Work Motivation~·· in Organizational

r Behavior

Second Edition

Craig c. Pinder University of Victoria, British Columbia

'P ~~I~~~~~i?G~! Press NEW YORK AND HOVE

Contents

r _ Foreword by Lyman W Porter ix xi Preface

PART ONE How Theories of Work Motivation are Developed

1 Work Motivation, Productivity, and the Economy

2 Methods of Inquiry in Work Motiyation Theory and Research

PART TWO Alternative Models of Human Functioning

3 Human Nature: Needs and Values as Motives at Work

4 Human Nature: Affect and Emotions as Motives to Work

5 Power, Love, and Sex as Motives at Work

6 Social Motives and Self-Esteem as Motives at Work

7 Job Design as a Contextual Source of Work Motivation

8 Causes and Consequences of Frustration at Work

PART THREE Concepts of Work Motivation and Ultimate Determinants of Behavior

1

3

25

61

63

107

145

171

205

237

251

9 Beliefs, Attitudes, and Intentions 253

10 Human Reactions to Work, Jobs, and Organizations 267

11 Equity, Fairness, and Justice Motives Related to Work 311

12 Expectancy-Valence Theories of Work Motivation 363

13 Goal-Directed Theories 389

PART FOUR Views of "Work Motivation" and Work Behavior 423

14 Learning, Behavior Control, Social-Cognitive Theory, and Self-Management 425

vii

viii Contents

PART FIVE Summary and Evaluation of Progress

15 Profits, Slaves, and Hopes for Strawberry Fields of the Future

References Author Index Subject Index

415 i.

477 :.

(7 I

487 5~i1 5}9

., ,

Subject index

o page entries for headings with subheadings refer to general aspects of that topic. page entries in bold refer to figures/tables.

A&W,55 Ability in the workplace, 8-9, 18-20

definitions, 18-19 dispositional factors, 21-2, 47 job competence, 20 and job performance/work motivation, 20-1 personality differences, 21-2 savoir faire/"savvy," 21 situational factors, 20-1, 22, 47, 48

Absenteeism, 11, 13, 129, 279-80 Achievement

biological model, 193-4 motivation, 78-80 needs, 404 as prime motivator, 33, 34

Acquiescence, 324 Acting, passive/active, 138, 139; see also Emotionallabor Action, 3, 389

tendencies, 121 Activation arousal theory, 83, 205, 206, 221

individual differences in arousal preference, 206-7 value of optimum arousal approach, 207-8

Active deep acting, 138, 139; see also Emotionallabor Activity inhibition, 177 Adaptation

and arousal, 207 function of emotion, 121 to frustration, 248

Adaptive behavior, 239 Addiction, work, 299, 305-8 Adrenaline, 307 Aesthetic experiences, 132-3 Affect; see also Emotion

and equity/justice, 359 infusion model of cognition, 116-17, 143 primacy, 113, 114

Affective commitment, 292, 297, 298 Affective events theory (AET), 120-1, 122, 141-2,141; see

also Emotion events-emotions matrix model, 141 and job satisfaction, 271 team/group functioning, 142

Affectivity, negative/positive, 112, 274, 405; see also Emotions

Affiliation motivation, 172-3, 203 definition, need for affiliation, 173 intensity of affiliation needs, 176-7 managerial effectiveness, 177-8 praise, 173-4

reduction of fear/stress, 174-5 social comparison, 176

Age intergenerational differences, 4, 9, 14, 15-16 and power, 149

Age of abundance, The (Lindsey), 480 Agenc~human,24,456,461,465,484-5

Aggression-aggression hypothesis, 183 Aggression/violence; see also Anger

displaced, 245 and frustration; 126,237-8,242,243-4 hostile, 244, 353 impulse iowards,;123 individual differences, 244-5 and job dissatisfaction, 288 media reports, 237-8 _ and unrequited love/rejection, 165, 172

Alcohol use, and job involvement, 305 Alienation

theoretical research, 42, 59 work, 210

America, see u.s. Amotivation, 90 Anger, 69, 123

control/regulation, 111 and fairness/injustice, 122; see also Aggression/violence gender differences, 11·7 and frustration, 107, 123 and hostility, 353 and job dissatisfaction, 277 and power, 146-7 reification, 11 0 -and resentment, 352

Anorexia, work, 306 Antecedents

behavioral, 265, 434, 436, 452 procedural justice, 339 work motivation, 484

Anthropomorphizing of organizations, 98, 131,299 Anticipation, 444, 460 Anxiety, 120, 125

reduction, 176 and self-esteem, 185 social, 182

Apathy, 266; see also Withdrawal behavior Applied behavior analysis, see OB mod Apprentice, The, 154 Aptitude, 18, 19 Arbitration, 441

569

570 Subject index

Arousal, 12, 398; see also Activation arousal theory Art, research design as, 50 ASA (attraction-selection-attrition) model, 52-3 Assertiveness, cultural differences, 103 Assumptions, 485 Attachment, organizational, 269, 295, 300, 301, 302

and employee turnover, 283 Attention, 443-4 Attitudes, 24, 253, 267-8; see also Human reactions to work;

Job satisfaction; Theory of planned behavior; Theory of reasoned action; Theory XfY

and behavior, 268, 280,321,322 and behavioral intentions, 254, 260-3, 265,399/399 and beliefs, 258-9, 265 . definition, 254 and employee turnover, 280-2 function, 255 information processing approach, 253, 259 managerial consequences, 268, 295 nature of, 253-4, 265 as orientations, 92, 93/93, 95 significance of work attitudes, 268-9 social influences on, 277, 319-21 stability, 259-60

Attitudinal factors, 261-2 Attraction-selection-attrition (ASA) model, 52-3 Attribution, 444

theory, 158 Austria, 6 Autonomous/controlled motivation, 90 Autonomy, 82,211; see also Control

intergenerational differences/expectations, 15, 16 AWOL, military, 284; see also Withdrawal behaviors

Baby Boomers, 15,202 Balance

and procedural justice, 340,341,344 theory, 153

Barfly (movie), 189 Behavior, 24, 482; see also Behaviorism; Intentions;

Reinforcement achievement-motivated, 78-9 adaptive, 239 analysis, applied, see OB mod antecedents of, 265, 434, 436, 452 and attitudes, 268, 321, 322 and beliefs, 321, 322 causality, 390/390,457/457,458,459 citizenship, 289 context of, 425 defensive, 171 exploratory, 82 fixated, 240, 247 frustration, 239-40 instinctive/innate, 239, 425 modification, 443, 448; see also Behaviorism; Cognitive

processes; OB mod motivated, 239-40 and needs, 69-70 non-motivated, 13,69,73 overdetermined,69, 72, 73, 74

patterns, empl0yee, 13 power, 147 ' pro social, 13, [32, 191,289,301 reinforcers, 433-4, 450, 451, 452 respondent, 428 self-regulation, 468-9 simplicity/complexity, 457-8 and values, 93

-

withdrawal, 313, 323; see also Dysfunctional reactions Behavioral

contingency management, 448-50 learning theory, see Behaviorism

Behaviorism, 66, 108, 425-8; see also Punishment; Reinforcement; Reinforcers

behavior modification, 443, 448; see also Cognitive processes; OB mod

behavior shaping, 434 contingencies, 429-30, 434, 450, 452, 456 decline of approach, 455-6 and discipline, 347 extinction, 429, 431, 449, 453 functional analysis, 427, 429, 434--6 law of effect, 66, 429-30 operant behavior, 428 operant con~itioning, 428-9, 442 research review, 483 respondent behavior, 428 rewards, 442 _ stimulus/response generalization, 436-7 and VIE theory, 442

Belgium, productivity index, 6 Beliefs, 24, 253, 267-8; see also Attitudes; Perspectives

and attitudes, 258-9, 265, 399/399; see also Theory of reasoned action

and behavior, 321, 322 and cognition, 112, 115 control, 86, 88, 266 inequity, 321-3; see also Dysfunctional reactions natureltypes of, 357-8, 265 sources, 257-8 stability, 259-60 unrealistic, 463 validity, 257 work motivation, 4,14

Benevolents, 325 Between-within-occupational comparison, 196-7 Between-within-persons issue, 286, 376-7, 378-82 Bible, 311, 314, 335-6 Big five personality dimensions, 274, 403, 404;

see also Personality Binge workers, 306 Biological models/approaches

cognition, 114 human functioning, 66 job design, 232, 233 occupational achievement, 193-4

Bischoff, Otto, 200 Bisexual employees, 172-3 Boorda, Admiral Mike, 200 Boredom, job-related, 242 Brain structure, 114

Britain, see UK Broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions, 121 Browning, Robert (quote), 389 Buffering

emotions, 139 hypothesis, 175

Bullying, 155-7, 160; see also Sexual harassment ,Bullying at work, 155

\l" ; Burnout .~

, and emotiona1labor, 138 and inequity, 313 and job satisfaction, 269 and self-esteem, 190

