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THE FUTURE OF MIGRATIONBUILDING CAPACITIE

FOR CHANGE

WORLD MIGRATIONREPORT 2010


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WORLD MIGRATION REPORT 2010THE FUTURE OF MIGRATION:

BUILDING CAPACITIESFOR CHANGE


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This volume is the fruit of a collabora ve e ort by a team of contribu ng authors and the Editorial Team underthe direc on of the Editors-in-Chief. The ndings, interpreta ons and conclusions expressed herein do notnecessarily re ect the views of IOM or its Member States. The designa ons employed and the presenta onof material throughout the work do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of IOMconcerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area, or of its authori es, or concerning its fron ersor boundaries.

Unless otherwise stated, this volume does not refer to events occurring a er August 2010.

IOM is commi ed to the principle that humane and orderly migra on bene ts migrants and society. As anintergovernmental organiza on, IOM acts with its partners in the interna onal community to: assist in mee ngthe opera onal challenges of migra on; advance understanding of migra on issues; encourage social andeconomic development through migra on; and uphold the human dignity and well-being of migrants.

Publisher: Interna onal Organiza on for Migra on17 route des Morillons1211 Geneva 19SwitzerlandTel.: +41 22 717 91 11Fax: +41 22 798 61 50E-mail: [email protected]: h p://www.iom.int

2010 Interna onal Organiza on for Migra on (IOM)

ISSN 1561-5502ISBN 978-92-9068-590-6

All rights reserved. No part of this publica on may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmi edin any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise without the priorwri en permission of the publisher.

Printed in France by Imprimerie Courand et Associs.

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IOM EdItOrIal tEaM

Editors-In-Chief and Concept Khalid Koser, Frank Laczko

Managing Editor Michele Klein Solomon

Wri ng Team

Part A: Khalid KoserPart B: Frank Laczko, Chris ne Aghazarm, Rudolf Anich,Pierpaolo Capalbo, Ramiro Flores Cruz, Jobst Koehler,Susanne Melde, Roberto Pitea, Julia Schad, Paul Tacon

External Advisory Board

Aderan Adepoju, Stefano Bertozzi, Rolando Garca,Graeme Hugo, Binod Khadria, Agus n Escobar Latap,Hye-Kyung Lee, Susan Mar n, Rainer Mnz, Kathleen

Newland, Nasra Shah, Ronald Skeldon

Editorial Assistance

William Barriga, Peter Bosch, Graeme Hugo, DavidKnight, Erika Laubacher-Kubat, Rainer Mnz, PaolaPace, Nasra Shah, Peter Schatzer, Ronald Skeldon,Elizabeth Warn, Jian Zhao

Publica ons Coordinator Valerie Hagger

Publica ons Assistance and Layout Clara Francia Anaya, Anna Lyn Constan no

Translators Carmen Andreu, Fabienne Wi , and the TRS team

Execu ve Assistance Frances Solinap, Antoine e WillsCartography Oxford Cartographers, Rudolf Anich, Valerie Hagger

Language Editors Susan Parker, Olga Sheean

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aCKNOWlEdGEMENtS

The Editorial Team wishes to thank allcontribu ng authors and is especially gratefulto Mr. William Lacy Swing, IOM Director

General, for his vision and encouragement toproduce this publica on.

The Editorial Team wishes to thank the follow-ing external experts for their contribu on tothe concept of the World Migra on Report 2010 at a workshop in December 2009:

Elizabeth Adjei (Ghana Immigra on Service),Stefano Bertozzi (European Commission,Bureau of European Policy Advisers, Belgium),John Bingham (Interna onal CatholicMigra on Commission ICMC, Switzerland),Alexander Chuplygin (Migra on and RefugeesDivision, Ministry of Foreign A airs, RussianFedera on), Elizabeth Colle (EuropeanPolicy Centre EPC, Belgium), Yve e de laCruz (Public Services Interna onal PSI,France), Mohammed Dito (Labour MarketRegulatory Agency LMRA, Bahrain), RolandoGarcia (Ins tuto Nacional de Migracin,Coordinacin de Relaciones Internacionales eInterins tucionales, Mxico), Manuel Imson

(Permanent Mission of the Philippines to theUnited Na ons O ce in Geneva, Switzerland),Anil Kumar Kokil (Ministry of Finance andEconomic Empowerment, Mauri us), KhalidKoser (Geneva Centre for Security Policy

GCSP, Switzerland), Pascal Rey (O cefdral des migra ons ODM, Switzerland),Wies Maas (The Hague Process on Refugeesand Migra on, Netherlands), Ellene Sana(Asian Migrant Forum, Philippines), Ronald

Skeldon (Department for Interna onalDevelopment, United Kingdom), Diana Veloz(Embassy of Ecuador in Egypt), Simona Vezzoli(Interna onal Migra on Ins tute IMI,United Kingdom), Vincent Williams (Ins tutefor a Democra c Alterna ve in South Africa IDASA, South Africa).

