Words and meaningsWords and meanings

English vocabularyEnglish vocabulary

In our working with texts we have In our working with texts we have talked a lot about meaning. We need talked a lot about meaning. We need to see how meaning is linked with to see how meaning is linked with language formslanguage forms

Things to look for or Things to look for or considerconsider

Genre/fieldGenre/field Addresser/Addressee relationship – Addresser/Addressee relationship –

shared social meaningshared social meaning Voice Voice Register- tenorRegister- tenor Illocutionary intent /purposeIllocutionary intent /purpose Critical social meaning (representation Critical social meaning (representation

of a culture’s established imagery, of a culture’s established imagery, values)values)

Referential meaningReferential meaning

Most lexical words have some Most lexical words have some referent in real life, features of the referent in real life, features of the world that the word refers to – the world that the word refers to – the object, entity , state of affairs etc. object, entity , state of affairs etc. Sometimes we need to add details to Sometimes we need to add details to make the reference more precise make the reference more precise and unambiguous (for example and unambiguous (for example through relative clauses). through relative clauses).

Componential analysisComponential analysis

Words have sense relations, the Words have sense relations, the system of linguistic relations which a system of linguistic relations which a lexical item contracts with other lexical item contracts with other lexical items.lexical items.

One can describe relations of One can describe relations of meaning by breaking down each meaning by breaking down each word into its irreducible features, word into its irreducible features, those components which are those components which are absolutely minimal for its reference. absolutely minimal for its reference. This is called componential analysis.This is called componential analysis.

primingpriming

As we saw, we are primed by our As we saw, we are primed by our encounters with a word for the sense encounters with a word for the sense and the kind of texts we might find it and the kind of texts we might find it in, the kind of grammatical company in, the kind of grammatical company it keeps (colligation) and for its it keeps (colligation) and for its collocation, among other things – in collocation, among other things – in this way we begin to build up a this way we begin to build up a picture of what a word ‘means’picture of what a word ‘means’

Relationships between Relationships between wordswords

Vocabulary is not just a list of words. Words Vocabulary is not just a list of words. Words do not exist in isolation: their meanings are do not exist in isolation: their meanings are defined by the sense relations they have defined by the sense relations they have with other words e.g.different words with with other words e.g.different words with similar meanings, different words and similar meanings, different words and opposite meanings, different words but opposite meanings, different words but same word family or lexical field, same same word family or lexical field, same word but different meanings, same word word but different meanings, same word and similar meanings. We saw this at work and similar meanings. We saw this at work in lexical cohesionin lexical cohesion

Homonymy (homo=same, Homonymy (homo=same, nym=namenym=name

_ Same lexical item, different meaning_ Same lexical item, different meaning _ _ G20 protesters held a tea party G20 protesters held a tea party

outside the outside the Bank Bank of England today, of England today, starting demonstrations against the starting demonstrations against the summitsummit

_ _ Patna city lies on the southern Patna city lies on the southern bank bank of the Ganges riverof the Ganges river

_ Listed separately in dictionary_ Listed separately in dictionary

Polysemy (poly=many, Polysemy (poly=many, seme=meaning)seme=meaning)

____ _ Same lexical item, related meaning_ Same lexical item, related meaning _ _ My house is in the middle of aMy house is in the middle of a woodwood __The kitchen is heated by a wood The kitchen is heated by a wood

burning stoveburning stove _ Listed together in dictionary_ Listed together in dictionary _ Often metaphorical_ Often metaphorical

Polysemes and homonymsPolysemes and homonyms

One dictionary gives 16 different One dictionary gives 16 different meanings for the word meanings for the word fair fair another another only six. It is difficult to delineate the only six. It is difficult to delineate the boundaries of meaning.boundaries of meaning.