Business Week, 4 Butler, Samuel (quote), 253 Byron, Lord (quote), 425

Ca1culative/continuance commitment, 292, 298 Calling, vocational, 103 Can do/will do, 404 Canada, 3, 5

employee turnover, 283 immigrant workers, 479 occupational status, 197 organizational climates, 55 pay parity, 330 skills shortages, 8 values, 14, 15,99 views, rewards of hard work, 363-4 workplace violence, 237

Capital investments, 7-8 human, 331

Career development practices, 219 management, 469-70

Cascading, 418 Catalyst, 333 Catharsis, emotional, 110, 122 Causality

behavioral, 390/390 triangular model, 457/457,458, 459

Ceremonies, award, 202 CET (cognitive evaluation theory), 86-9 Chaining, 435 Change; see also Growth needs

altering mood states, 134-5; see also Self-regulation attitudes, 259-60 changing jobs, 221, 222 geographic transfers, 208, 296 new world of work, 231-2 obstacles to, 218-20 openness to, 289 organizational commitment, 302-3 organizational culture, 94-5, 99 resistance to, 248 timing of, and job satisfaction, 276 values, 94-5, 99 velocity of, 135, 272, 471 work motivation, 14

Charisma, 150, 151

Checkingiinspection,217 CRR Incorporated, 279

Subject index 571

Childrearing practices, imd achievement-motivated behavior, 78-9

Chinese/Israeli comparison study, 102 Choice, 11, 13, 82 Circadian rhythms, 206 Citizenship behaviors, 289 Civility/incivility, 183 Climate, organizational, see Organizational climate Closet workers, 306 Co active working, 179-80 Codes of conduct, 195 Coercion, 439 Coercive power, 150 Cognition, 107, 112-14, 132; see also Rationality

affect infusion model, 116-17, 143 cognition arousal theory of emotions, 113 emotional hijacking, 114 and perceptionsibeliefs, 112, 115 physiological evidence, 114-15, 116 primacy of affect, 113, 114

Cognitive appraisal, of frustrators, 242-3 dissonance, 260 evaluation theory (CET), 86-9 -perceptual models, 66 processes, see below psychology, 426 reevaluation, 322-3 schemas, 412

Cognitive processes, 443 anticipation, 444, 460 attention, 443-4 attribution, 444 feedback, 445-6 goal setting, 447-8 modelingivicarious learning, 446-7, 456, 460

Collective effort model, 180, 181 working, 179-80

Collectivistlindividualist values, 101-2, 104-5,314, 485

Commitment to goals, 394-5 to management by objectives, 419-20 organizational, see Organizational commitment

Common sense, 45, 473 Communication

role of emotion, 109, 111, 141 and status, 195-6 theorists/practitioners, 27, 28

Community, sense of, 341 Companionate love, 162 Comparable worth movement, 329, 330, 338

context, 334 current US./Canadian data, 330 decline in current interest in, 336-7 definitions, 329 economic perspectives, 331-2 historical perspectives, 335-6

,. it

572 Subject index

Comparable worth movement - Contd. psychological perspectives, 332-4 resistance to, 334-5

Comparisons, occupational, 196-7 Compassion, 131-2 Competence, 20, 78, 82, 84-5,87-8; see also Achievement

motivation Competition, 395 Complementary congruence, 51 Complexity; see also Occam's razor; Oversimplification;

Simplicity task, 401-2 theoretical, 41, 42, 46-7, 59

Compliance, 293-4, 300, 301 Compulsive workers, 306 Concordia University massacre, 237-8, 248 Conditioning, operant, 428-9, 442; see also Behaviorism Confidence, core, 192; see also Self-esteem Configuration, 50 Conflict

commitments, 300-1 model of human functioning, 66

Conscientiousness, 404 Consciousness-raising,. 46 Consequences, behavioral, 429-30, 434, 450, 452, 456; see

also Extinction; Punishment; Reinforcement Consistency, 318

models, 65-6 tolerating inconsistency, 258 of treatment for dismissal, 350

Construct Validity, 30-1, 38,43,201,326 VIE theory, 380-2

Contagion model, 320, 357 Contagious justice, 320, 357 Contextlcontextualization,48, 100,231,483; see also

Cultural differences; Organizational climate; Organizational culture; Situational factors

ofbehavior,425 ' gender and pay equity, 334 goodness of fit models, 51-3 and job satisfaction, 273-4, 300 models, 66 and power, 160 of punishment, 438-9 and SCT, 458-9 theoretical contextualizing, 50-1, 59 time as, 48-9 type of person as, 49 variables, 49,50,53-4 and work motivation, 49-50

Contingencies, behavioral, 429-30, 434, 450, 452, 456; see also Extinction; Punishment; Reinforcement

Continuance commitment, 292, 298 Continuous reinforcement schedules, 430, 431, 432 Contracts, psychological, 246 Control

desire for, 84; see also Self-determination locus of control, 192 and morality, 453 perceptions, 86, 88, 266 and status, 195

systems, 218.-1:9 -theory, see Eelow

Control theory, 24, 389, 406, 407, 481 critiques, 411-15 generic model, 408-9, 408 and goal setting, 410-11 integrated model, 409-10, 410

Controlled motivation, 90

-

Cooperative behavior, 13; see also Prosocial behavior Core

confidence, 192 self-evaluation, 192

Corporate abuse, 155 Correctness, 340; 341, 344 Corruption, 154-5, 160 Cost-push inflation, 6 Could/would/should assessments, 354-5 Counseling, for dismissal, 350 Creativity

and emotional intelligence, 134 and self-efficacy, 190-1 stifled, 248

Crying, 247 Cues, 435

cued modeling, 447 Cultural differences, 89, 101-2, 105; see also Global

perspectives; Values comparison studies, 101 cultural intelligence, 102 fairness theory, 314-15 individualism-collectivism, 101-2, 104-5,314,

485 . model of cultural self-representation, 101-2 organizational justice, 314-15, 358-9, 360-1 orientations/perspectives, 103-5 oversimplifications of, 104 self-concepts, 101 uncertainty avoidance, 104

Culture, organizational, see Organizational culture Cybernetics, 407, 408, 413, 414

Daily rhythms, 206 Darwin, Charles, 110 Data analysis, motivator-hygiene theory, 33 Deadlines, 395 Decision making

goals, 341 participation, 339, 358 role of emotion, 114, 116, 120

Defense mechanisms, 171, 186, 188 Definitions, 5; 10-13,47

ability, 18-19 adaptive behavior, 239 affiliation needs, 173 attitudes, 254 comparable worth, 329 emotion, 108-9, 111, 112, 118 employee deviance, 313 empowerment, 225 frustration, 240 goals, 238-9, 391, 392

instinctive/innate behavior, 239 intentions, 391, 392 intrinsic motivation, 81-2 job involvement, 303 job performance, 17 job satisfaction, 108,239,271,275,278 justice/fairness, 315 love, 162-3 management by objectives, 416 motivated behavior, 239-40 need for esteem, 185 needs, 67-9,238-9 power, 145-6 practicality, theoretical, 46 procedural justice, 338-9 productivity, 5-6 punishment, 437 self-regulation, 466 social motivation, 178-9 status systems, 193 theory, 28-9 theory of reasoned action, 256-7 values, 92, 93 work commitment, 291-2

Dehumanization, 454 Delayed gratification, 103 Demand-side explanations, pay parity, 331 Demographics, 202 Demotion, 202 Denial, 107, 126,307,313,323 Denigration/demotion, 202 Dependency relationships, 150--1 Depression, 128; see also Sadness

and equity, 313 and job involvement, 305 and job dissatisfaction, 277 victims of redundancy, 343

Descartes, 112 Descriptive beliefs, 257 Desire, 75 Deviance, employee, 313; see also Dysfunctional

reactions Differences, see Individual differenceslreactions; see also

Cultural differences Difficulty

goal/task distinction, 393-4, 395 task, 79-80

Dignity, individual, 341, 344, 347 Discipline, organizational, 346-7, 440-1; see also Dismissal;

Punishment social effects, 347-8

Discrepancy reduction, 411, 412 Discrimination learning, 435-6 Discriminative stimuli, 435 Dismissal, 348-9; see also Discipline; Downsizing

procedures, 350--1 Dispositions, 143,483; see also Personality differences/

dimensions and job satisfaction, 273-4, 300 and work ability, 21-2, 47

Dissatisfaction, see Job dissatisfaction

Subject index 573

:Qissonance emotional, 138, 139; see also Emotional1abor theory, 260 -

Dista1 goals, 467 Distributive justice, 315, 316, 338, 355, 358; see also Equity

theory; Procedural justice definitions, 339, 356 future of theory, 483 norms, 351 organizational causes, 326-8 perceptions of, 323

