to be a warrior – Krishna lectures Arjuna on the doctrines of the Upanishads– Krishna reveals self as incarnation of the god Vishnu

• The basic teaching of the Bhagavad Gita is that people should perform the duties of their caste and thus avoid karma

• Religious implications of Bhagavad Gita – Duties of one’s caste are religious– One incurs bad karma—and possibly be trapped in cycle of samsara—if disobey

duties of caste– Variety of means of release (moksha) from samsara, including asceticism,

meditation, devotions to and worship of gods, and obedience to duties of caste– Vishnu comes to earth in multiple incarnations to help humans, whom he loves– Devotion (bhakti) to Vishnu—and other gods—is valid within Hinduism

• The Gita is open to a variety of religious expression – people can achieve release through many means

–Bhagavad Gita

“There is no truth superior to Me. Everything rests upon Me, as pearls are strung on a thread....I am the taste of water, the light of the sun and the moon, the syllable om in Vedic mantras; I am the sound in ether and ability in man....All states of being--goodness, passion, or ignorance--are manifested by My energy. I am, in one sense, everything--but I am independent. I am not under the modes of this material nature.”

IV Postclassical Hinduism

A. The Distinction between Classical Indian Religion (Brahminism) and Post-Classical Religion (Hinduism)1. Classical: Greco-Roman style religion of pantheon of gods

worshipped publicly through sacrificial activity by priests

2. After the classical period ended, interest evolved in worshiping only a few gods

3. Post-classical: worship of a few major anthropomorphic deities through individual love and devotion

4. The major gods were seen as taking an interest in human affairs

5. Scholars have noted a shift in basic attitude toward life away from classical optimism to post-classical life-denying pessimism amongst Indians

IV Postclassical Hinduism

B. Devotion to Three Major Gods1. Path of devotion (bhakti-marga)

• Particular gods express one function of Brahman (creation, destruction, preservation)

• Post-classical Hindus tend also to see all functions of Brahman in one particular deity

• Devi: great feminine goddess, source of other goddesses like Brahman is source of gods

2. Brahma the Creator• Post-Vedic deity, object of much mythology• Receives least attention among the three major gods, has

no cult of devotees• Wife: Sarasvati, goddess of knowledge, poetry, speech,

wisdom

IV Postclassical HinduismB. Devotion to Three Major Gods

3. Shiva the Destroyer• Post-Vedic deity developed from Aryan god Rudra• Among the most popular gods in post-classical Hinduism• The god of death, destruction, disease, but also of reproduction, sexuality, fertility, and

dance• Favorite god of Hindu ascetics• Devotees (Shivaites) tend to equate Shiva with Brahman of the Upanishads• Consorts of Shiva also popular

– Kali: a goddess more terrible than Shiva– Paravati: opposite of Kali, feminine goddess of fertility, perfect wife/mother

4. Vishnu the Preserver• The god of love, benevolence, forgiveness, play• Appeared in nine different forms (avatars) to assist humans (e.g. Krishna in Bhagavad

Gita)• Tenth avatar of Vishnu, Kalkin, will come at end of world to judge wicked and reward

virtuous• Devotees (Vaishnavites) tend to equate Vishnu with Brahman of the Upanishads,

compose poems, and songs• Wife: Lakshmi, guardian of world’s welfare, goddess of fertility, wealth, victory

IV Postclassical Hinduism

C. Devotion to Knowledge (jnana-marga)1. People could choose one or more of the gods to

devote themselves to

2. Another acceptable path was the “way of knowledge,”

3. Piety for the intellectuals and leisure-class based on a philosophical system (darshan)

4. Systems all based on Vedas, aim at release, believe in rebirth and pre-existence• The Sankhya system

– Atheistic system without personal gods– Sees universe as a dualism of two forces: spirit and matter– Influences Buddhism and Jainism

