workforce from 1990 through 2010: and persistent concernsECCE workforce remains a low‐education,...
Transcript of workforce from 1990 through 2010: and persistent concernsECCE workforce remains a low‐education,...
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Theearlychildhoodcareandeducationworkforcefrom1990through2010:Changingdynamicsandpersistentconcerns
DaphnaBassok,UniversityofVirginia,1MariaFitzpatrick,CornellUniversity2SusannaLoeb,StanfordUniversity3
AgustinaS.Paglayan,StanfordUniversity4WearegratefultoDavidDeming,BruceFuller,DeborahStipek,andtwoanonymousrefereesforusefulcommentsonpreviousdraftsofthispaper.ThisresearchwassupportedbyagrantfromtheInstituteofEducationSciences(R305A100574).TheviewsexpressedherearethoseoftheauthorsanddonotnecessarilyreflecttheviewsoftheUniversityofVirginia,CornellUniversity,StanfordUniversity,orIES.Anyremainingerrorsareourown.
1AssistantProfessor,CurrySchoolofEducation,UniversityofVirginia,405EmmetStreetSouth,Charlottesville,VA22904([email protected])2AssistantProfessor,DepartmentofPolicyAnalysisandManagement,CornellUniversity,103MarthaVanRensselaerHall,Ithaca,NY14853([email protected])3BarnettFamilyProfessor,StanfordUniversity,520GalvezMall,Stanford,CA94305([email protected])4Doctoralstudent,StanfordUniversity,520GalvezMall,Stanford,CA94305([email protected])
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ABSTRACT
Despiteheightenedpolicyinterestinearlychildhoodcareandeducation(ECCE),littleisknownabouttheECCEworkforcetodayortheextenttowhichthisworkforcehaschangedoveraperiodofsubstantialinvestmentinthissector.Usingnationally‐representativedata,thispaperfillsthisgapbydocumentingchangesbetween1990‐2010intheeducationalattainment,compensationandturnoveroftheECCEworkforce.WefindthatthenationalECCEworkforceremainsalow‐education,low‐compensation,andhigh‐turnoverworkforce.Atthesametime,theaverageeducationalattainmentandcompensationofECCEworkersincreasedsubstantiallyoverthepasttwodecadesandturnoverdecreasedsharply.WedocumentamajorshiftinthecompositionoftheECCEworkforcetowardscenter‐basedsettingsandawayfromhome‐basedsettings.Surprisinglyhowever,thisshifttowardsmoreregulatedsettingsisnottheprimarydriveroftheobservedchangesintheECCEworkforce.WeshowthatimprovementsinthecharacteristicsoftheECCEworkforceweredrivenprimarilybychangeswithinsectorsand,contrarytoourexpectations,weshowthatthehome‐basedworkforce,whichfacestheleaststringentregulations,experiencedthemostimprovementovertheperiodexamined,thoughhome‐basedworkersremainsubstantiallydifferentfromformalcareworkers.
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INTRODUCTION
IntheUnitedStates,mostchildrenunderagefivereceiveregularcarebysomeoneotherthantheirparents(U.S.CensusBureau2010;Bassok2010).Earlychildhoodexperiencesplayacentralroleinshapingsubsequentdevelopmentaltrajectories,andtheimpactoftheseearlyexperiencesdependslargelyonthequalityofcaregiversandteachers(ShonkoffandPhillips2000;Peisner‐Feinbergetal.2001;Knudsen,Heckman,CameronandShonkoff2006;HamreandPianta2006;NationalScientificCouncilontheDevelopingChild2004,2007). Growingrecognitionoftheimportanceofearlychildhoodcareandeducation(ECCE)ingeneral,andofECCEprovidersinparticular,hasheightenedpolicyinterestinstrengtheningthequalityoftheECCEworkforce.In2011,thefederalgovernmentfundedtheRacetotheTopEarlyLearningChallenge,acompetitivegrantprogramtosupportstates’effortstoimproveearlychildhoodeducationprograms,andidentified“supportingagreatearlychildhoodeducationworkforce”asoneoffivekeyareasofreform.ThelatestreauthorizationofthefederalHeadStartprogramrequiresthatfiftypercentofHeadStartteachersholdaBachelor’sdegree(BA)inchilddevelopmentorarelatedfieldby2013(Barnettetal.2010).Further,25statesareoperatingordevelopingQualityRatingandImprovementSystems(QRIS)toassessandimprovethequalityofECCE,andmanyoftheseQRISprogramsofferfinancialincentivestoprovidersthatinvestintheiremployees’educationandtraining(Toutetal.2010). Despitetheinterestintheimprovementofthissector,weknowrelativelylittleaboutthecurrentstateoftheECCEworkforce,andevenlessabouttheextenttowhichthisworkforcehaschangedovertime.ItiswelldocumentedthattheECCEworkforceis
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characterizedbylowlevelsofeducation,wagesandstability(Brandon,2011;Howes,PhillipsandWhitebook1992;Cost,QualityandOutcomesStudyTeam1995;NICHDEarlyChildCareResearchNetwork2000;VandellandWolfe2000;CommitteeonEarlyChildhoodCareandEducationWorkforce;InstituteofMedicineandNationalResearchCouncil2012).Forinstance,theaverageannualincomeofpaidECCEworkersin2009rangedfrom$11,500forthoseworkinginachild’shometo$18,000forpreschoolteachers(U.S.GovernmentAccountabilityOffice2012).5However,whilestudieshavedocumentedtheloweducation,wagesandstabilityofECCEworkersusingavarietyofdatasources,thediverseanddispersednatureoftheindustrymakessystematicanalysisdifficult.ArecentreportoftheNationalResearchCouncildescribeshowthelackofcomprehensivedatatrackingthecharacteristicsoftheECCEworkforceseriouslylimitspolicymakers’effortstofacilitatechangeortrackimprovementsovertime(ADDCITATION). Overthepasttwentyyearsutilizationof“formal”ECCEservicessuchaspreschoolandHeadStarthasincreasedrapidly.Thisincreasehasledtoadeclineintheshareofworkersemployedinmore“informal”home‐basedsettings,suchasfamilychildcarehomes(Bassok,FitzpatrickandLoeb2012).Giventhatthehome‐basedsectorfacesmuchlessstringentregulationsthantheformalsector,andisoftensingledoutforprovidingthelowest‐qualitycare–theshifttowardsformalcaremayhavetranslatedintooverallimprovementsintheECCEworkforceovertime.Unfortunately,attemptstodescribetheevolutionoftheECCEworkforcehavebeenlimitedduetothepaucityofdatathatallows
5Educationandturnoverstatisticspresentasimilarpicture.Forinstance,turnoverinCaliforniachildcarecentersbetween1996and2000wasestimatedatabout75percent(Whitebooketal.2001)andanotherstudysurveyingchildcarecentersinIowa,Kansas,NebraskaandMissouri,foundthat40percentofcaregiversintendedtoleavetheECCEindustrywithinlessthanfiveyears(Torquati,RaikesandHuddleston‐Casas2007).
