Word classes.pdf

8/17/2019 Word classes.pdf

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Word classes

All words belong to categories called word classes (or parts of speech) according

to the part they play in a sentence. The main word classes in English are listed

below.

Noun

Verb Adjective

Adverb

Pronoun

Preposition

Conjunction

Determiner

Exclamation

Noun

A noun is a word that identifies:

a person (man, girl, engineer , friend )

a thing (horse, wall, flower, country )

an idea, quality, or state (anger, courage, life,luckiness)

Read more about nouns.

Verb

A verb describes what a person or thing does or what happens. For example, verbs

describe:

an action – jump, stop, explore

an event – snow, happen

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a situation – be, seem, have

a change – evolve, shrink, widen

Read more about verbs.

Adjective

An adjective is a word that describes a noun, giving extrainformation about it. For

example:

an exci t ing adventure

a green apple

a t idy room

Read more about adjectives.

Adverb

An adverb is a word that’s used to give information about a verb, adjective, or other

adverb. They can make the meaning of a verb, adjective, or other adverb stronger or

weaker, and often appear between the subject and its verb (She nearly lost everything.)

Read more about adverbs.

Pronoun

Pronouns are used in place of a noun that is already known or has already

been mentioned. This is often done in order to avoid repeating the noun. For example:

Laura left early because she was tired.

Anthony brought the avocados with h im .

That is the only option left.

Something will have to change.

Personal pronouns are used in place of nouns referring to specific people or things, forexample I , me, mine, you, yours,his, her , hers, we, they , or them. They can be divided

into various different categories according to their role in a sentence, as follows:

subjective pronouns

objective pronouns

possessive pronouns

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reflexive pronouns

Read more about pronouns.

Preposition

A preposition is a word such as after, in, to, on, and with. Prepositions are usually used

in front of nouns or pronouns and they show the relationship between the noun or

pronoun and other words in a sentence. They describe, for example, the position of

something, the time when something happens, or the way in which something is done.

Read more about prepositions.

Conjunction

A conjunction (also called a connective) is a word such

as and, because, but, for, if, or, and when. Conjunctions are used to

connect phrases, clauses, and sentences.The two main kinds are known

as coordinating conjunctionsand subordinating conjunctions.

Read more about conjunctions.

Determiner

A determiner is a word that introduces a noun, suchas a/an , the , every , this , those , or many (as

in a dog, the dog, this dog, those dogs, every dog, many dogs).

The determiner the is sometimes known as the definite article and the

determiner a (or an ) as the indefinite article.

Read more about determiners.

Exclamation

An exclamation (also called an interjection) is a word or phrase that expresses strong

emotion, such as surprise, pleasure, or anger. Exclamations often stand on their own,

and in writing they are usually followed by an exclamation mark rather than a full stop.

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Sentence Stretchers

Purpose: Syntactic Development

Focus: Expand grammatically correct sentences by adding new words in appropriate order

ELDC (Continuum) Level(s): Proficient 2, Proficient 3

Procedure: One team begins by making a sentence orally that contains the language or content focus of

the lesson. (Make the starter sentence as short as possible.) For example, in a lesson focusing on

weather and on adjectives, the first team might say, The cloud is floating. The first team gets a point.

Other teams take turns expanding the sentence, getting a point each time something is added

successfully or until teams run out of expansions.

Examples:

Begin with the sentence: The cloud is floating. The cloud is floating. The white cloud is floating. The

fluffy white cloud is floating. The fluffy white cloud is floating in the sky. The fluffy white cloud that looks

like a boat is floating in the sky. Etc.

Begin with the sentence: The tree was happy.(from lesson on The Giving Tree, by S. Silverstein) The tree

was happy because the boy returned. The Giving Tree was happy because the boy returned. The Giving

Tree was happy because the boy returned to sit in the shade. The Giving Tree was happy because the

boy returned to sit in the shade and rest. The Giving Tree was happy because the boy returned to sit in

the shade and rest quietly.