The Editorial Team would also like to thank allauthors of the background papers covered bythe WMR 2010 : Aderan Adepoju, DovelynAgunias, Alexander Be s, Ryzsard Cholewinski,Mohamed Dito, Bimal Ghosh, Randall Hansen,Thomas Huddleston, Graeme Hugo, GregIrving, Binod Khadria, Jobst Koehler, Agus nEscobar Latap, Hye-kyung Lee, Philip Mar n,Susan Mar n, Rainer Mnz, Elizabeth Thomas-Hope, Rachel Sabates-Wheeler, Nasra Shah.All background papers are listed and can bedownloaded at: h p://www.iom.int/jahia/Jahia/policy-research/migration-research/world-migration-report-2010/background-papers

The contribu on of the following speakers atthe WMR 2010 Inter-agency Seminar Series

focusing on capacity-building for changeis equally appreciated: Dovelyn Agunias,Richard Brown, Laura Chappell, Bimal Ghosh,Jim Holli eld, Robert Holzmann, Greg Irving,Khalid Koser, Lindsay Lowell, Sergio Marchi,Luigi Melica, Rainer Mnz, Nadan Petrovic,Nuria Daz Sacristn, Isabel Shutes, CarlosVarga-Silva.

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A complete list of the seminars and related in-forma on can be found online at: h p://www.iom.int/jahia/Jahia/policy-research/migra-tion-research/world-migration-report-2010/interagency-seminar-series

The Editorial Team is grateful also to Solon

Ardi s from Eurasylum Ltd. for conduc ngmonthly policy interviews on the The Futureof Migra on: Building Capaci es for Change.Interviews can be accessed at: h p://www.eurasylum.org/Portal/DesktopDefault .aspx?tabindex=4&tabid=19

Several organiza ons generously sharedtheir data and other research materialswhich allowed, inter alia, the prepara on of informa ve textboxes:

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Ci zenship and Immigra on Canada (CIC),Eurasylum, High Commission for Immigra onand Intercultural Dialogue (ACIDI), Ins tutoNacional de Migracin (INM), Interna onalCatholic Migra on Commission (ICMC),Interna onal Labour Organiza on (ILO), PublicServices Interna onal (PSI), United Na onsChildrens Fund (UNICEF), United Na onsDevelopment Programme (UNDP), UnitedNa ons Environment Programme (UNEP),United Na ons Ins tute for Training andResearch (UNITAR), University of Adelaide,Australia.

The Editorial Team is especially grateful to thefollowing donors for their generous nancialsupport towards the development and publi-ca on of the World Migra on Report 2010 :

Governments of Australia, Italy, Sweden and

Switzerland, and The John D. and Catherine T.MacArthur Founda on.


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lISt OF WMr 2010BaCKGrOUNd PaPErS

http://www.iom.int/jahia/Jahia/policy-research/migration-research/world-migration-report-2010/background-papers

F t re Trends in Migra on: Regional Perspec es The Future of Migra on Policies in Africa by Aderan Adepoju The Future of Migra on Policies in the Asia-Paci c Region by Graeme Hugo The Future of Migra on Policies in the Americas by Agus n Escobar Latap The Future of European Migra on: Policy Op ons for the European Union and its Member

States by Rainer Mnz and Elizabeth Colle Building Capacity to Manage Labour Mobility in Gulf Coopera on Council (GCC) Countries

by Mohamed Dito Building State Capaci es for Managing Contract Worker Mobility: The Asia GCC Context

by Nasra Shah The Future of Migra on Policies in the Caribbean by Elizabeth Thomas-Hope

Migra on Go ernance and Irreg lar Migra on Migra on Governance: Alterna ve Futures by Alexander Be s Irregular Migra on and Mixed Flows by Ryszard Cholewinski The Global Economic Crisis and Governance of Human Mobility: Can We Turn the Current

Crisis Into a New Global Opportunity for the Future? by Bimal Gosh The Future of Migra on Governance and Regional Consulta ve Processes by Jobst