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forreliablecomparisonsoftheworkforceovertime(Saluja,EarlyandClifford2002;BrandonandMartinez‐Beck2006;Kagan,KauerzandTarrant2008). ThefewstudiesthathaveexaminedtheevolutionoftheECCEworkforceovertimeactuallysuggestthatthequalificationsoftheworkforcehaveeitherchangedonlymodestlyorhavedeclined(Whitebooketal.2001;Saluja,EarlyandClifford2002;Herzenberg,PriceandBradley2005;BellmandWhitebook2006).However,thesestudiesdonotemploynationallyrepresentativedataand/orfocusonlyonasinglesectoroftheECCEindustry,typicallychildcarecenters.Thelackofknowledgeaboutchangeswithinthehome‐basedworkforcerepresentsaparticularlyrelevantgapintheliterature,giventhatthissectoraccountsforaboutathirdofthenationalECCEworkforce(U.S.GovernmentAccountabilityOffice2012). Inthispolicybriefwemakeuseofnationally‐representativedatathatencompassworkersinallthreeECCEsectors–centers,homesandschools–toaddressthreequestions:(1)WhatarethecharacteristicsoftheECCEworkforceasof2010?(2)Howdidthecharacteristicsofthisworkforcechangebetween1990and2010?(3)Towhatextentaretheoverallchangesdrivenbyachangeintherelativeimportanceofeachsector(centers,homes,schools),andtowhatextentaretheyexplainedbychangesinthecharacteristicsoftheworkforceswithineachsector?
WefocusonfouroutcomestogaugethewellbeingoftheECCEworkforceandplausiblyproxyforECCEquality:(1)theeducationalattainmentofworkers;(2)theircompensation;(3)theextenttowhichworkersexittheindustryoverayear;and(4)theoccupationalprestigeofthosewhoentertheECCEworkforceeachyearfromotheroccupations.Improvementsalongthesedimensionsarelikelytoreflectanincreasedability
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toattractandretainqualifiedworkersintotheECCEindustry,andinturnmayimplyhigherqualityexperiencesforyoungchildren.6
Wefindthatthe“low‐education,low‐compensation,high‐turnover”characterizationofthenationalECCEworkforcecontinuestobevalid.Atthesametime,weshowthattheaverageeducationalattainmentandcompensationoftheECCEworkforceincreasedbetween1990and2010,andthatturnoverfromtheECCEindustrydecreasedsubstantially.OurresultsdifferfromearlierstudiesthathighlightnegativeorstagnanttrendsintheECCEworkforce.Thesedifferencesarelikelyexplainedbyourfocusonamorerecentperiodofanalysisandouruseofnationaldataincludingworkersfromallthreechildcaresectors.Wealsoshowthatchangesinthecharacteristicsofthenationalworkforcearemostlyexplainedbychangesinthecharacteristicsofworkerswithineachsectorandlesssobytheshifttowardcenter‐andschool‐basedsettings.Surprisingly,wefindthatchangesalongalldimensionsanalyzedweremostpronouncedamonghome‐basedworkers.DATA
WeanalyzedatafromtheMarchSupplementoftheCurrentPopulationSurvey(CPS),anationallyrepresentativehouseholdsurveythatisadministeredeverymonthbytheU.S.
6Whileideallywecouldalsoassesschangesovertimeindirectmeasuresofcaregiverquality,nationaldatatrackingsuchmeasuresovertimearenotavailable.Severalstudieshavesoughttodeterminewhetherthereisacausalrelationshipbetweenourproxiesandthequalityofcarechildrenexperience.Theevidencehereismixed.Asdescribedabove,improvementsinteachers’educationalattainmentareoftenpursuedasastrategytoimprovequality,andsomestudiessuggestthat,oversomerange,higherlevelsofeducationarerelatedtobetterclassroompractices(Blau2000).Ontheotherhand,Early(2007)raisesdoubtsabouttherelationshipbetweenspecificdegreesandchildoutcomes.HigherwagesareassociatedwithbetterclassroompracticesandlowerturnoverfromECCEjobs(Blau2000;WhitebookandSakai2003).Whilewearenotawareofstudiesinvestigatingtheimpactofindustryturnoveronchildren’sdevelopment,thefewstudiesontheroleofjobturnovershowthatchildrenwhospendmoretimewiththeircaregiver,andthosewhodonotexperienceachangeintheprimarycaregiveroverthecourseofayear,establishmorenurturingrelationshipswiththeircaregiverandexhibitbettercognitiveoutcomes(Elicker,Fortner‐WoodandNoppe1999;TranandWinsler2011).