IV Postclassical Hinduism

C. Devotion to Knowledge (jnana-marga)• The Yoga system

– “Yoga” derived from yuj, “to yoke, join”– Follows Sankhya philosophical system, teaches one should yoke individual

spirit to god, the atman, to Brahman– Developed by Patanjal, second century B.C.E., codified in Yoga Sutra – Emphasis on meditation as means of release from cycle of birth, death,

rebirth– Raja Yoga stresses mental and spiritual development to super

consciousness– The eight steps of Raja Yoga practice

• The Mimansa system– Based on study of Vedic scriptures and Mimansa Sutra (200 B.C.E.)– Developed by Kumarila and Prabhakara in eighth century C.E.– Primary concern: avoiding rebirth by obeying laws laid down in Vedas and

performing rites established in them– Early forms were atheistic but later forms contain prayers to Shiva

IV Postclassical Hinduism

C. Devotion to Knowledge (jnana-marga) cont• The Vaisheshika system

• Originates in sixth century B.C.E. along with Buddhism and Jainism

• Primary text, Vaisheshika Sutra by Kanada• Vaisheshika means “particularity:”• Universe has nine distinct, particular eternal elements: earth,

water, air, fire, soul, mind, ether, time, space• No gods necessary to universe

• The Nyaya system• Adaptation of Vaisheshika system in third century B.C.E. by

Gautama in Nyaya Sutra • Gautama the “Aristotle of India”• Atheistic system stressing logical analysis

IV Postclassical HinduismC. Devotion to Knowledge (jnana-marga) cont

• The Vedanta system• Vedanta means “end of Vedas,” meaning it is peak of Vedic teaching and

based largely on Upanishads• Badarayana composed Vedanta Sutra first century B.C.E.• Monistic (non-dual) system: only Brahman exists• Humanity’s problem is ignorance of Brahman and illusory nature of world• Advaita Vedanta (non-dual) developed by Shankara in ninth century C.E.

– Shankara devotee of Shiva– Shankara’s commentary on Vedanta Sutra classic of medieval Hinduism– Shankara fierce opponent of Buddhism, helping to destroy it in India and restore

Hinduism

• Ramanuja in eleventh-twelfth centuries C.E. taught qualified Vedanta dualism

• Madhva in thirteenth century C.E. brings fully dualistic perspective into Vedanta

V) Muslim Influences in India

A. Origins of Muslim Presence in India1. Portions of India were conquered by Muslim forces in the

classical period

2. Northwest India conquered by Muslims circa 712 C.E.

3. Turkish general Mahmud of Ghazni invaded India 17 times in eleventh century C.E.

4. Sultanate of Delhi formed in thirteenth century C.E.

5. Moghul Turk dynasty rules India in sixteenth century C.E.

6. Today, there are more Muslims on the Indian subcontinent than anywhere else on Earth• India has a Muslim population second only in size to Indonesia

V) Muslim Influences in India

B. Islam and Hinduism in Conflict in India and Pakistan1. Monotheistic Islam versus polytheistic Hinduism

2. Iconoclastic Islam versus Hindu sacred images

3. Muslim sacrifice of cattle versus Hindu veneration

4. Muslim egalitarianism versus Hindu caste system—yet many Muslims have adopted caste as a model of social organization

5. Hindu theology not altered due to contact with Islam

6. Sikhism seeks to reconcile Islam and Hinduism

7. Indian society has adopted parts of Muslim culture

Islam in India

VI) Modern Hinduism

A. One of the most important modern influences on Hinduism has been exposure to Christianity and its European and American representatives

1. British Rule India for Three Centuries• Missionaries come only in nineteenth century• British outlaw suttee and child marriage

2. Those exposures led to internal religious reform movements

VI) Modern HinduismB. Modern Hindu Reformers

1. Ram Mohan Roy (1774-1833), the “Father of Modern India”• Respected Christianity, but did not believe in divinity of Jesus• Monotheist who opposed polytheism as idolatry• Formed major nineteenth-twentieth century reform movement, Brahmo

Samaj (Society of God)

2. Sri Ramakrishna (1836-1886)• Philosophical proponent of Advaita Vedanta who taught all truth was

essentially one• Vivekananda (Narendranath Dutt, 1863-1902) most famous disciple

– Traveled world teaching Ramakrishna’s idea that Hinduism was essentially Vedanta– Impressed Parliament of Religions in Chicago (1893) with his Ramakrishna-