Koehler and Randall Hansen The Future of Labour Migra on Costs by Philip Mar n

Migra on and its Linkages with Emplo ment, Health, Integra on and De elopment The Future of Diaspora Policy by Dovelyn Agunias The Future of Integra on Policy by Thomas Huddleston Family Migra on Issues in North-East Asia by Hye-Kyung Lee Future Capacity Needs in Managing the Health Aspects of Migra on by Greg Irving and

Davide Mosca The Future of Health Worker Migra on by Binod Khadria Welfare Provision for Migrants: Current Trends and Future Challenges by Rachel Sabates-

Wheeler

Climate Change and En ironmental Degrada on: Migra on as an Adapta on Strateg Climate Change and Interna onal Migra on by Susan Mar n


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lISt OF WMr 2010INtEr-aGENCY SEMINarS

http://www.iom.int/jahia/Jahia/policy-research/migration-research/world-migration-report-2010/interagency-seminar-series

Approaches and Capacity Needs in Managing the Health Aspects of Migra on by GregIrving, Health Programme O cer of the Interna onal Organiza on for Migra on (IOM),Regional Mission for East & Central Africa.

Portability of Pension, Health, and other Social Bene ts: Facts, Concepts, Issues by RobertHolzmann, Research Director of the Labor Market Program at the Marseille Center forMediterranean Integra on (CMI).

The Future of Diaspora Policy: Building Government Capacity for Diaspora Engagement byDovelyn Agunias, Policy Analyst, Migra on Policy Ins tute (MPI).

The Impacts of Remi ances on Poverty: Some Lessons from Asia and South Paci c byRichard Brown, Associate Professor at the School of Economics, University of Queensland.

The Global Economic Crisis and Migra on: Where Do We Go from Here? by Bimal Ghosh,Emeritus Professor at the Columbia Graduate School of Public Administra on.

Development on the Move: The Place of Migra on in Future Development Strategies byLaura Chappell, Senior Research Fellow, Ins tute for Public Policy Research (IPPR).

The Role of Local and Regional Authori es in Migra on Management by Nadan Petrovic,along with Prof. Luigi Melica and Nuria Daz Sacristn.

Global Migra on Futures Project by Carlos Varga-Silva, Interna onal Migra on Ins tute(IMI).

The Role of Migrant Care Workers in Ageing Socie es by Lindsay Lowell, Director of PolicyStudies, Ins tute for the Study of Interna onal Migra on, Georgetown University.

Connec ng the Dots: A Fresh Look at Managing Interna onal Migra on by Sergio Marchi,Special Advisor to the Secretary General, Interna onal Catholic Migra on Commission(ICMC).

The Future of Migra on Policy: Long term Responses by Rainer Mnz, Head of Researchand Development, Erste Group Bank.

A Public Goods Approach to Managing Migra on by James F. Holli eld, Director of theTower Center for Poli cal Studies, SMU.

The Future of Migra on: Building Capaci es for Change by Khalid Koser, Associate Deanand Head, New Issues in Security Programme.


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Prof. Bimal Ghosh , Emeritus Professor at the Columbia Graduate School of Public Administra on;former Senior UN Director; and Ambassador Sergio Marchi , Senior Fellow at the Interna onalCentre for Trade and Sustainable Development (ICTSD); former Minister of Ci zenship andImmigra on of Canada on Migra on governance: towards a global integrated migra onregime? - 06/2010.

Patricia Sto Tomas , Chair of the Na onal Development Bank of the Philippines; former Secretaryof Labor and Employment of the Philippines; former GCIM Commissioner; and Dilip Ratha , Lead

Economist, Development Prospects Group, and Manager, Migra on and Remi ances, the WorldBank, Washington, D.C. on Migra on and development: recent and unfolding experiences -05/2010.

Prof. Wiseman Nk hl , President of the Interna onal Organisa on of Employers (IOE); andNand Kishore Singh , Member of the Indian Parliament; former Secretary to the Prime Ministerof India and former Joint Secretary of the Ministry of Home A airs on The future of interna onal labour migra on - 04/2010.

Dr. Howard D ncan , Execu ve Director of Metropolis, Ci zenship and Immigra on Canada;and Prof. Michael Keith , Director of the Centre on Migra on, Policy, and Society (COMPAS),University of Oxford; former member of the UK Governments Commission on Integra on andCohesion on Integra on and rights of migrants: policy priori es and direc ons for new capacity building measures - 03/2010.

Theodoros Sk lakakis , Member of the European Parliament; former Special Representa ve forClimate Change of Greece on Climate change and migra on: impacts and policy responses -02/2010.