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CensusandtheBureauofLaborStatistics.UsingtheCensus1990and2002IndustryandOccupationalCodes,weidentifyECCEworkersanddisaggregatethisbroadgroupintocenter‐,home‐,andschool‐basedworkers.Wepurposefullyimplementabroadandinclusivedefinitionoftheindustry.Specifically,ourcenter‐basedcategoryincludesallworkerswho(1)arenotself‐employed;(2)workineitherthe“childdaycareservices”industry,orhavechildcareoccupations(e.g.,“childcareworkers”,“pre‐kindergartenorkindergartenteachers”,“earlychildhoodteacher’sassistants”);and(3)workinanindustryotherthan“elementaryandsecondaryschools”,“privatehouseholds”,“individualandfamilyservices”,or“familychildcarehomes”.7Ourdefinitionofthehome‐basedECCEworkforceincludes(1)allself‐employedindividualswhoreportthattheyworkinthe“childdaycareservices”industry;(2)allthoseemployedinthe“familychildcarehomes”industry;(3)thosewhohavechildcareoccupations(e.g.,“childcareworkers”,“privatehouseholdchildcareworkers”,“pre‐kindergartenorkindergartenteachers”,“earlychildhoodteacher’sassistants”)andareemployedinthe“privatehouseholds”or“individualandfamilyservices”industries;and(4)thosewhohavechildcareoccupationsandareself‐employedinotherindustriesexceptfor“elementaryandsecondaryschools”.8Finally,wedefinetheschool‐basedECCEworkforceas“pre‐kindergartenandkindergartenteachers”and“earlychildhoodteacherassistants”employedinthe“elementaryandsecondaryschools”industry.WeobservewhethereachrespondentwasanECCEworkerin
7Onaverageovertheperiod1990‐2010,82.8percentofindividualsidentifiedascenter‐basedECCEworkerswereemployedinthe“childdaycareservices”industry;theremaining17.2percentwereinotherindustries.8Our“home‐basedworkforce”includesallindividualswhotakecareofarelative,friend,orneighbor’schild,whoreportthistobetheirjob.TheCPSreliesonself‐reportsandsomerelatives,friendsandneighborswhoassumechildcareresponsibilitiesmaynotreportthisasajobandwillthereforebeexcludedfromouranalysis.Totheextentthatthosewhofailtoreporttheiremploymentmaydifferinimportantwayfromthosewhodoidentifythisway,ourcharacterizationmaysufferfrombias.
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theweekofreferenceandwhethertheirlongestjobinthepreviouscalendaryearwasanECCEjob. Theworkforcecharacteristicsthatweanalyzearemeasuredasfollows:Educationalattainment:TheCPScollectsinformationabouteachhouseholdmember’shighestlevelofeducationasoftheweekofreference.Inkeepingwithpriorstudies,wedescribechangesintheshareofECCEworkerswithlessthanahighschooldegree,exactlyahighschooldegree,atleastsomecollegeeducationbutnoBA,andatleastaBA.9 Compensation:Weobserveeachindividual’sannualearningsfromthelongestjobheldinthepreviouscalendaryear.WedescribethemeanannualearningsofthosewhosemainjobinthepreviouscalendaryearwasanECCEjob.Wealsoestimatethehourlyearningsoftheseworkers,buthererestrictouranalysistothosewhowerefull‐yearworkersinthepreviouscalendaryear.10Weexpressbothearningsvariablesin2010dollars. Individualsalsoreportwhetheranyemployerhelpedpayforapensionand/orhealthplaninthepreviouscalendaryear.WeusethisinformationtoconstructtheshareofECCEworkersthatreceivedthisnon‐salaryformofcompensation.HerewerestrictoursampletoworkerswhosemainjobinthepreviouscalendaryearwasanECCEjob,and,in
9Informationoneducationalattainmentisavailablefrom1992to2010.Mostotherworkforcecharacteristicsareavailablefor1990to2010.Theexceptionisinformationonearningsandbenefitsavailablefrom1990to2009.10WemakethisrestrictionbecausetheCPScollectsinformationabouthourlywagesonlyforasubsampleoftheMarch intervieweeswhich excludes all self‐employed individuals, thus excluding a largeproportion ofhome‐basedworkers.Ratherthanexcludinghome‐basedworkersinouranalysis,weestimatedhourlywagesofECCEworkersbasedontheirannualearningsandtheirreportedhoursworkedinatypicalweek.Becausethe CPS does not specify the number of weeks worked in the past year, we limited analysis to full‐yearworkersforwhomweassumed50weeksofwork(seetechnicalappendixformoredetails). NotethatourestimatesthereforeapplyonlytothoseECCEworkerswhowereemployedonafull‐yearbasis(i.e.thosewhoworked 9months ormore). These represent 46 and65 percent of thoseworkerswho in1990 and 2010,respectively,reportedthattheirmainjobinthepreviousyearhadbeenanECCEjob.Thesubsetoffull‐yearECCE workers appears to be slightly more educated than the aggregate ECCE workforce, although thedifferencesbetweenthetwogroupsarenotstatisticallysignificant.Still,ourestimationmayoverestimatethehourlyearningsoftheaggregateworkforce.
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ordertobesurethebenefitswerereceivedfromanECCEemployer,includeonlythoseworkerswhoreportedtheyhadonlyoneemployerinthepreviouscalendaryear.11 Year‐to‐yearindustryturnover:Tomeasurechildcareindustryturnoverrates,weexploitthefactthattheCPSprovidesinformationaboutanindividual’sindustryandoccupationbothintheweekofreferenceandforthelongestjobheldinthepreviouscalendaryear.AmongindividualswhosemainjobinthepreviouscalendaryearwasanECCEjob,weestimatetheindustryturnoverrateastheshareofthosewhowerenolongerintheECCEworkforceduringtheweekofreference.AnanalogousmethodisusedbyHarrisandAdams(2007)tomeasureturnoverfromelementaryandsecondaryteaching.WecancalculateindustryturnoverwiththeCPSfrom1990to2010.OurmeasureonlycaptureswhetherindividualsremainedintheECCEworkforce;amongthosethatremain,wecannotdistinguishwhetherindividualschangedjobs.Thus,year‐to‐yearindustryturnoverisalowerboundestimateofthelevelofinstabilityexperiencedbychildren. OccupationalprestigeofentrantsintotheECCEworkforce:Wecombinetheinformationonaworker’soccupationprovidedbytheCPSwiththewidelyusedmethodologydevelopedbyCharlesNamandcolleagues(Nam2000;NamandBoyd2004),tocreateavariablethatassignseachnewentranttotheECCEworkforceascorebasedontheoccupationalprestigeoftheirpreviousjob.Aparticularoccupation’sprestigescoreisconstructedbycomparingthemedianearningsandeducationalattainmentofworkersinthatoccupationvis‐à‐vistheearningsandeducationofworkersinallotheroccupations.An
11AmongallworkerswhosemainjobinthepreviouscalendaryearwasanECCEjob,theproportionwhohadonlyoneemployerincreasedfrom75percentin1990to84percentin2010.Throughoutthewholeperiod,theseworkers earnabout5%more than thosewhosemain job in theprevious calendar yearwasalso anECCE jobbutwhohadmore thanoneemployer.Thusouranalysismayoverestimate theshareofworkerswithnon‐salarybenefitsintheaggregateECCEworkforce.