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SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE

THE SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE IS USED: To express habits, general truths, repeated actions or unchanging situations, emotions and

wishes:

I smoke (habit); I work in London (unchanging situation); London is a large city (general truth)

To give instructions or directions:

You walk for two hundred meters, then you turn left.

To express fixed arrangements, present or future:

Your exam starts at 09.00

To express future time, after some conjunctions: after, when, before, as so on as, unt i l :

He'll give it to you when you come next Saturday.

Be careful! The simple present is not used to express actions happening now.

EXAMPLES

For habits

He drinks tea at breakfast.

She only eats fish.

They watch television regularly.

For repeated actions or events

We catch the bus every morning.It rains every afternoon in the hot season.

They drive to Monaco every summer.

For general truths

Water freezes at zero degrees.

The Earth revolves around the Sun.

Her mother is Peruvian.

For instructions or directions

Open the packet and pour the contents into hot water.

You take the No.6 bus to Watney and then the No.10 to Bedford.

For fixed arrangements

His mother arrives tomorrow.

Our holiday starts on the 26th March

With future constructions

She'll see you before she leaves.

We'll give it to her when she arrives.


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FORMING THE SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE: TO THINK

Affirmative Interrogative Negative

I think Do I think? I do not think

You think Do you think? You do not think

He thinks Does he think? He does not think

She thinks Does she think? She does not think

It thinks Does it think? It does not think

We think Do we think? We do not think.

They think Do they think? They do not think.

NOTES ON THE SIMPLE PRESENT, THIRD PERSONSINGULAR

In the third person singular the verb always ends in -s:

he want s , she need s , he gives , she think s .

Negative and question forms use DOES (= the third person of the auxiliary 'DO') + the infinitive of

the verb.

He want s ice cream. Does he want strawberry? He does not want vanilla.

Verbs ending in -y : the third person changes the -y to -ies:

fly --> fl ie s , cry --> cr ie s

Exception: if there is a vowel before the -y: play --> play s , pray --> pray s

Add -es to verbs ending in:-ss, -x, -sh, -ch:

he passes, she catches, he fix es, it pushes

EXAMPLES

He goes to school every morning.


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She understands English.

It mixes the sand and the water.

He tries very hard.

She enjoys playing the piano.

Present Simple or Continuous

We use the Present Simple

o for regular actions or events

I watch TV most evenings.

o facts

The sun rises in the east

o facts know about the future

The plane leaves at 5.00 in the morning.o thoughts and feelings about the time of speaking

I don't understand.

We use the Present Continuous

o at the time of speaking ('now')

I'm watching a movie on TV.

o things which are true at the moment but not always

I'm looking for a new job.

o present plans for the future

I'm taking my husband to New York for his birthday.

Look at these sentences:

o I usually don't drink coffee but I'm having one this morning because there is nothing else.

o I often drive to work but I'm taking the train this morning because my car is in for repair.

o I'm thinking about dying my hair blonde but I don't think my wife will be very happy about it.

o My parents live in New York but I'm just visiting.

Notice how in all these examples we use the present continuous to talk about events which are

temporary/limited in time and the present simple to talk about events which are

habits/permanent.


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PAST TENSEThe Simple Past Tense, often just called the Past Tense, is easy to use in English.

If you already know how to use the Present Tense, then the Past Tense will be easy.

In general, the Past Tense is used to talk about something that started and finished at a definite

time in the past.

How to form the Past Tense in English

The main rule is that for every verb in English, there is only one form of it in the past tense.

(The exception is the Past tense of To Be, which has two forms: was and were)

This is totally different from other languages such as Spanish, French, Italian etc. where you change

the verb ending for every subject.

For example: The past tense of the verb want is wanted .

Wanted is used as the past tense for all subjects/pronouns.

I wanted

You wanted

He wanted

She wanted

It wanted

We wanted

They wanted

So you just have to learn one word to be able to use it in the past tense. In this case we just needed

to learn the one word wanted which can be used for all subjects (or people).