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6. Integra on ..........................................................................................................................576.1 Strengthening economic par cipa on ..........................................................................586.2 Encouraging civic par cipa on among migrants ..........................................................606.3 Simplifying rules on ci zenship, na onality and dual na onality .................................616.4 Family migra on ...........................................................................................................626.5 Managing temporary migra on .................................................................................... 656.6 Promo ng migrant educa on .......................................................................................656.7 Strengthening an -discrimina on policies and prac ces .............................................676.8 Promo ng migrant health .............................................................................................676.9 Fostering public dialogue ..............................................................................................706.10 Mainstreaming integra on across government ............................................................70

7. Environmental change .......................................................................................................737.1 Establishing a be er evidence base ..............................................................................747.2 Disaster risk reduc on ..................................................................................................757.3 Developing adapta on strategies .................................................................................777.4 Preparing evacua on plans ...........................................................................................797.5 Filling gaps in the legal and norma ve framework ....................................................... 797.6 Implemen ng na onal laws and policies on internal displacement .............................817.7 Amending na onal immigra on laws and policies .......................................................827.8 Establishing proac ve rese lement policies .................................................................837.9 Providing humanitarian assistance ...............................................................................84

7.10 Planning for return and rese lement ...........................................................................848. Migra on governance ........................................................................................................87

8.1 Developing a na onal migra on policy .........................................................................888.2 Strengthening migra on management at the na onal level ........................................898.3 Coordinated policymaking and implementa on ...........................................................898.4 The need for be er research and data .........................................................................918.5 Policy evalua on ........................................................................................................... 948.6 Developing urban governance ...................................................................................... 958.7 Engagement with the private sector .............................................................................968.8 An enhanced role for civil society .................................................................................978.9 E ec ve RCPs and coopera on between regional processes .......................................988.10 Addressing the need for more coherent global governance .........................................99

9. Next steps ......................................................................................................................... 101Checklist of core capaci es in interna onal migra on........................................................104

References ............................................................................................................................ 105

AN OVERVIEW OF INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION TRENDS .......................111Introduc on .........................................................................................................................113

Regions ................................................................................................................................113

Global overview of migra on ...............................................................................................115Global stocks .......................................................................................................................115Remi ances ......................................................................................................................... 117

Internally displaced persons ................................................................................................119Refugees ..............................................................................................................................119Health migra on..................................................................................................................119Student mobility ..................................................................................................................120Irregular migra on ..............................................................................................................120Environment ........................................................................................................................ 121Migra on and the economic crisis 20082010 ...................................................................122References ........................................................................................................................... 125 W

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Africa regional overview ......................................................................................................127East and Central Africa ........................................................................................................ 129North Africa ......................................................................................................................... 134Southern Africa ...................................................................................................................138West Africa .......................................................................................................................... 140E ects of the economic crisis ..............................................................................................144References ........................................................................................................................... 147

Americas regional overview .................................................................................................149North America .....................................................................................................................150United States of America .....................................................................................................152Canada .................................................................................................................................153La n America and the Caribbean ........................................................................................153E ects of the economic crisis ..............................................................................................158

Unemployment ............................................................................................................158Remi ances .................................................................................................................159Irregular migra on ....................................................................................................... 160Return .......................................................................................................................... 161Policy responses ...........................................................................................................161

References ........................................................................................................................... 163

Asia regional overview .........................................................................................................165

East Asia ..............................................................................................................................169South-East Asia ....................................................................................................................170South-Central Asia ...............................................................................................................172E ects of the economic crisis ..............................................................................................175

Unemployment and return ..........................................................................................175Remi ances ..................................................................................................................176Policy responses in des na on and source countries ..................................................177

References ........................................................................................................................... 179

Europe regional overview ....................................................................................................183Western and Central Europe ...............................................................................................185Eastern Europe and Central Asia .........................................................................................190E ects of the economic crisis .............................................................................................195

Remi ances ..................................................................................................................199

References ........................................................................................................................... 202Middle East regional overview .............................................................................................205

Arab Mashreq ......................................................................................................................206GCC countries ......................................................................................................................209Israel ....................................................................................................................................211E ects of the economic crisis ..............................................................................................213References ........................................................................................................................... 217

Oceania regional overview ...................................................................................................219Australia and New Zealand .................................................................................................221Melanesia, Polynesia and Micronesia ................................................................................227E ects of the economic crisis ..............................................................................................229References ........................................................................................................................... 234

Annex: Migra on data: comparability, quality and limita ons ............................................237Immigra on and emigra on ................................................................................................ 238