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occupation’sscorecanrangefrom0to100,andreflectsthepercentageofindividualsinthelaborforcewhoareinoccupationswithcombinedlevelsofeducationandearningsbelowthatoccupation.WeusethesescorestoexaminetheaverageoccupationalstatusofindividualswhosemainjobinthecalendaryearbeforethesurveywasoutsidetheECCEindustry,butwhowereECCEworkersintheweekofreference.IncreasesinthisoccupationalmeasureovertimeimplythatthosewhoareenteringtheECCEworkforcearecomingfrombettereducatedandbetterpaidoccupationsthanthosewhowereenteringtheworkforceinpreviousyears. Asresearchershavelongpointedout,existingdatasetsfailtofullyandaccuratelycapturethecomplexityoftheECCEworkforceovertime(CommitteeonEarlyChildhoodCareandEducationWorkforce;InstituteofMedicineandNationalResearchCouncil2012;Bellm&Whitebook,2006;PhillipsandWhitebook,1986).AlthoughtheCPSiswell‐suitedfornationallyrepresentativeanalysistrackingtrendsovertime,ithasanumberofkeylimitations:(1)itreliesonself‐reporteddataonemployment,andthereforelikelyexcludesmanyunpaidECCEworkersandsomepaidfamily,friendsandneighborswhotakecareofchildrenbutdonotreportchildcareastheiroccupation;(2)itdoesnotenableustodistinguishbetweenpreschoolandkindergartenteachers,ormoregenerally,todistinguishECCEworkersbytheageofthechildrentheyserve;and(3)itdoesnotcollectdetaileddatathatarerelevanttocharacterizeECCEworkers,suchasthelevelofECCE‐specifictraining,theresponsibilitiestheyhave,orthequalityoftheirinteractionwithchildren.Wereturntotheselimitationsindiscussingthegeneralizabilityofourresults.METHODS
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Toaddressourfirstandsecondresearchquestions,wepresentthevariablesofinterestin2010,anddiscusstheirchangeovertheperiod1990‐2010.WeassesswhethertrendsintheECCEworkforcedifferfrombroadertrendsintheeconomybycomparingchangesinthatworkforcetochangesamongtwocomparisongroups:allfemaleworkersandlow‐wageworkers.12Toaddressthethirdresearchquestion,twosetsofsimulationsallowustodisentangletheextenttowhichtheoverallchangesintheECCEworkforceareexplainedbyanincreaseintherelativesizeofthemoreregulatedECCEsectorsorbychangesintheworkforcewithineachsector.13GiventherelativelysmallsamplesizeoftheCPSineachyear,forallanalysesweusethree‐yearmovingaveragestoincreasetheprecisionofourestimates.RESULTS
TheECCEworkforceasof2010
Wefindthatthe“low‐education,low‐compensation,high‐turnover”labelcontinuestobeavalidcharacterizationofthe2.2millionECCEworkersrepresentedinoursample.AsshowninTable1Table1,in2010,nearly40percentoftheECCEworkforcehadatmosta
12 FemaleworkersarearelevantcomparisongroupasfemalescomprisethevastmajorityofECCEworkers.Basedonourcalculations,over95percentofECCEworkersovertheperiodofanalysiswerewomen.Thelow‐wageworkercomparisonincludesworkersfromthemainindustriesfromwhichECCEworkerscomewhentheyenterthechildcareindustry,aswellastowhichECCEworkersmigratewhentheyleavetheECCEworkforce.Weconsiderthefollowingindustries:beautysalons,foodservices,entertainmentandrecreationservices,grocerystores,departmentstores,andnon‐teachingjobsinelementaryandsecondaryschools(e.g.,busdrivers,cooks,janitors,teacheraides,secretariesandadministrativeassistants).Together,overthefullperiodofthestudy,theseindustriesrepresentaboutathirdofmigrationfromanotherindustryintochildcare,andfromchildcaretoanotherindustry. 13 First,weestimatewhattheoverallchangeintheECCEworkforce’scharacteristicswouldhavebeenhadthedistributionoftheworkforceacrossthethreesectors(center,homesandschools)changedasitdid,butassumingthatthecharacteristicsofworkerswithineachsectorremainedthesameasin1990.Then,toestimatethepartoftheoverallchangethatisdrivenbychangesinthecharacteristicsofworkerswithineachsector,weestimatewhattheoverallchangeintheworkforce’scharacteristicswouldhavebeenhadthecharacteristicsoftheworkerswithineachofthesectorschangedastheydid,butassumingthedistributionoftheworkforceacrossthesectorsremainedthesameasin1990.TheequationsusedforthesesimulationsareprovidedintheTechnicalAppendix.
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highschooldegreeandathirdoftheworkforcehadsomecollegebutnoBachelor’sdegree.In2009,theaverageECCEworkerearnedanannualincomeof$16,215andanhourlywageof$11.7,andonly28percentofECCEworkersreceivedapensionand/orhealthbenefitsfromtheiremployer.14Worryingly,aboutafourthofthoseworkerswhohadbeenemployedintheECCEindustryin2009werenolongerthatindustryby2010.Further,ouranalysisoftheoccupationalprestigeofentrantssuggeststhatECCEwasarelativelyunattractiveindustrytoenterin2010,attractingindividualsfromoccupationsthatonaveragehadlowerlevelsofeducationandearningsthanthreefifthsofthecountry’slaborforce. ThedisaggregatedresultsshowninTable2highlightstarkdifferencesacrosssectors.In2010,about56percentofECCEworkerswereemployedincenter‐basedsettings;26percent,inhome‐basedsettings;and18percent,inschools.Consistentwithevidencefrompriorstudies,wefindthattheschool‐basedworkforceexhibitsthehighestlevelsofformaleducation,compensation,andstability,whilethehome‐basedworkforceexhibitsthelowest.Thecenter‐basedworkforcefallsinthemiddle,butismoresimilartothehome‐basedthantotheschool‐basedworkforce.Forinstance,17.1percentofschool‐basedworkershaveatmostahigh‐schooldegree.Thisproportionascendsto39.8percentand50.7percentamongcenter‐andhome‐basedworkers,respectively.Similarly,whileschool‐basedworkersearnanaverageannualincomeof$27,014,centerworkersearnonaveragejustoverhalfthisamount($14,567)andtheannualearningsofhome‐basedworkersareevenlower($12,415).Finally,while13.6percentofthosewhowereschool‐
14 Recall also that these figures likely overestimate the true compensation of the full ECCE workforce, due to our sampling restrictions (e.g. hourly wages are calculated based on full‐year workers, benefits are calculated based on workers with only one job in the past year).