Good dictionaries list the different Good dictionaries list the different meanings at the top of each entry to meanings at the top of each entry to enable you to choose which is the enable you to choose which is the more likely definition, the first one is more likely definition, the first one is usually the most frequentusually the most frequent

PolysemyPolysemy

The word The word edgeedge can have five different can have five different meanings:meanings:

1. part furthest out (1. part furthest out (on the edge of townon the edge of town)) 2. sharp side of blade or tool (2. sharp side of blade or tool (knife edgeknife edge)) 3. angry tone in voice (3. angry tone in voice (there was an edge there was an edge

to her voice)to her voice) 4. advantage ( 4. advantage ( he has the edge over his he has the edge over his

competitors)competitors) 5. strange quality ( 5. strange quality ( there is an edge to his there is an edge to his

new album)new album)

ConnotationsConnotations

Some dictionaries label words for Some dictionaries label words for their connotations or style and their connotations or style and attitude:attitude:

E.g. formal, humorous, impolite, E.g. formal, humorous, impolite, informal, literary, offensive, old-informal, literary, offensive, old-fashioned, spoken, very formal, very fashioned, spoken, very formal, very informalinformal

Core vocabularyCore vocabulary

Core items are generally the most simple and Core items are generally the most simple and basic in a vocabulary and have particular basic in a vocabulary and have particular properties:properties:

They can substitute for others e.g. in a lexical They can substitute for others e.g. in a lexical set: e.g. set: e.g. eateat is a core word, is a core word, gobble, dine, gobble, dine, devourdevour all entail eating but the converse is all entail eating but the converse is not true. not true.

The less ‘core’ a word is the less easy it is to The less ‘core’ a word is the less easy it is to find an antonym e.g. find an antonym e.g. fat/thin, laugh/cryfat/thin, laugh/cry are are easy but easy but emaciated, guffaw, sobemaciated, guffaw, sob cause more cause more problems.problems.

More core propertiesMore core properties

Collocability: the company a word keeps: Collocability: the company a word keeps: single words operate in a lexical environment single words operate in a lexical environment with other words: e.g. with other words: e.g. rock and rollrock and roll..

The more core a word is the more widely it will The more core a word is the more widely it will collocate (e.g. collocate (e.g. brightbright collocates more widely collocates more widely than than radiantradiant. You can have a . You can have a bright sun, bright bright sun, bright light, a bright child, a bright sky, bright ideas, light, a bright child, a bright sky, bright ideas, bright colours, bright red, a bright future, bright colours, bright red, a bright future, bright prospectsbright prospects. . Radiant Radiant cannot collocate cannot collocate with with greengreen, , idea, prospects, childidea, prospects, child))

ExtensionExtension

Core words like Core words like go , get, rungo , get, run have greater have greater extension and are more often transformed extension and are more often transformed into compounds multiword verbs, idioms, into compounds multiword verbs, idioms, phrasal verbs and so on.phrasal verbs and so on.

Core words have generic rather than Core words have generic rather than specific properties and are more likely to specific properties and are more likely to be super-ordinates. They are less likely to be super-ordinates. They are less likely to be culture- restricted and less likely to be be culture- restricted and less likely to be from a recognisable and specific domain from a recognisable and specific domain and tend to be neutral in terms of formalityand tend to be neutral in terms of formality

Core words in EnglishCore words in English

In British English the Anglo Saxon part In British English the Anglo Saxon part of the vocabulary tends to be more of the vocabulary tends to be more core than the Latinate part. They tend core than the Latinate part. They tend to be mono-morphemic and not to be to be mono-morphemic and not to be loan words. loan words. The notion of core The notion of core vocabulary is useful for paraphrasing vocabulary is useful for paraphrasing and summarising and the learning of and summarising and the learning of vocabulary and for describing stylistic vocabulary and for describing stylistic and expressive effects.and expressive effects.

Words and patternsWords and patterns

Language is Language is textualtextual and and phrasalphrasal. . It is not helpful to think of selecting a It is not helpful to think of selecting a

word to fill a grammatical slot. A word word to fill a grammatical slot. A word has meaning according to the has meaning according to the possible possible range of contrastsrange of contrasts it sets up. it sets up.

Words also Words also keep companykeep company – it is – it is difficult to respond to the question difficult to respond to the question ‘‘What does What does X X mean?’mean?’ without knowing without knowing the context.the context.