Past Tense Regular Verbs

To change a regular verb into its past tense form, we normally add –ED to the end of the verb.

play – played

cook – cooked

rain – rained

wait – waited

There are some exceptions with a slight change in spelling which you can see here:

Spelling of words ending in ED.

http://www.grammar.cl/Present/Simple.htmhttp://www.grammar.cl/Present/Simple.htmhttp://www.grammar.cl/Present/Simple.htmhttp://www.grammar.cl/Past/To_Be.htmhttp://www.grammar.cl/Past/To_Be.htmhttp://www.grammar.cl/Past/To_Be.htmhttp://www.grammar.cl/english/spelling-ed-ending.htmhttp://www.grammar.cl/english/spelling-ed-ending.htmhttp://www.grammar.cl/english/spelling-ed-ending.htmhttp://www.grammar.cl/Past/To_Be.htmhttp://www.grammar.cl/Present/Simple.htm


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Examples of sentences using regular verbs in the pasttense

Last night I played my guitar loudly and the neighbors complained.

She kissed me on the cheek.It rained yesterday.

Angela watched TV all night.

John wanted to go to the museum.

Note: There are three different ways of pronouncing the –ed at the end of a verb in the past tense.

We recommend reading our guide about the pronunciation of –ED at the end of words.

Negative sentences in the Past Tense

We use didn't (did not) to make a negative sentence in the past tense.

This is for regular AND irregular verbs in English.

(Exception is To Be and Modal Verbs such as Can)

Compare the following:

Present: They don't live in Canada.

Past: They didn't live in Canada.

The main verb (live in the example above) is in its base form (of the infinitive). The

auxiliary DIDN'T shows that the sentence is negative AND in the past tense.

NOTICE: The only difference between a negative sentence in the present tense and a negative

sentence in the past tense is the change in the auxiliary verb.

Both don't and doesn't in the present tense become didn't in the past tense.

Compare the negative sentences in the examples below:

Present: You don't need a mechanic.

Past: You didn't need a mechanic.

Present: You don't walk to work.

Past: You didn't walk to work.

Present: He doesn't speak Japanese.

Past: He didn't speak Japanese.

Examples of negative sentences in the Past Tense

I didn't want to go to the dentist.

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She didn't have time.

You didn't close the door.

He didn't come to my party.

They didn't study so they didn't pass the test.

We didn't sleep well last night.

Questions in the Past Tense

We use did to make a question in the past tense.

This is for regular AND irregular verbs in English.

(Exception is To Be and Modal Verbs such as Can)

Compare the following:

Present: Do they live in France?

Past: Did they live in France?

The main verb (live in the example above) is in its base form (of the infinitive). The

auxiliary DID shows that the question is in the past tense.

NOTICE: The only difference between a question in the present tense and a question in the past

tense is the change in the auxiliary verb.

Both Do and Does in present tense questions become Didn't in past tense questions.

Compare the questions in the examples below:

Present: Do you need a doctor?

Past: Did you need a doctor?

Present: Do you ride your bike to work?

Past: Did you ride your bike to work?

Present: Does he live in Italy?

Past: Did he live in Italy?

We can also use a question word (Who, What, Why etc.) before DID to ask for more information.

Did you study? – Yes, I did.

When did you study? – I studied last night.Where did you study? – I studied at the library.

Read more about short answers in the past tense.

Examples of Questions in the Past Tense

http://www.grammar.cl/Present/Do_Does.htmhttp://www.grammar.cl/Present/Do_Does.htmhttp://www.grammar.cl/Present/Do_Does.htmhttp://www.grammar.cl/Present/Do_Does.htmhttp://www.grammar.cl/Present/Do_Does.htmhttp://www.grammar.cl/Notes/Question_Words.htmhttp://www.grammar.cl/Notes/Question_Words.htmhttp://www.grammar.cl/Notes/Question_Words.htmhttp://www.grammar.cl/Past/Short_Answers.htmhttp://www.grammar.cl/Past/Short_Answers.htmhttp://www.grammar.cl/Past/Short_Answers.htmhttp://www.grammar.cl/Past/Short_Answers.htmhttp://www.grammar.cl/Notes/Question_Words.htmhttp://www.grammar.cl/Present/Do_Does.htmhttp://www.grammar.cl/Present/Do_Does.htm


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Did you go to work yesterday?