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basedECCEworkersin2009hadlefttheECCEindustryby2010,theindustryturnoverrateamongcenter‐andhome‐basedworkersin2010was24.4and28.5percent,respectively.ChangesinthecharacteristicsoftheECCEworkforcein1990‐2010
Theverylowlevelsofformaleducation,compensationandstabilityamongtheECCEworkforcewarrantconcern.However,asTable1indicates,wealsofindmeaningfulsignsofimprovement.Infact,amongtheECCEworkforceasawholeweshowthatallofthecharacteristicsanalyzed–education,compensation,turnoverandprestigeofentrants–exhibitedsignificantandsubstantialchangesinthedirectionhypothesizedtoimproveECCEquality.15
AsshowninFigure1Figure1,theshareofECCEworkerswithatleastsomecollegeeducationrosefrom47to62percentbetween1992and2010.Meanannualearningsincreasedby51percent,from$10,746to$16,215between1990and2009.WhilepartofthisincreasewasdrivenbyanincreaseinthenumberofhoursworkedbyECCEworkers,16themeanhourlyearningsofECCEworkersalsoincreasedsubstantiallyoverthatperiod(by33percent,from$8.8to$11.7perhour),andsodidtheshareofECCEworkerswithemployer‐paidpensionand/orhealthbenefits(from19to28percent).AnnualturnoverfromtheECCEindustrydecreasedsubstantiallyovertheperiodofanalysis(from32.9percentin1990to23.6percentin2010).Finally,individualswhomovedintochildcarefromotheroccupationsin2010camefromsomewhatmoreprestigiousoccupationsthanthosewhomovedintochildcarein1990.TheaverageoccupationalprestigescoreofECCE 15Thechangesineducationalattainment,compensationandindustryturnoverthatwediscussthroughoutarestatisticallysignificantlydifferentfromzeroatthe5percentlevel.ChangesintheoccupationalprestigescoreofECCEentrantsaresignificantlydifferentfromzeroatthe15percentlevel.NotethattheanalysisofaverageoccupationalprestigescoresappliesonlytoindividualswhoenteredtheECCEworkforceinagivenyear.Thisisaverysmallsample,soweevaluatesignificanceatthe5,10and15percentlevels.16Themeanhoursworkedperweekincreasedfrom29.9to31.8between1990and2010.
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entrantsincreasedby4.7percentilepointsoverthisperiod,from37.6to42.3,perhapsindicatinganimprovementintheECCEindustry’sabilitytoattractmorequalifiedworkers. ThechangesobservedamongtheECCEworkforcedonotsimplyreflecttrendsinthefemalelaborforceand/orinlow‐wageindustries.Comparedtofemaleworkers,theECCEworkforceexhibitedalargerincreaseincompensationandasteeperdeclineinindustryturnover;andcomparedtolow‐wageworkers,allvariablesexhibitedalargerimprovementamongECCEworkers.Further,thechangesobservedreflectastabletrendwithintheindustryandarenottheproductoftheeconomiccrisisthatbeganin2008.17Sector‐specificchanges?
InTable2weshowthattheoverallimprovementsseeninthisworkforcearedrivenbyimprovementsamonghome‐basedworkers,andtoalesserextentcenter‐basedworkers.Inthehome‐basedsector,theaverageeducationalattainment,compensationandindustryturnoverofworkersimprovedsignificantlyandsubstantiallyovertheperiodofanalysis.Withrespecttoeducationalattainment,therewasasignificantincreaseintheshareofworkerswithatleastsomecollege(by21.4percentagepoints(p.p.)),andasignificantdecreaseintheshareofworkerswithlessthanahighschooldegree(by17.8p.p.).Theaverageannualandhourlyearningsofhome‐basedworkersincreasedby92and50percent,respectively,andtheshareofhome‐basedworkerswithpensionorhealthbenefitsroseaswell(by4.5p.p.).Finally,industryturnoverdeclinedamonghome‐basedworkers(by8.4p.p.,from36.9percentin1990to28.5in2010).
17OneplausiblehypothesisisthattheobservedimprovementsinECCEworkers’qualificationsandstabilityaretheproductoftheeconomiccrisis.However,insupplementaryanalysisavailableuponrequest,weexploredwhethertherewerechangesintrendsfollowingtheeconomiccrisisthatbeganin2008.Wefindnoevidencetosupportthisclaimand,ifanything,ourresultssuggestthattheimprovementinECCEworkers’characteristicswasstalledorreversedduringthecrisisperiod.
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Changeswithinthecenter‐basedsectoralsosuggestimprovementsovertime,butthesechangesareofasmallermagnitude.Forinstance,between1990and2009,theaverageannualearningsamongcenter‐basedECCEworkersincreasedby35percentandaveragehourlyearningsroseby18percent.Industryturnoverratedroppedsignificantly,from34percentin1990to24.4percentin2010.Othercharacteristicsappeartochangeinadirectionconsistentwithimprovement,althoughthechangesarenotstatisticallysignificant.Differencesremainbetweenthesectorswithrespecttoallthecharacteristicsanalyzed,butthepronouncedchangeswithinthehome‐basedsectorimplyanarrowingofthegapwithrespecttotheothertwosectors.Expansionofformalcareasanexplanationforgains?
AsshowninthefourthpanelofFigure1,between1990and2010therewasasignificantchangeintherelativeimportantoftheECCEsectorsinaccountingforthesizeoftheaggregateworkforce.Therelativeimportanceofhome‐basedworkersdeclinedsharply(by21.8p.p.),compensatedmostlybyanincreaseintherelativeimportanceofcenter‐basedworkers(by17.5p.p.).Althoughtherelativeimportanceofschool‐basedworkersincreasedonlyslightly(by4.3p.p.),thenumberofworkersinthissectorincreasedby45percentoverthistimeperiod,atrendconsistentwithboththeexpansionofstatepre‐kindergartenprogramsandtheshifttowardsfull‐daykindergartens.Thenumberofcenter‐basedworkersalsoincreaseddramatically(by61percent),whilethenumberofhome‐basedworkersdecreased(by39percent).ThisredistributionofECCEworkersfromchildcarehomestocentersandschoolsisconsistentwiththerecentdeclineintheshareofchildrenunderagefivewhosemainchildcarearrangementisinahomesetting(U.S.CensusBureau2010).