Immigra on es mates .................................................................................................238Emigra on es mates ....................................................................................................238

Remi ances ......................................................................................................................... 240World Bank data on remi ances ..................................................................................240

References ........................................................................................................................... 242

MAPS ................................................................................................................................243

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Figure 9: Stock of migrants in Eastern Europeand Central Asia, by des na on: top tendes na ons in 2000, 2005 and 2010(in thousands) .......................................... 191

Figure 10: Stock of migrants in Eastern Europe andCentral Asia, by des na on, as apercentage of total popula on: top tendes na ons in 2000, 2005 and 2010 ....... 192

Figure 11: Remi ance in ows in Eastern Europeand Central Asia: top ve countriesin 20072009 (in USD millions) ................ 193

Figure 12: Remi ance in ows in Eastern Europeand Central Asia in 2008, as apercentage of GDP: top ve countries ..... 194

Figure 13: Remi ance ou lows from Eastern Europeand Central Asia in 20062008:top three countries (in USD millions) ....... 194

Figure 14: Unemployment rates in EU-27countries in 20082009 (in %) ................. 195

Figure 15: Changes in unemployment rates forselected EU countries in 20072009(in %) ........................................................ 196

Figure 16: Na onal insurance registra ons tooverseas adult na onals entering theUnited Kingdom in 20082009(in thousands) .........................................197

Figure 17: Numbers of forced removals fromselected EU countries in 20072009 ....... 199

Figure 18: Growth in remi ance in ows between2008 and 2009, in USD terms (in %) ........ 200

Figure 19: Remi ance ou lows from EU tonon-EU countries in 20082009 (in %) .... 201

MIDDLE EAST REGIONAL OVERVIEWFigure 1: Net interna onal migra on rate per

1,000 popula on in 20002005 and20052010 ............................................... 205

Figure 2: Stock of migrants in the Arab Mashreqin 2000, 2005 and 2010(in thousands) ......................................... 206

Figure 3: Stock of migrants in the Arab Mashreq,as a percentage of the total popula on,in 2000, 2005 and 2010 ........................... 207

Figure 4: Total number of emigrants from ArabMashreq countries in 2000, by countryof origin and region of des na on(in thousands) .......................................... 207

Figure 5: Remi ance in ows in Arab Mashreq,as a percentage of GDP, in 2008 .............. 208

Figure 6: Stock of migrants in Gulf Coopera onCouncil countries in 2000, 2005 and2010 (in thousands) ................................. 209

Figure 7: Stock of migrants in Gulf Coopera onCouncil countries, as a percentageof the total popula on, in 2000,2005 and 2010 ......................................... 210

Figure 8: Remi ance ou lows from Gulf Coopera onCouncil countries in 20062008(in USD millions) ...................................... 211

Figure 9: Stock of migrants in Israel in 2000,2005 and 2010 (in thousands) ................. 211

Figure 10: Stock of migrants in Israel, as apercentage of total popula on, in2000, 2005 and 2010 ............................... 212

Figure 11: Growth in remi ance ows in Israelin 2008 and 2009 (in %) ........................... 212

Figure 12: Migrant ows from Bangladesh, Pakistanand the Philippines to GCC countries(in thousands), and oil prices(in USD per barrel), 19992009 ............... 213

Figure 13: Growth of remi ance in ows inselected Mashreq countries,20082009 (in %) ..................................... 214

Figure 14: Growth of remi ance in ows to Egypt,according to sending country,20082009 (in %) ..................................... 215

Figure 15: Growth of remi ance ou lows fromGCC countries to Egypt in 2009 (in %) ..... 216

Figure 16: Remi ance ou lows from GCCcountries to Pakistan in 2009 (in %) ......... 216

OCEANIA REGIONAL OVERVIEW

Figure 1: Stock of migrants (in thousands) andshare of total popula on (in %) inOceania in 2000, 2005 and 2010 ............. 219

Figure 2: Emigrants from Oceania, by placeof origin, in 2000 (in %) ............................ 220

Figure 3a: Stock of migrants in Australia and NewZealand in 2000, 2005 and 2010(in thousands) .......................................... 221

Figure 3b: Stock of migrants as a percentage of total popula on in Australia andNew Zealand in 2000, 2005 and 2010 ..... 221

Figure 4a: Emigrants from Australia in 2000,by country of des na on (in %) ............... 222

Figure 4b: Emigrants from New Zealand in 2000,by country of des na on (in %) ............... 222