Dominance, 148, 149; see also Power; Status systems animal, 193

Donne, John (quote), 171 Dopamine, 166 Downsizing, 131, 341-2, 346; see also Dismissal

survivors, 342, 345 victims, 342-4

Drives/drive theory, 67, 411 and emotions, 113 primary/secondary, 67

Dualism, 112 Duration, work motivation, 12, 13 Dynamic psychology (Woodworth), 67 Disempowerment, 724, 226-8, 227; see also Empowerment,

employee Dysfunctional reactions, 240, 323-5; see also Withdrawal

behaviors absenteeism, 248 burnout/illness, 313 denial, 313, 323 repression, 313, 323 sabotage, 242, 246-7, 248, 313 and self-esteem; 186, 463 stealing, 313, 323-4 silence, 323, 324-5 whistleblowing, 247, 248

Eating ivy, 317 EBM (evidence-based management), 28, 32 Economic perspectives, pay parity, 331-2 Economist, The, 4, 7 Education, see Training/education Effectance motivation, 84, 285 Efficacy spirals, 369; see also Self-fulfilling prophesies;

Vicious cycles Effort, 11, 12

emotional, 138, 139 and inequity perceptions, 321-2 propensity to avoid, 182

Ego ideals, 126 Egoistic dominance, 148, 149 EIP (employee involvement and participation), 228 Embeddedness, 228,283, 295 Emodynarnictheory, 71,135-6,272,276 Emotionls,106, 107, 142-3; see also Affective events theory;

Affectivity; Emotional intelligence; Frustration; Human reactions to work; Love; Moods

and actionlactivation, 109, 111, 120, 121 basic/non-basic, 109 categorizationltaxonomy, 109, 118-19, 120--1

,. \

574 Subject index

Emotionls - Contd. channeling, 111 cognition arousal theory, 113; see also Cognition communicative role, 109, 111, 141 and decision making, 114, 116, 120 defUritions, 108-9, Ill, 112, 118 denial, 107, 126 and drives, 113 and events, 110 functions of, 121

- and gender, 117, 134 and goals, 405 intensity, 176, 177 as internal commodities, 110-11 andjob satisfaction, 108,271,275 and motivation, work, 23, 140-1 and needs, 68-9 negative emotions, 120-1, 123-8; see also specific

emotions; Emotionallabor in organizational science, 107-8 partial inclusion, 140, 143 positive emotions, 121, 128-33,405; see also specific

emotions research review, 483 self-management, 134-6, 139-41,470; see also Emotional

labor sequences of, I11 shared/appropriate, 56--7 socially constructed, 119 and status, 196, 198 velocity of changes, 135

Emotional dissonance, 138, 139; see also Emotionallabor effort, 138, 139; see also Emotionallabor hijacking, 114 intelligence, 21, 131, 134-6,470-1 labor, see below stability, 198 support, 174

Emotionallabor, 122, 136-40 controlling negative emotions, 139-40 detrimental affects, 138-9 emotional regulation, 139 passive/active deep acting, 138, 139 quote (Nathaniel Hawthorne), 107, 138 and social motivation, 182 transmutation of emotional system, 137-8

Empirical evidence, 213, 326; see also Research Empirical law of effect, 430 Employee

deviance, 313; see also Dysfunctional reactions empowerment, see below involvement and participations (EIP), 228 participation, 396--7 turnover, 280-2, 283

Empowerment, employee, 174,224,227,228-9,235; see also Job design/enrichment; Power

defUrition, 225 disempowerment, 224, 226--8, 227 embeddedness, 228 in services management, 226

systems/met):lOds; 225-6 and VIE th~ory, 370-1

Energy, and productivity, 7-8 Engagement, 302, 303, 309; see also Job involvement.

Organizational commitment ' Entitleds, 325 Environmental

factors, 458-9; see also Context press, 68, 73, 92

Envy, 107, 123, 124,363 and equity, 316, 360

Equipment, 200 Equality, 327, 329, 360-1

-

remunerative, 329; see also Comparable worth movement Equity theory, 316--17, 318, 338, 355,483; see also

Distributive justice; Procedural justice alternative distribution rules, 327 consequences of inequity beliefs, 321-3 dysfunctional reactions to inequity, 323-5 effort, and inequity beliefs, 321-2 equity sensitivity, 325, 326 eye of the beholder, 318-19, 321, 322 exchange/equity ratios, 317, 322, 323 favoritism, 327 gender, 328, 329; see also Comparable worth movement and goal-setting theory, 392, 396, 399/399 inputs, 316, 325 internal/external equity, 327-8 and job satisfactiZin, 273, 276 measurement problems, 326--7 organizational causes of perceived inequity, 326--7 outcomes, 316--17, 325 research evidence, 326 secret pay levels, 328 social information processing, group working, 320-1 social responsibility, 327 validity, 325, 326

Equivocality, 84, 285 ERG (existence, re1atedness and growth) model, 75-7 ESM (experience-sampling methodology), 286--7 Essence of man, see Human nature Esteem, other, 72-3; see also Self-esteem

need for, 185 support, 174

Ethics, see also Morality; Values; Work ethic of caring, 31 of strong cultures, 96--7

European Union, 7 Events-emotions matrix model, 141 Evidence-based; see also Theorylresearch

management (EBM), 28, 32 practice, 213, 326, 485

Evolutionary perspectives, cognition, 114 Excellence, passion for, 133 Exchange, 311,312

ratios, 317,322, 323 Excitement, 107 Existence, relatedness and growth (ERG) model, 75-7 Expectancy, 364, 367, 381, 384-5; see also VIE theory

beliefs vs. self-efficacy beliefs, 367-8 model equation, 213

Expectations fairness, 318 and job satisfaction, 270, 275 power of, 369-70 satisfaction, 365 states, 197-8

Experience-sampling methodology (ESM), 286-7 ," Expert power, 150, 151 \ Exploratory behaviors, 82

External validity, 30, 31, 51, 326 Externals, 244 Extinction, 429, 431, 449, 453 Extrinsic motivation, 82, 85-6, 87-9, 101; see also Intrinsic

motivation; Motivation and self-determination theory, 90

Eye of the beholder; see Perspectives

Fabrikant, Professor Valerie, 237-8, 248 Fairness/fairness theory, 121-2,317-18,354-5; see also

Interactional justice; Organizational justice; Procedural justice

consequences of unjust/unfair treatment, 313 dimensions of, 318 eye of the beholder, 355 international differences, 314-15 pain of unfair treatment, 313-14 rationale for fairness impulses, 312-15 reputations for unfairness, companies, 344, 349 and social motivation, 182 and workplace love/sex, 166, 169 would/should/could assessments, 354-5

Fantasy, 69 Fatigue, andjob dissatisfaction, 277 Favoritism, 327 Fear, 107, 124-5; see also Anxiety

reduction through social s~pport, 174-5 Feedback

and anxiety, 125 and behavior modification, 445-6 and cognitive evaluation theory, 86 demands for, 15, 16 and goal setting, 398 and job characteristics model, 209, 211-12 loops, 408, 409, 411, 413; see also Control theory praise, 173--4

Feelings, 111; see also Emotion of being powerful, 147

Feminism, 330; see also Comparable worth movement; Gender

Fibromyalgia,119 Final warnings, before dismissal, 350 Firing, see Dismissal Fit, goodness of, 51-3, 96 Fixated behavior, 240, 247 Flexi time, 42 Flow, 81, 128 Force, 11, 13,67-8,92,371-2 Forethought, 460 48 laws of power, The (Greene), 151, 154 Fortune, 500, 333 France, productivity index, 6

Free-riding, 180, 181; 182 Free will, 467 Freud, Sigmund, 11 Fruit/vegetable picking, 479 Frustration, emotional, 237-8

adaptation to, 248 and anger, 107, 123 causes, 240-2,241,246 and change, 248 cognitive appraisal, 242-3 defining, 240

Subject index 575

frustration behavior, 239--40 frustration-reaction cycle, 242, 243 gender differences, 117 and guilt, 126 and hierarchical theory of needs, 72, 73 individual differences, 239, 241, 242, 243 and job design, 121,246 and job dissatisfaction, 275-6, 323 and job performance, 18,23 and motivated behavior, 239--40 and needs, 69, 70, 72, 73, 90 non-aggressive responses, 247-8 and problem solving, 242, 245 pursuing alternative goals, 242 quote (Plutarch), 237 relieving, 11 0 responses, 126, 242--4, 248, 323; see also Aggression!