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Asdiscussedabove,home‐basedworkershavefarlowerlevelsofeducationandcompensationandhigherlevelsofindustryturnoverthandocenter‐orschool‐basedworkers.Thedeclineintherelativeimportanceofhome‐basedworkersisoneplausibleexplanationfortheobservedincreaseintheeducationalattainment,compensationandstabilityofthenationalECCEworkforce.However,changesinthesecharacteristicswithinsectorsarealsorelevant–and,infact,morerelevantthanthechangesinthedistributiontheworkforceacrosssectors.
WedecomposeaggregatechangesintheECCEworkforceintothepartexplainedbytheexpansionoftheformalsectorandthepartexplainedbychangesinthecharacteristicsofworkerswithinthesectors.WepresenttheestimationsinPanelAofTable3.Whilebothfactorscontributetotheoverallchange,formostvariables(educationalattainment,annualandhourlywages,andindustryturnover),changeswithinthesectorsexplainmostoftheaggregateimprovement,withchangesintherelativeimportanceofthesectorsexplainingonlyasmallportionoftheoverallimprovement.Forexample,increasesinearningswithinsectorsexplain78percentoftheoverallincreaseinannualearnings,whiletheredistributionofworkersacrosssectorsexplainsonly22percent.Similarly,within‐sectorchangesexplain86percentofthedeclineinindustryturnover.
Further,asreportedinPanelBofTable3,changeswithinthehome‐basedworkforceexplainmostofthechangeineducationalattainmentandearningsthatisattributabletowithin‐sectorchanges.Indeed,improvementswithinthehome‐basedsectordriveovertwothirdsoftheincreasesintheECCEworkforce’seducationalattainment.DISCUSSION
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ThispolicybriefhighlightsthecurrentstateoftheECCEworkforceandexploreswhetherthisworkforcehasexperiencedmeaningfulchangesoveraperiodcharacterizedbyheightenedinterestandinvestmentinearlychildhoodprograms.Echoingearlierwork,wefindthatthislaborforcecontinuestobecharacterizedbyverylowlevelsofeducation,compensationandstability.However,wealsoshowthatboththeeducationalattainmentandthecompensationoftheECCEworkforceincreasedmeaningfullybetween1990and2010andthatturnoverfromtheECCEindustrydecreasedsubstantially.Takentogetherthefindingsaremixed,highlightingbothimprovementsovertimeandthepersistenceoftroublingissues.Forexample,ourdatashowthatin1992ECCEworkerswithaBAearned47percentlessthanelementaryschoolteacherswiththesameeducationallevel.DespitethesignificantincreasesinbotheducationalattainmentandearningsamongECCEworkersthatwedocumentinthispaper,in2009ECCEworkersstillearned38percentlessthanelementaryschoolteachers.Givenourincreasedunderstandingoftheimportanceofearlychildhoodinterventionsandofhigh‐qualityECCEproviders,thesepatternsareconcerning.However,thepositivetrendswedocumentsuggestthatsubstantialchangesinthisworkforceareinfacttakingplace. Itisworthnotingthatthepositivetrendswedocumentdiffersignificantlyfromthosereportedinpriorstudies,whichdocumentadeclineormodestchangeintheeducationalattainmentandcompensationoftheECCEworkforce.Oneexplanationisthatpriorstudieshavegenerallyfocusedonthecenter‐basedworkforceandhavenotaccountedfortheevolutionofthehome‐basedworkforce,wherewefindmeaningfulimprovements(Whitebooketal.2001;Saluja,EarlyandClifford2002;Herzenberg,PriceandBradley2005;BellmandWhitebook2006).
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Asecondexplanationisthatourstudymakesuseofmorecurrentdatathanearlierwork.Forinstance,anearlierstudythatreliesonthesamedatausedherebuttracksthecenter‐basedworkforceonlythrough2003reportsadeclineintheproportionofthatworkforcethatholdsaBA(Herzenberg,PriceandBradley2005).Wereplicatethatfindinghere,butshowthatbetween2004and2010thistrendisreversed.Overallwedonotobservesignificantchanges(eitherincreasesordecreases)intheeducationalattainmentofthecenter‐basedworkforceovertheperiod1990‐2010,butdocumentsignificantimprovementsinthecompensationandstabilityofthisworkforce. WealsodocumentadramaticreconfigurationoftheECCEworkforce,suchthatthemajorityofworkersnowworkinformalratherthanhome‐basedsettings.Surprisingly,however,weshowthattheshiftawayfromhome‐basedcareandtowardscenter‐basedsettingsisnottheprimaryexplanationfortheimprovementsobservedintheindustryatlarge.Infact,mostoftheimprovementsintheECCEworkforceareexplainedbywithin‐sectorimprovementsinthecharacteristicsofworkers.Further,whilethecenter‐basedworkforceexhibitedsignificantincreasesinearningsandaremarkabledeclineinindustryturnover,improvementswithinthehome‐basedworkforceweretheprimarydriveroftheincreaseintheeducationalattainmentandearningsoftheaggregateECCEworkforce. Thesefindings–thattheoverallimprovementoftheECCEworkforcewasprimarilydrivenbyimprovementswithinthehome‐basedworkforce–aresurprisinginlightofthepolicyemphasisonexpandingandimprovingformalizedECCEsettingssuchaspreschoolsandpre‐kindergartenprogramsoverinformalsettings.Improvementswithinthehome‐basedworkforcemaybetheresultofrecenteffortstoincreasethequalificationsandstabilityoftheseworkers.Forinstance,recentinitiativesrewardparticipationin
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professionaldevelopmentandtheacquisitionoffurthereducation;supplementthewagesofhome‐basedworkerstoensuretheymeetalocally‐determinedminimumlivingwage,andfacilitatetheprovisionofemployer‐sponsoredhealthplansbypoolingtogetherworkersfromdifferentchildcarecentersandhomes(Kagan,KauerzandTarrant2008).Still,furtherstudyisneededtounderstandwhathasdriventheobservedimprovementintheeducation,compensationandstabilityofhome‐basedworkers,tounderstandhowtocontinuethispositiveandunexpectedtrend.Studylimitations
WhilethecurrentstudyprovidesnewevidenceaboutthecurrentstatusoftheECCEworkforceanditschangingnatureoverthepasttwodecades,theCPSwasnotdesignedtostudytheECCEindustryandseveralofitslimitationsareworthhighlighting:
First,theCPS,whilecommonlyusedinanalysesofworkers,reliesonself‐reporteddata.TotheextentthatcertainsegmentsoftheECCEworkforcearelesslikelytoreporttheiremployment,ourestimateswillnotaccuratelygeneralizetotheECCEworkforceinitsentirety.Further,ifthesenon‐reportershavelowerearningsandeducationalattainmentthandootherworkers,ourfindingswilloverestimateconditionsinthisindustry,atroublingpointgiventhealreadylowlevelswedocument.Whileweareunabletoassesstheextentofnon‐reportinginoursample,itislikelyweexcludesomeportionoftheinformalsectorincludingunpaidworkers,paidworkerswhodonotreporttaxes,orpaidfamily,friendsandneighborswhodespiteassumingchildcareresponsibilitiesdonotreportitasajob.Theseinformalsettingsrepresentameaningfulportionofthemarket,andmorenuanceddataarenecessarytobetterunderstandthecompositionofthisgroup.