Vedanta version of Hinduism

3. Paramahansa Ananda (1893-1952) develops Ramakrishna and Vivekananda’s ideas in United States • Forms self realization fellowship• Blends Vedanta with gospel

VI) Modern Hinduism

C. Modern Hindu Reformers (cont)1. Mohandas K. Gandhi (1869-1948)

• Worked to bring political and social benefits to Indians under British rule

• Religious reformer who combines traditional Hinduism with elements of Christianity, Jainism, Islam, Parsi

• Political reformer who combines training in England as lawyer with Thoreau’s ideals of civil disobedience to resist British colonial rule of India

• Opposed caste system, called “untouchables” the harijan, “children of god”

VI) Modern HinduismC. Modern Hindu Reformers (cont)

1. Unifying object concern among reformers: caste system• Development of caste (from Portuguese word casta, breed-race) system into modern

form begins in eighth century C.E.• Four basic castes develop into thousands of sub-castes based on vocations, ethnic,

religious lines• Modern castes dictate diet, vocation, place of residence, choice of mate, interactions

with all outside caste• Greater one’s contact with “pollutants” of blood, death, dirt, the lower one’s caste:

one becomes an “untouchable”• Brahmins seek purity from pollutants, practice strict vegetarianism• Despite sanction in Vedic literature, caste discrimination outlawed in 1948

Constitution of the Republic of India • Caste system still firmly entrenched in India• Unlike the ancient varnas system, the modern caste system allows for little

interaction between the classes• The life of the lowest cast, called “untouchables,” is full of low wages and poor living

and working conditions• Traditional Hinduism seems to support people’s placement in the caste system as

evidence of karma

The Future of the Caste System in India

VII) Hindu Holy Days

A. Because of the large number of gods and goddesses, Hinduism has many festivals and feasts– Millions of Hindus make an annual pilgrimage to the

Ganges River to bath and renew their vows • Kumbh Mela is a mass pilgrimage of faith in which Hindus

gather at a sacred river for a bath in the river. It is held every third year at one of the four places by rotation: Haridwar, Allahabad, Nasik and Ujjain.

• Kumbh means a pitcher and Mela means fair in Hindi. The pilgrimage is held for about one and a half months at each of these four places where it is believed in Hinduism that drops of nectar fell from the Kumbh carried by gods after the sea was churned.

VII) Hindu Holy DaysB. Holi

– Most popular Hindu festival, celebrated in February/March to welcome spring

– Basis in fertility festival, worship of Kali

C. Divali– Celebration of the Hindu new year in November and

festival of lights– Basis in worship of Kali and Lakshmi

D. Dasehra– Nine days in October to celebrate in honor of Durga, a

consort of Shiva – Celebrates Durga’s victory over buffalo demon

VIII) Hinduism Today

A. The Challenges of Modernity to Traditional Hinduism1. India, which is the primary home of Hinduism, is the world’s

largest democracy• That fact has put Hinduism in conflict with modern questions like birth

control and urbanization

2. Modern Indians assume their lives in this world can be improved, progressive optimism is warranted

B. Specific Political Issues1. Rise of fundamentalist Hinduism and demands for Hindu

theocracy in 1990s

2. Volatile Pakistan – Kashmir issue

3. Militant Sikh independence movement challenges unity of India

4. Minority status of Hindus outside India posed problems• In other parts of the world, Hindus face minority religious status and issues

of assimilation

Fundamental questions1. What is the human condition?

– Hindus believe humans are caught in samsara: the atman (soul) is condemned to an endless cycle of reincarnation as a result of karma (actions). Bad karma has a corrupting effect on the universe.

2. Where are we going?– To a favourable or unfavourable reincarnation after death– To moksha (liberation) from samsara and the consequences of karma

3. How do we get there?– either performing actions pertinent to the dharma (law or teachings) of

Hinduism or to the law or teachings of jati (one’s caste): that is, the varnashramadharma (pertinent to higher castes)

– or following one of the yogic paths, for example, Jnana (path of knowledge), Bhakti (path of devotion), or Karma (path of action).