violence; Dysfunctional reactions; Withdrawal behaviors

theory, 127 , and unrequited love, 165 and work addiction, 307

Frustration-regression hypothesis, 77, 247 Fulfillment models, 65, 66; see also Needs Functional analysis ofbehavior, 427, 429,.434-6 Functionalist perspective, attitudes, 255 Fundamental attribution error, 17, 18 Future orientation, 103

Galatea effect, 369-70 Gatekeepers, 98 Gay employees, 172-3 GDP (gross domestic product), 6 Gender, 117, 134

and absenteeism, 279 and achievement-motivated behavior, 78-9 earnings gap, 328, 329, 330; see also Comparable worth

movement egalitarianism, cultural differences, 103 and employee turnover, 283 and job satisfaction, 275 and leadership, 148-9,334 neutrality, 330 roles, 333 role models, 332 and status, 198, 199 stereotypes, 117, 149, 177, 199, 333 values, 99 and work addiction, 308

Gender authority hypothesis, 333

,. \

576 Subject index

General practitioners, 197 Generation X (Coupland), 15, 16,202 Genetic traits, 187,274; see also Biology; Personality Geographic transfers, 208, 296 Global perspectives, 480-2, 484; see also Cultural differences Globalization, 336-7 GLOBE study, 103 Goal/s

decision making, 341 directed theories, 389-90; see also Control theory; Goal­

setting theory; Management by objectives; Theory of intentional behavior

hierarchies, 413 learning, 20,401-2,402-3,406,467 and needs, 238-9, 239 power, 145 selection, 467 status, 184, 188,203

Goal setting/goal-setting theory, 17,24, 127,392,399, 406 '

commitment to goals, 394-5 and control theory, 410-,-11 criticisms, 400-1 employee participation, 396-7 feedback, 398 goal specificity, 395 goal/task difficulty, 393-4, 395 incentives, 395-6 intentions and goals, 391, 392 learning goals, 401-2, 402-3, 406 learning vs. task orientations, 403, 404 and management by objectives, 420 new directions of theory, 405-6 performance goals, 401-2, 403, 406, 467 personality differences, 403-4, 406 philosophical underpinnings, 400-1 practicality, 46 reasons for efficacy of goal setting, 398-9 self-efficacy, 395, 398,405,413 and self-management, 447-8 SMART goals, 400 task complexity/novelty, 401-2 task-specific plans, 401-2 testing in the field, 41 theory/practice, 27 and theory of reasoned action, 389, 399/399 validity, 45 and VIE theory, 388 and work motivation, 17, 24

Golden handcuffs, 296 Golden Rule, 311, 314, 359, 360,485 Good enough money, 99-100 Good life/work concept, 99-100 Goodale, Ralph, quote, 5 Goodness offit models, 51-3, 96 Gratification, delayed, 103 Gratitude, 130-1 Great American Dream, 480 Greed, 125 Grieving, 128; see also Depression; Sadness Gross domestic product (GDP), 6

Grounded theoryi413 Groups; see also Teams

efficacy, 368 . functioning, 142

Growth needs, 36, 76-7, 209, 216 and frustration, 248

Guilt, 125-6 Gurus, 217

Habits, 240, 263 Haitian proverb, 267 Halo effects, 255, 272 Happiness, 69, 129

feigning, see Emotionallabor Harassment, sexual, 157-8, 168, 170 Hawthorne, Nathaniel

quote, 107, 138 studies of organizational culture, 57, 99

Health effects mastery, 99 need frustration, 90, 162 redundancy, 343

Hedonism, 471, 485 Height, 47-8, 198 Helplessness, 247 Henley, W. E. (quote), 205 Heuristics, 255,319 Hierarchical theory Q.f needs, 71-2, 77, 480-,-1

emotional/psychological, 72-3 modifications of theory, 75 oversimplification/misrepresentation, 72, 74 physiological, 71-2 subtleties/complexities, 73-4 validity, 74-5

High-involvement work practices (HIWP), 231 Home work, 174-5 Homeopaths, Canada, 197 Homer, 465-6 Hope, 3, 164,389 .

theory, 126-7, 128 Hostile aggression, 244, 353 Hot stove rule, 439, 440, 441 Hubris, 130 Human capabilities, 459-61 Human capital, 331

-

Human nature, 63-4, 105~; see also Cultural differences; Intrinsic motivation; Self-determination theory; Values

achievement motivation, 78-80 assumptions of, 63, 105 cognitive evaluation theory (CET), 86-9 cognitive-perceptual models, 66 consistency models, 65-6 contextual models, 66 fu1fi.1lment models, 65, 66; see also Needs learning models, 66 meta-analyses,87-9 quote (Zen understanding of man), 63 self-fu1fi.1ling prophesies, 64/64 theory XN, 64/64, 65, 100, 156,266 typology of human functioning, 63, 65-7 and work ability, 23

Human reactions to work, 267-8, 308-9; see also Emotions; Job involvement; Job satisfaction; Organizational commitment

concept relatedness, 309-10 quote (Haitian proverb), 267 work attitudes, significance of, 268-9

Humanitarian concerns,268,300,454

,~ orientation, 103---4,341 .\ perspectives, 39

and profit, 480 Humor, use of, 139 Hydraulic metaphors, 11 Hygiene factors, 34; see also Motivator-hygiene theory Hypothetical entities/constructs, 13, 24, 38, ('i8

I hate my job handbook, The, 369 I -deals, 485 Identification, organizational, 294--5, 300-2 Idiosyncratic deals, 386 Imitation, 447 Immigration/immigrant workers, 232, 479 Implicit mental models, 25, 43 Importance, and valence, 214 Impulse control, 122; see also Self-regulation Incentives, 14, 395-6 Incivility, 183 Individual differenceslreactions; see also Cultural

differences; Perspectives; Personality; Values arousal preferences, 206-7 frustration, 239, 241, 242, 243 incentive preferences, 14 inequity, 325, 326, 358 intergenerational, 4, 9, 14, 15-16 and job enrichment, 215-16, 223 organizational, 385-6 propensity to aggression, 244--5

Individualism, 82, 101-2, 104--5,314,485 Inferential beliefs, 257 Inflation, cost-push, 6 Influence, 318 Information processing, 249, 253, 259; see also Attitudes;

Beliefs; Intentions; Goals social information-processing approach, 66, 276-7, 320-1 systems, 66

Information seeking, and anxiety, 125 Informational

justice, 356 support, 174

Ingratiation, 152---4 Innate behavior, 239, 425 Innovative behavior, 13 Inputs, 316, 325 Inspection, 217 Instinctive behavior, 67, 74, 239, 425 Instrumental

aggression, 244 support, 174 values, 92, 93

Instrumentality, 364, 365-7, 381, 385 Integrity,318

,Intelligence and ability, 20, 21, ~2 cultural, 102 emotional, 21, 131, 134--6,470-1 generalized,22 quotient, 134 spiritual, 485

Intensity affi1iation needs, 176-7 emotional, 176, 177 work motivation, 12

Subject index 577

Intentional behavior, theory of, 390-1,390 Intentionality/human agency, 24, 456, 461, 465 Intentions, behavioral, 254, 260-3, 265; see also Theory of

reasoned action and attitudes, 254, 260-2, 265, 399/399 and behavior, 321, 322, 389, 391, 399/399 dimensions of, 391 and goals, 391, 392 nature of, 391 self-prophesy effect, 262-3, 266 specificity, 261

Interactionaljustice, 315, 324, 346, 351---4, 355 method of delivering bad news, 352 sources, 353---4 . social accounts/justifications, 352-3 trust, 353 and workplace incivility, 183

Interdisciplinary approaches, job design, 232---4 elaborated model, 234--5, 235 four-factor model, 232, 233 new world of work, 231-2 ten-factor model, 233---4

Interesting work, 210 Intermittent reinforcement schedules, 430/430, 431,

432 Internal motivation, see Intrinsic motivation Internal validity, 30, 31, 326, 379-80 Internalization, 90, 294; 300, 301 International differences, see Cultural differences Interpersonal

communication, and status, 195-6 justice, 356

Interval reinforcement schedules, 430, 431 Intrinsic motivation, 76, 80-1, 129, 133,411;

see also Motivation; Needs competence and self-determination, 82, 84--5 definitions/conceptualizations, 81-2 and extrinsic motivation, 82, 85-6, 87-9, 101 and job characteristics model, 209, 211 optimum arousal approach, 83 optimum congruity perspective, 83---4 over justification hypothesis, 86, 88, 91 and self-determination theory, 90, 91 and self-esteem, 187 and self-regulation, 467 and theory of reasoned action, 285

Introspection, 484 Involvement, see Job involvement IQ,134 Ireland, productivity index, 6

578 Subject index

Israeli/Chinese comparison study, 102 Italy, productivity index, 6

JCM, see Job characteristics model JDS (Job diagnostic survey), 212-13 Jealousy, 124; see also Envy Job characteristics model (JCM), 209-10, 212, 221; see also