Figure 5: Net migra on rates per 1,000 popula onfrom Australia and New Zealand in19952000, 20002005 and20052010 ............................................... 223

Figure 6: Net migra on from New Zealand, bycountry of residence: top fourcountries in 20012009 (in thousands) ... 224

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Figure 7: Foreign workers in Australia: total stock(in thousands) and as a share of thelabour force (in %) in 20002007 ............. 224

Figure 8: Comparison between in ows of permanent se lers and in ows of temporary foreign workers to Australiain 20002007 (in thousands) ................... 225

Figure 9: Comparison between in ows of permanent se lers and in ows of temporary foreign workers toNew Zealand in 20002007(in thousands) .......................................... 225

Figure 10: Student arrivals in Australia, by countryof birth: top ve countries in20062008 .............................................. 226

Figure 11a: Stock of migrants in Melanesia,Polynesia and Micronesia in 2000,2005 and 2010 (in thousands) ................ 227

Figure 11b: Stock of migrants as a percentage

of total popula on in Melanesia,Polynesia and Micronesia in 2000,2005 and 2010 ........................................ 227

Figure 12: Paci c Islands emigrants, by country/region of des na on, in 2000 (in %) ........ 228

Figure 13: Net migra on rates per 1,000popula on in Polynesia, Micronesia andMelanesia in 19952000, 20002005and 20052010 ........................................ 229

Figure 14: Remi ance in ows to Australia andNew Zealand in 20002009(in USD millions) ...................................... 230

Figure 15: Remi ance ou lows from Australiaand New Zealand in 20002008(in USD millions) ...................................... 230

Figure 16: Remi ance in ows to Paci c Islandsin 20042009: selected countries(in USD millions) ...................................... 232

Figure 17: Remi ance in ows to selected Paci cIslands in 2008, as a share of GDP (in %) ................................................ 233

Figure 18: GDP annual percentage change inselected Paci c Island countries,20052010 ............................................... 233

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MAPSMap 1: Immigrant growth rates (20052010),

immigrant stocks and immigrantsas a percentage of total popula onin 2010 ..................................................... 244

Map 2: Female migrants as a percentage of interna onal migrant stock, 2010 ............ 246

Map 3: Total popula on change in Europedue to net migra on and naturalpopula on change (NPC), 2008 ............... 248

Map 4: IOM Assisted Vic ms of HumanTra cking (VoT), by country of origin, 20002009 .................................... 250

Map 5: IOM Assisted Vic ms of HumanTra cking (VoT), by country of des na on, 20002009 ........................... 251

Map 6: Signatures/ra ca ons of the UNPalermo Protocol on human tra cking,January 2010 ............................................ 253

Map 7: Remi ances and foreign aid, totalvalues and ra o by region, 2007 .............. 255

Map 8: Growth in the number of naturaldisasters ................................................... 257

Map 9: Memberships of regional consulta veprocesses (RCPs), January 2010 ............... 259

Map 10: Government views on the level of immigra on in 1996 and 2009 ................. 261

Map 11: Internally displaced persons worldwide:March 2010 .............................................. 263

Map 12: Worlds refugees by region of asylumand region of origin, 2008........................ 265

Map 13: Emigra on rates of health professionalsin Africa, 2000 .......................................... 267

Map 14: Foreign students in higher educa on,2007 ......................................................... 269

Map 15: Changes in unemployment rates of na onals and foreigners, in selectedEuropean countries, 20082009 .............. 271

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Overall, like the World Migra on Reports that have preceded it, this report is intendedto contribute to the realiza on of themandate of the Interna onal Organiza on forMigra on (IOM), which is commi ed to theprinciple that humane and orderly migra onbene ts migrants and socie es. IOM works

together with its partners in the interna onalcommunity to uphold the human dignity andwell-being of migrants; encourage social andeconomic development through migra on;assist in mee ng the growing opera onalchallenges of migra on management; andadvance understanding of migra on issues.Speci cally, recognizing that migra on is anintegral feature of the world today, this reportaims to promote a focus on building capaci esto enable States and other stakeholders torespond to, and plan for, migra on e ec velyand in a sustainable way. In this report, this aimis achieved in three ways. First, an inventoryof capaci es required for coping with likely

changes and challenges in interna onalmigra on will be developed, dis nguishing andhighligh ng core capacity requirements. This isintended as a working checklist for States andother stakeholders in preparing for change.Second, and drawing on IOMs extensiveand global Field presence and partnerships,

the report presents a selec ve review of exis ng ac vi es, to help iden fy e ec veprac ce for capacity-building as well as gapsand weaknesses. Third, the report iden esa series of recommenda ons to States, civilsociety and interna onal organiza ons, forbuilding capaci es for change.