Did they arrive on time?

Did she like the surprise?

Where did she go?

What did you do yesterday?

What did you say? - I didn't say anything.

Why did we have to come?

Irregular Verbs in the Past Tense

Irregular verbs are ONLY irregular in affirmative/positive sentences.

(An exception to this is with the verb TO BE in the Past Tense).

For example: The past tense of GO is WENT.

It does not end in –ED so it is considered irregular.

The word went is used for all subjects – I, you, we, they, he, she, it.

I went to the beach

He went to the park.

She went to the zoo.

They went to the library.

BUT, as we mentioned before, it is only in its irregular form (went ) in sentences that are

affirmative/positive.

Compare the following using GO in the past tense.

They went to the beach

They didn't go to the beach --- Didn't shows that we are talking in the past tense.

Did they go to the beach? --- Did shows that we are talking in the past tense.

Another example with an irregular verb.

The past of EAT is ATE.

You ate my cake.

You didn't eat my cake.Did you eat my cake?

Present vs Past Tense Summary Chart

http://www.grammar.cl/Past/To_Be.htmhttp://www.grammar.cl/Past/To_Be.htmhttp://www.grammar.cl/Past/To_Be.htmhttp://www.grammar.cl/Past/To_Be.htm


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.

PRESENT PREFECT

Use of Present Perfect

puts emphasis on the result

Example: She has written five letters.

action that is still going on

Example: School has not started yet.

action that stopped recently

Example: She has cooked dinner.

finished action that has an influence on the present

Example: I have lost my key.

action that has taken place once, never or several times before the moment of speaking

Example: I have never been to Australia.

Signal Words of Present Perfect

already, ever, just, never, not yet, so far, till now, up to now


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Exercises on Present Perfect

Exceptions in Spelling when adding ‘ed’

have or has

Positive Sentences in Present Perfect Simple

Negative Sentences in Present Perfect Simple

Sentences with ‘never ’ in Present Perfect Simple

Questions in Present Perfect Simple

Questions with Interrogative Particles in Present Perfect Simple

Mixed Exercise on Present Perfect Simple

Exercise on the text “Loch Ness”

Irregular Verbs

For and Since for Time

We lived there for five years.

He has been away since Tuesday.

We often use for and since when talking about time.

for + period: a "period" is a duration of time - five minutes, two weeks, six

years. For means "from the beginning of the period to the end of the period".

since + point: a "point" is a precise moment in time - 9 o'clock, 1st January,

Monday. Since means "from a point in the past until now".

Look at these examples:

for

a period

from start to end

since

a point

from then to now

>===< x===>|

for 20 minutes since 9am

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14/15

for

a period

from start to end

since

a point

from then to now

for three days

for 6 months

for 4 years

for 2 centuries

for a long time

for ever

since Monday

since January

since 1997

since 1500

since I left school

since the beginning of time

all tenses perfect tenses

for

For can be used with all tenses. Here are a few examples:

They study for two hours every day.

They are studying for three hours today.

He has lived in Bangkok for a long time.

He has been living in Paris for three months.

I worked at that bank for five years.

Will the universe continue for ever?

We do not use for with "all day", "all the time":

I was there all day. (not for all day)

since

Since is normally used with perfect tenses:

He has been here since 9am.

He has been working since he arrived.

I had lived in New York since my childhood.


15/15

We also use since in the structure "It is [period] since":

It was a year since I had seen her.

How long is it since you got married?

Both for and since also have other meanings, with no reference to time. Hereare some examples:

This is for you.

Is this the train for London?

Since you ask, I'll say yes.

Since he didn't study, he didn't pass the exam.

Word classes.pdf

Documents

Transcript of Word classes.pdf