Job design/enrichment feedback, 209, 211-12 internal motivation, 209, 211 meaningfulness, 209, 210-11 measuring dimensions, 212-13 research evidence/validity, 213 responsibility, 209, 211

Job competence, 20, 78, 82, 84-5, 87-8; ~ee also Achievement motivation

Job demands fit, 51 Job design/enrichment, 23, 205, 223-4, 235; see also

Employee empowerment; Job characteris~icsmodel activation arousal theory, 205, 206--8, 221 ' benefits of job enrichment, 222-3 checking/inspection, 217 criticisms of job enrichment, 223 elaborated model, 234-5, 235 expectancy theory/job characteristics approach, 213-15,

221 four-factor model, 232, 233 global perspectives, 481 gurus/troubleshooters, 217 high-involvement work practices (HIWP), 231 implementation obstacles, 218-20 individual differences, 215-16, 223 job titles/fractionation, 217, 218 labor unions, 220 layering, 217 lean production, 229-30 liaison personnel, 218 motivator-hygiene/two-factor theory, 208-9, 221 new world of work, 231-2 pools, typing/word processing, 217 practical application, 40, 41, 42 quote, 205 repetition of functions, 216--17 self-determination/control, 211, 236 supervisory/reporting relationships, 217 ten-factor model, 233-4 validity/value of, 220-3 and VIE theory, 214-15

Job diagnostic survey (JDS), 212-13 Job dissatisfaction, 271, 274-5, 310; see also Job satisfaction;

Withdrawal behaviors and boredom, 242 consequences of, 277, 288 as needs frustration, 275-6, 323

Job enrichment, see Job design/enrichment Job involvement, 269, 303, 308, 309, 310

causes/antecedents, 303-4 consequences, 304-5 definition, 303 work addiction/workaholics, 299, 305-8

Job orientation inventory, 451

Job performapce; see Performance Job satisfaction, 269-70, 290-1, 308, 309; see also

Withdrawai behaviors beliefs, 259-60 causes/antecedents, 272-4, 300 definitions, 108,271,275,278 as emotional reaction, 108,271,275 and job performance, 284-7, 285, 287-8,

375-6 and life satisfaction, 277-8, 289-90, 300 measurement, 290 nature of, 271-2 and other performance, 288-9 and positive emotions, 128 social information processing approach, 276--7 unit-level analyses, 288-9

Job titles fractionation, 217, 218 and status, 200

Job transfers, 208 Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 448 Journal of Organizational Behavior Management,

448

-

Justice theory, 273, 276, 318; see also Comparable worth movement; Distributive justice; Equity theory; Faimess theory; Interactional justice; Organizational justice; Procedural justice

Justifications, 352-1

Kahn, Robert (quote), 477 Kant, I=anuel, 312 Katz, Daniel (quote), 477 Knowledge work, 19

Labor market fluctuations, 328 Labor unions, 220, 269, 332 Laboratory research, 149, 181 Law/s

of effect, 66, 429-30 of requisite variety, 359-60

Layoffs, see Downsizing Layering, 217 Leadership motive profile, 177; see also Management;

Self-regulation Lean production, 229-30 Learning, 425, 426; see also Cognitive processes; OB mod;

Self-regulation; Social-cognitive theory discrimination, 435-6 goals, 20, 401-2, 402-3,406, 467 models, 66; see also Behaviorism; Law of effect vs. task orientations, 403, 404 vicarious, 447, 456, 460

Legislation, and productivity, 7 Legitimate power, 150 Lesbian employees, 172-3 Leventhal criteria, 339, 356 Liaison personnel, 218 Livius, Titus (quote), 363 Locus of control, 192 Logical positivism, 400 Loneliness, 175

Love, 130, 131, 161-2, 170; see also Sex definitions, 162-3 as emotion, 165-6 as need, 72, 73,162,163,165-6 quotes, 145, 161, 162 rejection/unrequited, 164--5 romantic, 157, 158, 162, 163-4 workplace, 166-8

;l~ Loyalty, see Organizational commitment \ Lust, 166

Main-effects hypothesis, 175 Management

effective, 147-8 fads/fashions, 39, 40 and gender, 148-9, 334 implications of path-goal theory, 384--6 implications of VIE theory, 384--6 and need for affiliation, 177, 178 o bj ectives, 3 participative,

40 Management by objectives (MBO), 390, 397,406,415,

420-1 cascading, 418 definitions, 416 features, 416 functions, 417 and goal setting, 420 management commitment/endorsement to,

419-20 mission statements, 415 practical effectiveness, 40, 41, 42, 419 stages, 417-18 underlying assumptions, 418-19

Managerialism, 97 Manipulation, 97 Mass production, 229 Mastery, 99

experiences, 462 goals, 467

MBO, see Management by objectives Meaning making, 176 Meaningfulness, work, 209, 210-11 Measurement

dimensions, job characteristics model, 212-13 equity,326-7 issues, 38, 43-4 job performance, 17 job satisfaction, 290 organizational justice, 358 reinforcers, 451-2

Mechanistic approach to job design, 232, 233 nature of control theory, 411-13

Media reports/representations power dynamics, 154--5 work motivation, 4, 7 workplace violence, 237-8

Mediator variables, 47-8 Memory storage, 259

Mentoring, 175 'Meta-theories, 484 Methodology, research, 31, 32 Military

Subject index 579

AWOL, 284; see also Withdrawal behaviors status symbols, 200-1

Minnesota importance questionnaire, 451 Mission statements, 415 MJDQ (multimethodjob design questionnaire), 232, 233,

234 Mnemonics, 444 Modeling, 446-7,462 Moderator variables, 47-8 Money, 433,451 Monitoring, 453-4 Moods, 112, 116-17; see also Emotion Morale, 271, 345 Morality/moral principles, 312, 354, 359, 453-4; see also

Ethics; Values of punishment, 439 and theory of reasoned action, 264

Motivation, work, 9-10, 22, 70, 452, 461-2; see also Ability in the workplace; Affiliation motivation; Intrinsic motivation; Extrinsic motivation; Needs; Social motivation

achievement, 78-80 autonomous/controlled, 90 changes, 14 content theories, 71 and context, 49-50; see also Context; Situational factors definitions/conceptualizations, 5,10-13,47 effectance, 84, 285 helping power, 148 inferred,38 intergenerational differences, 4, 9, 14, 15-16 media coverage, 4, 7 and organizational culture, 57 and performance, 16-18,23,30,44 potential, 12 power, 145-9, 152, 158 process theories, 71 and productivity, 5, 9-10, 22 theories/models/hypotheses, 4--5, 23, 24 work behavior, 482

Motivational approach, job design, 232, 233 Motivator-hygiene theory, 208-9, 221, 249, 275,453; see also

Job dissatisfaction; Job satisfaction controversy/critique, 36-9 data analysis, 33 factor overlap, 34--5 future of, 483, 484 Herzberg's research, 32-3 hygiene factors, 34 measurement reliabilitylreactivity, 38 motivators, 33-4 need~human,35-6

oversimplification/misrepresentation, 38, 249 pay, 35 theoretical development, 25, 32, 35-6 validity, 36, 37, 38

Motivators, 33-4, 209, 221

580 Subject index

Movement, concept of, 11 Multidisciplinary approaches, see Interdisciplinary

approaches Multimethodjob design questionnaire (MJDQ), 232, 233,

234 Mutualistic model of progress, 26, 27

NA (negative aifectivity), 274 National Social Insurance Board of Sweden,

279 Nationalization, 232 Needs, human, 11, 23; see also Motivation

achievement, 404 for affi1iation, 173; see also Affiliation motivation basic, 35-6, 76 , changes over time, 14; see also Growth emotional association with, 68-9 for esteem, 184, 185, 188,203 and frustration, 69, 70, 72, 73 and goals, 238-9, 239 growth,36,76-7,209,216,248 as hypothetical entities, 68 love, 72, 73, 162, 163, 165-6 physiological, 67, 71-2, 165-6 power, 145-9, 152, 158 relatedness, 76 self-actualization, 73 self-determination, 82, 90-1 theories/models, see below universal, 90-1 and values, 92-3, 273

Need-based theories/models, 63, 67, 77-8, 106, 171; see also Achievement motivation; Hierarchical theory of needs; Motivator-hygiene theory

comparison of different models, 77 definitions/conceptualizations, 67-9, 238-9 and equity/justice, 359 existence, relatedness and growth model, 75-7 limitations/oversimplifications, 38, 72, 74, 249 overview, 249 satisfaction, 70-1 and work motivation, 70

Needs-supplies fit, 51 Negative

aifectivity (NA), 274 emotions, 112, 120-1, 123-8; see also specific emotions;

Emotionallabor reinforcement, 432, 433, 449; see also Punishment

Nepotism, 327 Netherlands, productivity index, 6 Neuroticism, 162, 192 Neutralizing emotions, 139 New United Motor Manufacturing Company Inc.