A er de ning capacity-building, the reportfocuses on six main areas of interna onalmigra on where change is expected toyield par cular capacity challenges: labourmobility, irregular migra on, migra on anddevelopment, integra on, environmentalchange, and migra on governance.

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The term capacity-building is o en used bydonors and interna onal organiza ons in anarrow sense for example, to refer to sta development through formal educa on andtraining programmes to redress the lack of quali ed personnel in a project in the shortterm. 13 Even where the concept is understoodmore broadly, there are compe ng de ni ons(for example, those provided by UNDP and theUN General Assembly), and further confusionis added where the concept capacitydevelopment is used, although normallycapacity development refers to a process of change driven internally for example, by andwithin ins tu ons or governments rather

than the external support typically impliedby capacity-building. Given its currencyamong most governments and interna onalorganiza ons in the interna onal migra oncontext, this report uses the term capacity-building, which it de nes as:

the process of strengthening theknowledge, abili es, skills, resources,structures and processes that Statesand ins tu ons need in order to achievetheir goals e ec vely and sustainably,and to adapt to change.

As understood in this report, capacity-buildingdoes not necessarily mean the crea on of new processes or systems. It can also referto the elimina on of outdated, inappropriateor ine cient systems; enhancing thee cacy or cost-e ec veness of exis ngsystems; strengthening exis ng systems;

13 OECD (2006).

2. CaPaCItY-BUIldING

and transferring lessons from other na onalcontexts and se ngs. 14 Budgets alone arean imperfect measure of capacity. Spendingmore money does not necessarily result ina higher-quality outcome. For many Statesand ins tu ons, technical know-how theopera onal knowledge and skills needed topursue goals e ec vely presents a greaterchallenge than lack of nancial resources. Atthe same me, this report acknowledges thateven a comprehensive approach to capacity-building is only a rst step. Capacity-buildingneeds to be followed by implementa on,enforcement, monitoring and evalua on.

In the migra on context, capacity-building isnormally understood to include the followingkey components: 15 more mely and accuratemigra on and labour market data; assistancein de ning na onal migra on policy goalsand priori es; training of migra on o cials;development of an e ec ve and equitablelegal framework; coherent administra vestructures; consulta on mechanismsbetween government and other na onalstakeholders; and interna onal coopera on.The African Capacity Building Centre is agood example of an ini a ve that addressesmany of these various aspects of migra oncapacity-building (see textbox 1). The overallgoal of migra on capacity-building, asrecommended in this report, is to facilitatethe development of humane and orderlypolicies for the movement of people.

14 Lavergne et al. (2004).15 GCIM (2005).


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A er a temporary dip during the globaleconomic crisis, labour mobility is expected toresume worldwide and even to exceed priorlevels. It has been predicted that new pa ernsof mobility may be observed in par cular,as the emerging economies of Asia becomeeven more important countries of des na onfor labour migrants. 17 Emerging countriesof des na on will need to develop newcapaci es to cope with new labour migra on.At the same me, more tradi onal countriesof des na on may also need to strengthenexis ng capaci es to cope with changes inlabour mobility. Changing pa erns will alsoa ect origin countries. Par cular challengesthat have been iden ed in the coming yearsfor the Paci c Islands, for example, includecoping with rising emigra on and evendepopula on; adjus ng to the loss of humanresources; and how to compete e ec velywith other origin countries in establishingseasonal temporary labour migra onprogrammes. 18 It has been suggested that theeconomic downturn provides a window of opportunity for reforming labour migra onpolicies and ins tu ng new approaches before

the demand for labour resumes.19

One of the primary policy challengesconfron ng labour mobility is how to matchthe supply of, and demand for, labour at aregional and global level. The combined e ectsof factors such as youth bulges, structural