ClusteringClustering

All words tend to have a tendency to All words tend to have a tendency to clustercluster together with some other words. In together with some other words. In idioms they are closely bound togetherthey are closely bound together

ColligationColligation is the grammatical company a is the grammatical company a word keeps such as the relationship between word keeps such as the relationship between ‘‘depend’depend’ and and ‘on’ ‘on’ or between or between ‘look forward to ‘look forward to and seeing seeing

Collocation is a lexical relationship where you is a lexical relationship where you might expect for example to find might expect for example to find snowsnow co- co-occurring with occurring with winter, cold, drift, whitewinter, cold, drift, white and so and so onon

CollocationCollocation is the way in which words are used is the way in which words are used

together regularly. Collocation refers together regularly. Collocation refers to the restrictions on how words can to the restrictions on how words can be used together, for example which be used together, for example which verbs and nouns are used together. verbs and nouns are used together. For example, in English the verb For example, in English the verb performperform is used with is used with operationoperation, but not , but not with with discussiondiscussion: : The doctor performed The doctor performed the operationthe operation..

HighHigh collocates with collocates with probabilityprobability, but , but not with not with chancechance: : a high probability but a high probability but a good chancea good chance

Semantic prosodySemantic prosody

This is a concept whereby words This is a concept whereby words tend totend to carry a particular meaning which is not carry a particular meaning which is not inherent in their meaning because they inherent in their meaning because they have been used frequently in particular have been used frequently in particular kinds of context. kinds of context.

Often people Often people do not realisedo not realise how a word can how a word can carry positive or negative connotations e.g. carry positive or negative connotations e.g. causecause is usually found associated with is usually found associated with negative concepts such as ‘negative concepts such as ‘cause an cause an accident’,accident’, set inset in with negative events. with negative events. Commit…….Commit…….

To know a word in a particular To know a word in a particular language means:language means:

To recognise it in its spoken or To recognise it in its spoken or written formwritten form

To use it in the appropriate To use it in the appropriate grammatical formgrammatical form

In speech to pronounce it in a In speech to pronounce it in a recognisable wayrecognisable way

In writing to spell it correctlyIn writing to spell it correctly To recall it at willTo recall it at will

And..And..

To relate it to an appropriate object or To relate it to an appropriate object or conceptconcept

To use it with the words it correctly To use it with the words it correctly goes with i.e. in the correct collocationgoes with i.e. in the correct collocation

To be aware of its connotations and To be aware of its connotations and associationsassociations

To use it at an appropriate level of To use it at an appropriate level of formalityformality

examplesexamples What do you know about the following?What do you know about the following? ScarfScarf NeckNeck trousertrouser SuggestiveSuggestive typicaltypical Remember we learn through our Remember we learn through our

encounters with a word or phrase. Look encounters with a word or phrase. Look at the concordance lines. Have you at the concordance lines. Have you learned anything new?learned anything new?

Collocations and idiomsCollocations and idioms Collocation can be related to statistical Collocation can be related to statistical

frequency, to discourse type, to domains, to frequency, to discourse type, to domains, to priming and to the phraseological principle priming and to the phraseological principle that words cluster together in more or less that words cluster together in more or less predictable groupspredictable groups

the idiom or phraseological principle of the idiom or phraseological principle of language is the dominant, default mode language is the dominant, default mode both of both of producingproducing and and interpreting interpreting discourse. We make use of prefabs or discourse. We make use of prefabs or schema templates because we rarely schema templates because we rarely recount experiences which are entirely recount experiences which are entirely novel and, even if we did, we would talk of novel and, even if we did, we would talk of them in ways that related them to them in ways that related them to previously acquired knowledge.previously acquired knowledge.

‘‘the language user has available to him a the language user has available to him a large number of preconstructed or large number of preconstructed or semi‑preconstructed phrases that semi‑preconstructed phrases that constitute single choices, even though constitute single choices, even though they appear to be analysable into they appear to be analysable into segments’ (Sinclair 1987: 320). The segments’ (Sinclair 1987: 320). The underlying principle, in Sinclair’s terms, is underlying principle, in Sinclair’s terms, is that of that of coselectioncoselection, that items are rarely , that items are rarely inserted in discourse one by one but in inserted in discourse one by one but in semi pre-packaged lots. These include semi pre-packaged lots. These include simple collocations, such as simple collocations, such as roaring fireroaring fire, , semi-idiomatic templates, for instance semi-idiomatic templates, for instance live live to a to a [[ripe ripe / / grandgrand] (] (oldold) ) ageage (Stubbs 2000), (Stubbs 2000),