(NUMMI), 230 New world of work, 231-2 Niceness, 333, 334 Normative

commitment, 292, 298 factors, 261-2

NUMMI (New United Motor Manufacturing Company Inc.),230

OB mod, 448 i .:. behavioral contingency management, 448-50 consequences, 450, 452,456 decline of approach, 455-6 ethics/morality, 453-4 identifying reinforcers, 451-2 positive approach, 451 practical issues, 454-5 and work motivation, 452

Objectives, multiple/single, 418 OBSE (organization-based self-esteem), 189 Observation, 453-4

----

Occam's razor, 47, 59,191,359-60; see also Complexity; Oversimplifications; Simplicity

Occupational status, see Status O'Dea, Frank (quote), 3, 389, 415 Odyssey, The, 465-6 Office size, 200 Operant conditioning, 428-9, 442; see also Behaviorism Opinion conformity, 152 Oppressive power, 151 Optimum

arousal approach, see Activation arousal theory congruity perspective, 83-4

Organization-based self-esteem (OB SE), 189 Organization man, The, 301 Organizational behavior modification/management, see OB

mod Organizational climate, 54-5

climate/culture distinctions, 57-8 climate specificity, 55-6 climate strength, 55 popularized concepts, 58-9; see also Toxic

workplaces Organizational commitment, 130-1,269,302-3,308-9

attachment, 269, 295, 300, 301, 302 commitment propensity, 293 conceptualizations/definitions, 291-2 conflicting commitments, 300-1 costs of high commitment, 299-300 distinctive forms, 292 and downsizing, 345 ebb and flow, 302-3 and education, 296 embeddedness, 283,295 fostering, 297 and identification, 294-5, 300-2 managerial stake in commitment, 295 organizational socialization, 296-7 past/present/future, 301-2 and performance, 297 . propensity, 293 psychological bases, 293-4, 298, 300, 301 and withdrawal, 298-9 and workplace love/sex, 169

Organizational culture, 56 changesin,94-5,99 climate/culture distinctions, 57-8 Hawthome studies of, 57, 99 popularized concepts, 58-9; see also Toxic workplaces profile, 53

1

strong cultures, 56-7, 96-7 and work motivation, 57

Organizational discipline, see Discipline; see also Dismissal; Punishment

Organizational justice, 219, 311, 315, 360-1; see also Comparable worth movement; Distributive justice; Equity theory; Fairness theory; Interactiona1 justice; Procedural justice

assessment of theories, 355 canons/caveats of, 357-9 contagious justice, 320, 357 cultural differences/simi1aritib, 314-15, 358-9, 360-1 definitions, 315 exchange, 311,312 Golden Rule, 311, 314, 359, 360 higher levels of analysis, 356-7 informational justice, 356 interpersonal justice, 356 justice theory, 122,313,315,326,338 moral principles, 312, 354, 359 Occam's razor, 359-60 quotes, 311 systemic justice/injustice, 356

Organizational learning/memory, 131 Organizational socialization, see Socialization Organizational structure, 54 Organizational values, 96, 97-8; see also Work values Orwell, George, 125 Other enhancement, 152-3 Other-orientation, 104-5; see also Individualism­

collectivism Outcome/s, 316--17, 325,429; see also Rewards

first/second level, 365 goals, 401-2, 403, 406 preferences, 365

Overdetermined behavior, 69, 72, 73, 74 Overjustification hypothesis; 86, 88, 91 Oversimplifications, theoretical, 38, 41, 42; see also

Complexity; Occam's Razor; Simplicity collectivist/individualist values, 314 critiques, 413 cultural differences, 104 emotions, 115, 120 goal-setting theory, 400 motivator-hygiene theory, 38, 249 needs-based theories, 38, 72, 74,249 theory of reasoned action, 264

PA (positive affectivity), 112,274,405 Parity, pay, 329; see also Comparable worth movement Parkinson's law, 396 ' Part-time working, 231 Partial

inclusion, 140, 143 reinforcement schedules, 430/430, 431, 432

Participation, employee, 339, 358, 396-7 values, 100

Passive deep acting, 138, 139; see also Emotionallabor Path-gOal theory ofleadership, 383-6 Pay

equity, see Comparable worth movement

issues, 219 as motivator, 35 secret levels, 328 severance, 344

Subject index 581

P-E (person-environment) fit, 51, 52; see also Context Perceptions, see Beliefs; see also Attitudes; Perspectives Perceptual/motor approach, job design, 232, 233 Performance

criteria, 44 definitions/distinctions, 17-18 effectiveness, 341 and frustration, 18, 23 goals, 401-2,403,406,467 andjob satisfaction, 284-7, 285, 287-8, 375-6 level choice, 372 measures, 17 organizational, 57 and organizational commitment, 297 orientation, 103 as outcome, 365 and procedural justice, 340 and life satisfaction, 375-6 and work ability, 20-1 and work motivation, 16-18,23,30,44

Perseverance/persistence, 13, 237 Person-environment (P-E) fit, 51, 52; see also Context Personal power, 147, 148 Personality; see also Individual differences

big five dimensions, 274, 403, 404 commitment propensity, 293 corruption propensity, 160 development, 22; see also Growth and goal setting, 403-4, 406 and pay parity, 332, 333 research, future directions, 484 traits, 274 and work ability, 21-2

Personnel systems, 218 Perspectives/eye of the' beholder; see also Attitudes; Beliefs;

Cultural differences; Individual differences; Personality; Values

equity theory, 318-19, 321, 322 fairness theory, 355 organizational justice, 358 procedural justice, 340-1 social influences on, 319-21

Peruvian/American comparison study, 101 Persuasion, 462 Peter principle, 208 Petty tyrant syndrome, 155-6 Planned behavior/action, theory of, 264, 265-6 Playing God, 417 Plutarch, 237 Political behavior, 152 Pools, typing/word processing, 217 Positive

affectivity, 112, 274, 405 emotions, 121, 128-33; see also specific emotions feedback, 174 psychology, 128,359 reinforcement, 432, 433, 449, 451; see also Rewards

I J

,. it

582 Subject index

Positive Organizational Behavior movement, 112 Power, 145, 161, 170

and anger, 146---7 behavior, 147 and corruption, 154-5, 160 definitions, 145-6 dependency relationships, 150-1 differentials, and organizational justice, 357-8 distance, 101, 102, 105, 314 and effective management, 147-8 and gender, 148-9 as goal, 145 institutionalization, 158-9 media representations, 154-5 motive, 145-9, 152, 158 personal, 147, 148 quotes, 145 self-construals, 159-60 socialized, 147-8, 158 and social responsibility, 160 typology of power bases, 148, 150, 151 tyranny/bullying, 155-7, 160 uses/abuses in workplace, 151-4, 161

Praise, 173-4 Premack principle, 433-4, 450, 451, 452 Prescribing emotion, 139; see also Emotionallabor Pride, 107, 121, 129-30 Problem solving

and frustration, 242, 245 generalization, 444

Procedural justice, 315, 338, 355, 356, 358; see also Comparable worth movement; Distributive justice; Equity theory; Fairness theory; Interactionaljustice; Organizational justice

antecedents, 339 balance, 340,341,344 consequences/importance, 339-40 correctness, 340, 341, 344 decision-making goals, 341 definitions, 338-9 discipline, 346---8 dismissal, 348-9, 350-1 downsizing, 341-6 and job performance, 340 levels of justice, 340-1 and organizational climate, 55 participation in decision-making/voice, 339, 358 perceptions of procedural justice, 323, 340-1,

344 trust, 312, 318, 339-40, 342-3, 345

Productive power, 151 Productivity, 5, 6, 22

definition, 5-6 gross domestic product (GDP), 6 large-scale, national-level influences, 7-8, 9, 22 and motivation, 5, 9-10, 22 productivity index, 6 small-scale local influences, 8-10

Productivity measurement and enhancement (proMes) system, 387

Profit vs. humanitarianism, 480

Progress, mutu~stic model of, 26, 27 Progressive discipline, 441 Projection of needs, 69, 74,241 ProMes system, 387 Promises, broken, 246 Prompted modeling, 447 Prompts, 435 Prosocial

behavior, 13, 132, 191,289,301 dominance, 149

Protestant work ethic, 94, 126, 291, 303 Prototypical love, 162-3 Proximal goals, 467 Psychological

empowerment, see Empowerment, employee harassment, 157; see also Bullying

Psychologists, status, 197 Punishment, 429, 432, 433, 449, 453; see also Discipline;