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Second,theCPSdoesnotprovidedirectmeasuresofcarequalityandthuscannotbeusedtoassesswhetherandhowmoreproximalmeasuresofcarequalityhavechanged.WhileouroutcomesprovideaclearpictureoftheeconomicstatusoftheECCEworkforce,animportantissueinitsownright,ultimatelypolicymakerswishtoimproveearlychildhoodexperiencesforchildrenandtherelationshipbetweeneachofthesemeasuresandcarequalityisnotaswellunderstoodaswewouldlike.Itisdifficulttoknow,forexample,towhatextentchangesinearningsovertimeamounttobettercareforyoungchildren.WehaveinterpretedourfindingsasindicativeofimprovementsinthequalityoftheECCEworkforce,butacompetinghypothesisisthattheincreaseinECCEworkers’compensationandthereductionofturnoverreflectanincreaseinthedemandforECCEservices,withoutacorrespondingimprovementintheactualqualityoftheseworkers.Additionalworkinvestigatingthelinkbetweenstructuralmeasuressuchastheonesavailableinadministrativedatasetswouldhelphere.
Third,ourstatisticalinferencesarelimitedbyoursmallsamplesize.EachMarch,theCPSsurveysaround670center‐basedworkers,530home‐basedworkersand230school‐basedECCEworkers.Usingthree‐yearmovingaverages,wewereabletodescribetheevolutionofthecenter‐andhome‐basedworkforceswithreasonableprecision.However,oursamplesizewastoosmalltomakereliableinferencesabouttheevolutionoftheschool‐basedworkforce.
Finally,theCPScannotbeusedtodistinguishbetweenECCEworkerswhoworkwithinfantsandtoddlers,andthosewhoworkwithpreschoolers.Similarlyweareunabletodistinguishbetweenpre‐kindergartenandkindergartenemployees.Datathatallowsfor
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thesetypesofdelineationswouldbetterallowustounpacktrendsandbegintounderstandthemechanismsdrivingthesepatterns.Conclusion
WhileourfindingsechootherrecentworkonthelowlevelsofearningsandeducationwithintheECCEworkforce,ourfindingsalsoshedanoptimisticlightonthepossibilityofpositiveimprovements.Weshowthatthequalifications,compensationandstabilityoftheECCEworkforcecanimprove,andinfacthaveimprovedmeaningfullyoverthepasttwodecades.ThedeclineinturnoverfromtheECCEindustryhasbeenparticularlymarked.Whilesomedegreeofturnovermaybedesirableinordertoreplaceineffectiveworkers,theannualECCEindustryturnoverratein1990was32.9percent,roughlythreetimeshigherthantheindustryturnoverrateof11percentobservedamongelementaryandsecondaryeducationteachers.By2010,however,thegapbetweenthetwohadnarrowedsignificantly,owingtothereductioninturnoveramongECCEworkers.Toourknowledge,oursisthefirststudytolookattheevolutionofturnoverforanationallyrepresentativesampleoftheECCEworkforce.Whileweareunabletoobservejobturnover,whichisamoreproximalmeasureoftheinstabilitychildrenexperience,industryturnoverisanimportantmeasureinitsownright,showingthatindividualsarestayingwithintheindustrylongerthantheydidinthepastwhichmaytranslatetopositiveoutcomesforchildrenandmayindicatethatearlychildhoodjobsaremoreattractivethantheyoncewere. TheimprovementswehaveidentifiedforECCEworkershavetakenplacewithinboththecenter‐andhome‐basedsectors,whichtogetheraccountforovereightypercentoftheworkforce.Improvementswithinhome‐basedchildcarehavebeenparticularly
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remarkable.Totheextentthatthecharacteristicsweanalyzedare,infact,proxiesofECCEquality,ourfindingsimplyanarrowinginthequalitygapbetweenhome‐basedandothermoreformalizedtypesofchildcare.Thisfindingisimportantbecauseasrecentlyas2005,thehome‐basedsector,historicallysingledoutasthelowest‐qualitysectorwithinchildcare,servedaroundfortypercentofchildrenunderfiveyearswhosemotherswereemployed(U.S.CensusBureau2010),andthereissomeevidencethatitisthepreferredtypeofarrangementamongHispanicfamilies(Fuller,HollowayandLiang1996;Liang,FullerandSinger2000;Fuller2008).Putdifferently,workersinchildcarehomesremainsubstantiallylessqualifiedthanworkersintheformalchildcaresector,butthetrendsweobservesuggestthatclosingthequalitygapbetweenthesectorsispossible.