IDIOMS ‘Word’IDIOMS ‘Word’actions speak louder than actions speak louder than wordswordsActions speak louder than Actions speak louder than words.words.at a loss for wordsat a loss for wordsbe as good as your wordbe as good as your wordbe lost for wordsbe lost for wordsbe the last word in be the last word in somethingsomethingnot believe a word of itnot believe a word of itbreak your wordbreak your wordnot breathe a wordnot breathe a wordbreathe a wordbreathe a worda buzz worda buzz wordby word of mouthby word of moutha dirty worda dirty wordeat your wordseat your wordsFamous last words.Famous last words.for want of a better wordfor want of a better worda four-letter worda four-letter wordfrom the word gofrom the word goget a word in edgewaysget a word in edgewaysget a word in edgewiseget a word in edgewisehang on (someone's) every hang on (someone's) every wordwordhave a word (with have a word (with someone)someone)have a word in someone's have a word in someone's earearhave the final/last wordhave the final/last word

have to eat your wordshave to eat your wordshave wordshave wordshave words (with someone)have words (with someone)in a wordin a wordin other wordsin other wordsin so many wordsin so many wordsin words of one syllablein words of one syllablekeep your wordkeep your wordnot know the meaning of not know the meaning of the wordthe wordthe last word in somethingthe last word in somethingleave word (with someone)leave word (with someone)lost for wordslost for wordsmake someone eat their make someone eat their wordswordsa man of few wordsa man of few wordsa man of his worda man of his word(You) mark my words.(You) mark my words.mark my wordsmark my wordsnot mince (your) wordsnot mince (your) wordsmum's the wordmum's the wordMum's the word.Mum's the word.not mince wordsnot mince wordsthe operative wordthe operative worda play on wordsa play on wordsput in a good word (for put in a good word (for someone)someone)

put in a good word for put in a good word for someonesomeoneput words in someone's put words in someone's mouthmouthput words in/into someone's put words in/into someone's mouthmouth(just) say the word(just) say the wordsay the wordsay the wordspread the wordspread the wordtake someone at their wordtake someone at their wordtake the words (right) out of take the words (right) out of someone's mouthsomeone's mouthtake the words out of take the words out of someone's mouthsomeone's mouthtake someone's word for ittake someone's word for itThere's many a true word There's many a true word spoken in jest.spoken in jest.too something for wordstoo something for wordstrue to your wordtrue to your worda war of wordsa war of wordsweasel wordsweasel wordsweigh your wordsweigh your wordsWhat's the magic word?What's the magic word?won't hear a word (said) won't hear a word (said) against against someone/somethingsomeone/somethingword for wordword for wordsomeone's word is lawsomeone's word is lawA word to the wise (is A word to the wise (is sufficient).sufficient).Words fail me!Words fail me!

Sets and fieldsSets and fields

By By fieldfield of discourse of discourse is meant the is meant the particular activity, cultural feature, particular activity, cultural feature, social institution or topic for which a social institution or topic for which a particular set of ideationally related particular set of ideationally related lexical items is evolved or adapted. lexical items is evolved or adapted.

Each field has a specialised topic-Each field has a specialised topic-related vocabulary which makes up related vocabulary which makes up the the lexical setlexical set

The lexicon of fieldsThe lexicon of fields

NounsNouns labelling technical features, labelling technical features, artefactsartefacts, , equipment, structures etcequipment, structures etc

Verbs Verbs identifying and distinguishing between identifying and distinguishing between processesprocesses, types of event methods etc., types of event methods etc.

Adjectives and adverbsAdjectives and adverbs indicating conventional indicating conventional propertiesproperties of the above of the above

Phrases and conventional collocationsPhrases and conventional collocations that that may expand, modify or combine any of the abovemay expand, modify or combine any of the above

Figurative extensionsFigurative extensions of the terms may be of the terms may be used outside the field of discourse to general used outside the field of discourse to general usageusage