Dismissal alternatives to, 440, 451 codes of conduct, 195 definition, 437 effects/consequences, 438-9; see also Withdrawal fear of, 124 hot stove rule, 439, 440, 441 making effective, 439-40 morality of, 439 retributional/corre£tive, 439 social context, 438-9 and social loafing, 180, 181 vicarious, 462

Putting on happy face, see Emotionallabor Pygroalion effect, 369-70

Quality circles, 230 Quality of work life (QWL), 40 Quid pro quo harassment, 157 Quiescence, 324 Quotes

beliefs/attitudes, 253 circumstances, 425 emotionallabor, 107, 138 equity, 311, 477 Haitian proverb, 267 job design/enrichment, 205 love, 145, 161, 162 management objectives, 3 perseverance/frustration, 237 power, 145 proof/scientific method, 25 rewards, 363 social relationships, 171 striving for goals, 389 system analysis, 477 Zen understanding of man, 63

QWL (quality of work life), 40

Radical behaviorism, see Behaviorism Ratio reinforcement schedules, 430, 431 Rationality; see also Cognition

and emotion, 114, 115-16, 120, 139

and operant psychology, 454 and power, 158

Raw materials, and productivity, 7-8 RCMP (Royal Canadian Mounted Police), 333 REAL Women of Canada, 333 Reasoned action, see Theory of reasoned action Reciprocal causal model, 278 Reciprocity, 311, 312

j" Redundancy, see Downsizing .~ Referent

cognitions theory, 342 power, 150

Regression, 247 Reinforcers, 432-3; see also Behaviorism; Pu~ishment;

Reinforcement behaviorlPremack principle, 433--4, 450, 451, 452 generalized conditioned, 433 identifying, 451-2 multiplicity, 434 primary/secondary, 433 theory of work adjustment, 52

Reinforcement, 429, 453; see also Behaviorism negative, 432, 433, 449; see also Punishment positive, 432, 433, 449, 451 and rewards, 442 schedules of, 430-2, 430

Rejection/unrequited love, 164--5, 172 Re1atedness needs, 76 Religion, 103 Reporting relationships, 217 Repression, emotional, 323 Reputations for unfairness, companies, 344, 349 Research, see Theory/research; see also Evidence-based

practice Resentment, 277,352 Resignation, 248; see also Withdrawal Resistance to change, 248 Resource allocation theory, 389 Respec~ 73,189-90,318,344,352-3

deserved, 188 intergenerational differences, 15, 16

Respondent behavior, 428 Response generalization, 436-7 Responsible nurturance, 149 Responsibility, 209,211, 327 Review, theoretical, 482, 483--4 Revised expectancy model, 442 Reward/s; see also Outcomes; VIE theory

intrinsic/extrinsic, 374 over justification hypothesis, 86, 88, 91 and power, 150, 151 and reinforcement, 442 status increases as, 194--5 vicarious, 462

Rich description, 50 Rights, employee, 346, 347 Rituals, socia1ization, 296 Role

congruity theory, 334 models, for women, 332

Romantic love, 157, 158, 162, 163-4

Subject index 583

Romeo and Juliet e;ffect, ·164 Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP), 333

Sabotage, 313 Sadness, 69, 120, 127-8; see also Depression Sanctions, see Discipline; Dismissal;

Punishment Satisfaction, life, 277-8, 289-90, 300; see also Job

satisfaction definitions, 239 expected, 365 need, 70-1, 75

Savoir fairel"savvy," 21 Scandinavia, 480 Scapegoating, 245 Schedules of reinforcement, 430-1

continuous, 430, 431, 432 intermittent/partial, 430/430, 431, 432 interval/ratio, 430, 431

Schema theory, 412 Script theory, 412 SCT, see Social-cognitive theory SDT, see Self-determination theory Secret pay levels, 328 Self-actualization needs, 73 Self-concepts, 101 Self-construals, 159-60 Self-control, see Control theory; Self-regulation Self-determination theo;y (SDT), 87, 88, 90-1

autonomous/controlled motivation, 90 cognitive evaluation theory (CET), 86-9 and competence, 82, 84--5 and control, 211, 236 future directions, 484--5 intrinsic/extrinsic motivation, 90, 91 needs, 82,90-1 and self-esteem, 187 and social loafing, 180

Self-efficacy, 395,398,405,413,466 building, 461, 462-3 creative, 190-1 and expectancy beliefs, 367-8; see also VIE theory generalized, 192 as motivational concept, 371 and self-esteem, 190-1

Self-employment, 231 Self-enhancing biases, 159 Self-esteem, 72-3, 159, 171-2

and bullying, 154, 156 definitions, 185 and dysfunctional behavior, 186,463 high/low, 185-6, 187-8 higher-order constructs, 191-2 as mediating variable, 48 and redundancy, 343 needs/status, 184, 185, 188,203 secure/fragile, 186, 187 and self-efficacy, 190-1 sources of, 187 and status, 202-3 task-related, 191

584 Subject index

Self-esteem - Contd. unrealistic, 463 at work, three-level construction, 188-9

Self-evaluation, core, 192 Self-fulfilling prophesies, 64/64, 196,262-3,266,485 Self-identity, 264 Self-interest organizational justice, 311, 312, 358 Self-investment, 202-3 Self-leadership/management, see Self-regulation Self-presentation, 152 Self-prophesy effect, 64/64, 196,262-3,266,485 Self-reflection, 461 Self-regulation, 426, 458, 460, 465; see also Control theory;

Goal-setting theory; OB mod; Social~cognitive theory career management, 469-70 concepts, 465-6 definition, 466 and effective management, 148 emotions, 134-6, 139-41,470 event sequencing, 471-2 free will, 467 and goal selection, 467 and goal setting, 447-8 impulse control, 122 intrinsic motivation, 467 and organizational behavior, 468-9 process, 467-8 scientific status, 472 strength, 466 three-stage process, 470

Self-soothing, 134 Sensitivity, 135

to equity, 325, 326 SES ( socio-economic status), see Status Severance pay, 344 Sex; see also Love

benefits, 168-70 and fairness, 166, 169 needs, 67, 71-2,165-6 workplace, 166-8

Sex-structuring of organizations, 332 Sexual harassment, 157-8, 168, 170 Shame, 126, 129 Shaping, behavior, 434; see also Behaviorism Shaw, George Bernard (quote), 425 Shirking, 181, 182 Should/would/could assessments, 354-5 Silence, 323, 324-5; see also Withdrawal Simplicity, theoretical, 207-8, 360; see also Occam's razor;

Oversimplification SlOP (Society for Industrial and Organizational

Psychologists), 58 Situational factors; see also Context

job satisfaction, 273-4, 300 work ability, 20-1, 22, 47, 48

Skill and employee ability, 8-9, 22 upgrading, 13 variety, 210

Skinner, B. E, 425, 427 Slavery, 232, 477, 479

SMART goals, 10,Q Social anxiety, i82 Social-cognitive tlieory (SCT), 389, 427, 456, 464-5, 468

and discipline, 347 environment, 458-9 and goodness offit, 53 group-level applications, 463-4. global perspectives, 481 human capabilities, 459-61 and self-efficacy, 190 simplicity/complexity, behavioral, 457-8 social factors, 458 and social loafing, 181 triangular model of causality, 457/457, 458, 459 validity, 45 work motivation, 461-2

Social companionship, 174 Social comparison, 176 Social construction

emotionlbeliefs/perceptions, 119 job attitudes, 277

Social facilitation, 179, 191 Social information-processing, 66, 276-7, 320-1 Social infrastructure, and productivity, 7 Social intelligence, 134 Social learning theory, see Social-cognitive theory Social loafing, 179-82, 191 Social motivation, 183-4

defining,178-9 -incivility, 183 social anxiety, 182 social facilitation, 179, 191

Social responsibility, 209, 211, 327 Social status, see Status Social support, 174

and fear reduction, 174-5 and organizational climate, 59

Socialization, organizational, 296-7 of emotions, 139 . and fit, 96 rituals, 296

Socialized power, 147-8, 158 Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychologists

(SIOP),58 Socio-economic status (SES), see Status Specialization, job, 217, 218 Spirituality in the workp1ace, 359, 485 Stalking, 164-5 Statistical

conclusion validity, 30, 31, 377-9 power, 31

Status/status systems, occupational, 193, 194 ceremonies, 202 characteristics, 198 comparisons, occupational, 196-7 construct validity, 201 and control, 195 definitions, 193 denigration/demotion, 202 and emotional displays, 196 and gender, 198, 199

as goal, 184, 188, 203 and interpersonal communication, 195-6 as reward, 194-5 and self-esteem, 202-3 status assignment systems, 197-9 symbols, 199-201

Status of Women Canada, 333 Stealing, 313, 323-4

to Stereotypes, gender, 117, 149, 177, 199, 333 \ Stimulus generalization, 436-7

Stories, personal, 171, 172, 187 Strategy development, 398-9 Strawberry picking, 478-9 Stress

and control/autonomy, 148 and dismissal, 351 and equity, 352 geographic transfers, 208 and job involvement, 304-5 and social support, 174-5 and work addiction, 306, 307, 308