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Figure1.EvolutionofselectedcharacteristicsoftheECCEworkforce,andoftherelativeimportanceofeachECCEsector,overtime(1990‐2010)
0
5
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20
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
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1997
1998
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2003
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2005
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2009
Mean hourly earnings of full‐year ECCE workers, by sector, 1990‐2009(at 2010 dollars)
All ECCE workers
School‐based worker
Center‐based worker
Home‐based worker
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40
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
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ECCE industry turnover rate by sector, 1990‐2010(% of workers who left the industry from one year to the next)
All ECCE workers
School‐based worker
Center‐based worker
Home‐based worker
0
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20
30
40
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60
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100
1992
1993
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2005
2006
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2008
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2010
Share of ECCE workers with at least some college education, by sector, 1990‐2009(as a % of ECCE workers in each sector)
All ECCE workers
School‐based worker
Center‐based workers
Home‐based workers
0
10
20
30
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50
6019
9019
9119
9219
9319
9419
9519
9619
9719
9819
9920
0020
0120
0220
0320
0420
0520
0620
0720
0820
0920
10
Distribution of the ECCE workforce across sectors, 1990‐2010(as a % of all ECCE workers)
School‐based worker
Center‐based worker
Home‐based worker
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Table1.EvolutionoftheECCEworkforce,andcomparisontofemaleandlow‐wageworkers(1990‐2010)
1992 2010 2010 vs . 1992
Distribution of the workforce by educational attainmentECCE workersLess than high school 21.4 11.5 ‐9.9 *High school degree 31.5 26.9 ‐4.6 *Some col lege or Associate's degree 26.1 33.3 7.2 *At least a Bachelor's degree 20.9 28.4 7.5 *
Female workersLess than high school 11.5 8.1 ‐3.4 *High school degree 36.0 26.4 ‐9.6 *Some col lege or Associate's degree 29.2 31.9 2.7 *At least a Bachelor's degree 23.2 33.6 10.4 *
Low‐wage workersLess than high school 20.5 17.0 ‐3.5 *High school degree 38.9 33.5 ‐5.4 *Some col lege or Associate's degree 26.7 31.1 4.4 *At least a Bachelor's degree 13.9 18.4 4.5 *
1990 2009 2009 vs . 1990
Mean annual earnings of all workers (at 2010 dollars)ECCE workers 10,746 16,215 51% *Female workers 24,427 30,629 25% *Low‐wage workers 18,266 21,298 17% *
Mean hourly earnings of full‐year workers (at 2010 dollars)ECCE workers 8.8 11.7 33% *Female workers 16.3 19.0 17% *Low‐wage workers 13.4 14.2 6% *
Share of workers with pension and/or health benefits paid at least partly by the employECCE workers 19.0 28.0 9.0 *Female workers 56.4 57.9 1.5 *Low‐wage workers 42.5 42.2 ‐0.3
1990 2010 2010 vs . 1990
Industry turnover rateECCE workers 32.9 23.6 ‐9.3 *Female workers 24.7 17.9 ‐6.8 *Low‐wage workers 26.5 19.1 ‐7.4 *
Average occupational prestige in the year before entering the workforceECCE workforce enterers 37.6 42.3 4.7Low‐wage workforce enterers 41.8 42.0 0.2
* denotes change with respect to 1990 or 1992 is statistically significantly different from zero at the 5% level. Changes in the share of workers by educational attainment, the share with pension and/or health benefits, and the industry turnover rate are measured in percentage points; changes in annual and hourly earnings, as a percent change; and changes in the average occupational prestige score of those entering the ECCE workforce, in percentiles.Source: Authors based on the March Supplement of the Current Population Survey.
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Table2.EvolutionoftheECCEworkforcebysector(1990‐2010)
1992 2010 1992 2010 1992 2010
Less than high school 12.3 9.8 37.6 19.8 * 5.3 5.1High school degree 32.7 30.0 34.5 30.9 20.6 12.0 *Some col lege or Associate's degree 33.3 36.6 21.8 34.3 * 17.5 21.7At least a Bachelor's degree 21.6 23.7 6.1 15.0 * 56.6 61.2
1990 2009 1990 2009 1990 2009
Mean annual earnings of all workers (at 2010 dollars)
10,809 14,567 * 6,480 12,415 * 24,191 27,014
Mean hourly earnings of full‐year workers (at 2010 dollars)
9.2 10.9 * 5.6 8.9 * 17.5 18.2
Share of workers with pension and/or health benefits paid at least partly by the employer
20.4 24.5 3.1 7.6 * 64.3 68.8
1990 2010 1990 2010 1990 2010
Industry turnover rate 34.0 24.4 * 36.9 28.5 * 15.9 13.6
Average occupational prestige in the year before entering the ECCE workforce
41.3 44.6 32.3 33.4 51.4 54.1
Center‐based workers Home‐based workers School‐based workers
Distribution of the workforce by educational attainment
* denotes change with respect to 1990 or 1992 is statistically significantly different from zero at the 5% level. Source: Authors based on the March Supplement of the Current Population Survey.
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Table3.DecompositionoftheoverallchangesinthecharacteristicsoftheECCEworkforce(1990‐2010)
Center‐based workers
Home‐based workers
School‐based workers
Less than high school ‐8.8 (65%) ‐4.7 (35%) 12% 88% 0%High school degree ‐4.0 (84%) ‐0.8 (16%) 28% 39% 32%Some col lege or Associate's degree 7.4 (84%) 1.4 (16%) 19% 73% 8%At least a Bachelor's degree 5.4 (58%) 3.9 (42%) 16% 71% 13%
Mean annual earnings of all workers (at 2010 dollars) 42% (78%) 12% (22%) 37% 55% 8%
Mean hourly earnings of full‐year workers (at 2010 dollars) 25% (72%) 10% (28%) 35% 60% 4%
Share of workers with pension and/or health benefits paid at least partly by the employer
4.3 (48%) 4.7 (52%) 41% 45% 14%
Industry turnover rate ‐8.1 (86%) ‐1.3 (14%) 53% 44% 4%
Average occupational prestige in the year before entering the ECCE workforce
2.1 (49%) 2.1 (51%) 58% 28% 14%
2009 vs . 1990
2010 vs . 1990
2010 vs . 1992
2009 vs . 1990
2010 vs . 1990
Panel ASector contributions to the part of the change attributable to changes in the
characteristics of workers within the sectors
Change attributable to changes in the characteristics of workers within the sectors
Change attributable to changes in the distribution of
workers across sectors
Distribution of the workforce by educational attainment
Panel B
2010 vs . 1992
Changes in the share of workers by educational attainment, the share with pension and/or health benefits, and the industry turnover rate are measured in percentage points; changes in annual and hourly earnings, as a percent change; and changes in the average occupational prestige score of those entering the ECCE workforce, in percentiles. Source: Authors based on the March Supplement of the Current Population Survey.
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