Subconscious mind, role, 10, 13, 406, 484 Supervisory relationships, 217 Supplementary congruence, 51 Supply-side explanations, pay parity, 331 Survivors, downsizing, 342, 345 Switzerland, 6, 7 Symbolization, 444, 460; see also Status symbols Systemic justice/injustice, 356; see also Organizational

justice

Taboos, workplace, 167, 168 Tallness/height, 47-8, 198 Taskls

complexity/novelty, 392, 401-2 difficulty, 79-80, 393-4, 395 goal theory, 389; see also Goal-setting theory identity, 210 orientations,403,404 performance goals, 401-2, 403, 406 significance, 211 specific plans, 401-2 task-related self-esteem, 191

Taylor, F. W (quote), 3 Teaching, management students, 28 Team working, social information processing, 320-1; see also

Groups Technological systems, 218 Telecommuting, 174-5 Temperament, 112; see also Personality Terminal values, 92, 93 Territoriality, 152 Testosterone, 166, 194 Theft, 313, 323-4 Theorylresearch, 4-5, 23-6, 32,59-60; see also Construct

validity; Evidence-based practice; Validity

appJied,40-1 art of research design, 50 bad/good theories, 27, 28 communication between theorists/practitioners, 27,

28

Subject index 585

complexity, 41, 42, 46-7,59; see also Oversimplificatiop.

context, see Context; Organizational climate; Organizational culture

critiques, 27-8, 30-2, 35, 36-9 cycle of development/adoption, 25, 26-7, 26; see also

Motivator-hygiene theory definitions/conceptualizations, 28-9 evaluation criteria, 29 falsifiability, 29,31 faulty/inaccurate methodology, 31, 32, 222 future directions, 484-5 inference of hypothetical constructs, 38, 68 integration, future directions, 484 job enrichment, 222 laboratory/real settings, 149, 181 limitations, 249 measurement issues, 38, 43-4 meta-theories, 484 misinterpretations, 483-4 old models, valuing, 484 overview, need-based theories, 249 practical application, 29, 41-2, 46, 419 premature application, 42, 59 reciprocation between theory/practice, 27 relevance, 45-6 review, 482, 483-4 simplicity, value of, 202-8,360; see also Occam's Razor;

Oversimplification C

social/ideological issues, 39-40 testing, inaccurate, 264, 483-4 timeliness of, 46 utility, 29, 31,42-3,44-5,46 VIE theory research difficulties, 382-3

Theory of intentional behavior, 390-1,390 Theory of planned behavior, 264, 265-6 Theory of reasoned action (TRA), 255-7, 256,

266 criticismsllimitations; 263-4 definition, 256-7 and goal setting, 389, 399/399 influence of attitudes on behavior, 260-3, 265 and job satisfaction, 284 and organizational commitment, 298 validity, predictive, 264-5 and VIE theory, 363 and withdrawal behaviors, 279

Theory of work adjustment (TWA), 52,271 Theory XN, 64/64, 65, 100, 156

apathetic/withdrawal behavior 266 future directions, 485 '

Thoreau, H. D., 25 Time as context, 48-9 Times Colonist, 4 Tipping points, 49 Token women, 332 TOTE model, 407 Toyota production system, 230 Toxic workplaces, 58-9, 131-2, 183 TRA, see Theory of reasoned action Trade unions, 220, 269, 332

,. \

586 Subject index

Training/education and commitment, 296 employee, 8-9,22 management students, 28

Transfers, geographic, 208, 296 Travel, and workplace love/sex, 167-8 Treaty of Rome, 329 Triangular model of causality, 457/457, 458, 459 Tripartite definition of attitudes, 254 Troubleshooters, 217 Trust, 312, 318, 339-40, 342-3,353

and downsizing, 345 Truthfulness, 318 Turnover, employee, 280-2, 283 TWA (theory of work adjustment), 52, 271 Two-factor theory, see Motivator-hygien'e theory Typing/word processing pools, 217 Typologies

human functioning, 63, 65-7 power bases, 148, 150, 151 reasons for working, 482

Tyranny, 155-7, 160; see also Sexual harassment

UK economy, 6, 7 General practitioners, 197

Uncertainty avoidance, 104 equivocality, 285 and fairness, 312 fear of unknown, 219

Unconscious communication, 109; see also Subconscious mind

Unemployment, 125, 128, 189 Unfolding model of voluntary turnover, 283 Unions, labor, 220, 269, 332 Unrequited love/rejection, 164-5, 172 U.S.,480-l '

AmericanlPeruvian comparison study, 101 Great American Dream, 480 pay parity, 330 productivity index, 6 values, 99 views on rewards of hard work, 363-4

Valence, 214, 364-5, 375, 385; see also Values; VIE theory Validity, 29, 30, 32, 39, 59; see also Construct validity

beliefs, 257 cognitive evaluation theory, 87 context, 51 equity theory, 325, 326 external, 30, 31, 51, 326 hierarchical theory of needs, 74-5 internal, 30, 31, 326, 379-80 job characteristics model, 213 job enrichment, 220-3 marginal, 42-3 motivator-hygiene theory, 36, 37, 38 predictive, 264-5, 325 scientific, 44, 45 self-regulation, 472

social cogni~v~. theory, 45 statistical conclusion, 30, 31, 377-9 theory of reasoned action, 264-5 and usefulness, 44-5 VIE theory, 376, 377-82, 484

Values, and work motivation, 91-2, 105; see also Cultural differences; Morality; Valence

and attitudes, 92, 93/93, 95 and behavior, 93 Canadian, 14, 15,99 changes in, 94-5, 99 concept of fit, 96 definitions/concepts, 92, 93, 100 employee, 98-100 ethics of strong cultures, 96-7 instrumental, 92, 93 and needs, 92-3, 273 organizational values, 96, 97-8 terminal values, 92, 93 work values, 4, 9, 14-16,93-5,99

Variables, contextual, 49, 50, 53-4; see also Context Velocity of change, 135, 272, 471 Vicarious

learning, 447,456, 460 rewards/punishments, 462

Vicious cycles; 196; see also Efficacy spirals; Self-fulfilling prophesies

Victims, downsizing, 342-4 VIE (Valence-instruID.entality-expectancy) theory, 387, 390,

392-4, 396, 399/399 American/Canadian views on rewards of hard work,

363-4 and behaviorism, 442 between/within-persons issue, 376-7, 378-82 current assessment of theory, 386-7 efficacy spirals, 369 empowerment, 370-1 expectancy, 213, 364,367-8, 381,384-5 expectancy model equation, 213 force, 371-2 Galatea effect, 369-70 and goal setting, 388 and hope, 127 idiosyncratic deals, 386 individualized organizations, 385-6 instrumentality, 364, 365-7, 381, 385 job characteristics approach, 213-15, 221 management implications, 384-6 original theory, 364 path-goal theory ofleadership, 383-6 performance, 365, 372,375-6 Porter-Lawler model, 373-5,373 Pygrnalion effect, 369-70 quote, 363 research difficulties, 382-3 and self-efficacy, 191, 367-8 and theory of reasoned action, 363 valence, 214, 364-5, 375,385 validity, 376, 377-82, 484

Violence, see Aggression Virtual work, 174-5

Vision, 3, 12, 389 Vocational, calling, 103 Voice, 339, 358; see also Participation Volition, 24, 456, 461, 465,484--5

Wal-Mart, 166 Warm and fuzzy factors, 318 Watson Wyatt, 279

~c Why men earn more, 337 \ William M. Mercer Ltd., 279

Withdrawal behaviors, 278-9, 313, 323, 438 absenteeism, 11, 13, 129,279-80 apathy, 266 military AWOL, 284 and organizational commitment, 298-9 reactions to inequity/injustice, 313, 323 turnover, employee, 280-2, 283

Women, token, 332; see also Comparable worth movement; Feminism; Gender

Work addiction, 299, 305-8 Work anorexics, 306 Work commitment, see Organizational commitment

Subject index 587

Work ethic, 9, 128,269 . intergenerational differences, 4, 9, 14, 15-16

Work-life balance, 269-Work motivation, see Motivation Work Motivation (Pinder)

outline/structure of book, 22--4, 59-60, 249, 421, 472 purpose of book, 4--5

Work values, 4, 9,14--16,93-5,99; see also Organizational values

Workaholics, 299, 305-8 Worker Representation and Participation Study (WRPS),

100 Would/should/could assessments, 354--5 WRPS (Worker Representation and Participation Study),

100

X, theory, see Theory XN

Y, theory, see Theory XN Young, Arthur (quote), 477

Zen understanding of man, 63

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