17 Hugo (2010).18 UNESCAP (2008).19 WEF (2010).

3. laBOUr MOBIlItY

unemployment, agricultural intensi ca onand industrial restructuring are likely to lead toa growing labour surplus in many developingcountries, and demands for greater accessto labour markets in the developed worldand emerging economies. While demand formigrant labour is likely to grow across muchof the developed world in the short term (forexample, in response to the e ects of thedemographic crisis), as well as in emergingeconomies, it will not be at a su cient level tomeet supply. Furthermore, legal opportuni esfor migrant labour are likely to be selec ve,focusing primarily on migrants with skillsin short supply in des na on countries (for

example, in health care), and on highly skilledmigrants and students, although low-skilledmigrants will s ll be required. 20 Indeed, thereis a persistent mismatch between policy andreality in this regard. Real demand exists atboth high- and low-skilled levels for migrantlabour but, in the absence of adequatelegal channels for migra on, this demandis met, in many instances, through irregularmigra on or employment, re ec ng thecon nuing dependency of economies inmany parts of the developed world on cheap,

unprotected migrant labour. In addi on,alterna ve or complementary strategies,such as increasing the capital- or technology-intensity of produc on, reloca ng to countrieswhere labour costs are lower, increasing theworking hours of currently employed workers,recrui ng inac ve workers, and switching toless labour-intensive services, are all trends

20 IOM (2008).


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commitments from origin countries that maynot have the ins tu onal capacity to ful lthe commitment. Too many restric ons onmigrant workers may drive them underground.Temporary migra on programmes cancontribute to irregular migra on if migrantsoverstay their temporary visas and there are

socio-economic costs for migrant workers,par cularly as a result of family separa onand lack of access to social security bene ts.

for example, they can help the countryadjust to low or nega ve popula on growthand labour shortages; increase the exibilityof labour markets to respond to seasonaland cyclical uctua ons in the economy; lllabour gaps in speci c sectors or industries;and strengthen the compe veness of certain

sectors in the global market. 21 At the sameme, there are risks involved. Des na oncountries may expect return and re-admission

21 Abella (2006).

Textbox 2: Form la on of the Na onal Labo r Migra on Polic for Sri Lanka: Process and o tcome

The ILO assisted the Government of Sri Lanka in the formula on of a Na onal Labour Migra on Policy(NLMP), in response to a request by the Ministry of Foreign Employment Promo on and Welfare (MFEPW). The serious challenges rela ng to governance of labour migra on and protec on of migrant workersfaced by Sri Lanka provided the backdrop to the formula on of the na onal policy. As reiterated in theNa onal Policy for Decent Work in Sri Lanka, vulnerability of workers who migrate under risky and unsafe

condi ons is a major issue, despite all safeguards introduced. The concentra on of labour migra on in low-skilled categories dominated by female domes c workers, par cularly to Gulf countries, had led to seriousproblems rela ng to protec on, poor condi ons of work, and resul ng limited gains from migra on. The formula on of the na onal policy involved a wide range of stakeholders concerned with migra on inSri Lanka: ministries and government agencies (par cularly the MFEPW, the Sri Lanka Bureau of ForeignEmployment, the Ministry of Labour and Manpower, the Ministry of Foreign A airs and the Ministryof Health Care and Nutri on), social partners (employers and workers organiza ons), the recruitmentindustry, civil society, academics, concerned NGOs, and relevant interna onal agencies (ILO, IOM, UNFPAand UNDP). A Tripar te Steering Commi ee was set up under the guidance of the Minister of ForeignEmployment Promo on and Welfare, re ec ng the above-men oned groups. Thema c working groupssteered the prepara on of the na onal policy in three areas: governance and regula on of labourmigra on; protec on of migrant workers; and promo on of the development contribu ons resul ng from

migra on.

The main objec ves of the new na onal labour migra on policy are: developing a long-term vision forthe role of labour migra on in the economy, improved protec on of the rights of migrant workers, andenhancing the bene ts while minimizing the nega ve impacts of migra on. The NLMP also contains anAc on Plan for implementa on of the policy elements.

The dra NLMP was validated at a na onal tripar te consulta on in October 2008 and the Ministry of Foreign Employment Promo on and Welfare adopted the policy document and obtained the approval of the Cabinet of Sri Lanka in April 2009.

The key features of this process are: deep commitment of the responsible ministry to the process; itslinks to the na onal development strategy and the Na onal Ac on Plan for Decent Work; ownership of policy development by local stakeholders, with the ILO ac ng as a facilitator only; a rights-based approachconsistent with interna onal norms; considera on of gender as a cross-cu ng issue; and a clear ac onplan for implementa on.

So rce : Ministry of Foreign Employment Promo on and Welfare (2008), Na onal Labour Migra on Policy for Sri Lanka , Colombo, Ministry of ForeignEmployment Promo on and Welfare, Government of Sri Lanka, Colombo, h p://www.ilo.org/public/english/protec on/migrant/download/mpolicy_srilanka_en.pdf


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Textbox 3: The Canadian Li e-In Caregi er Programme (LCP)

A programme unique to Canada that enables care providers to migrate to Canada is the Live-in CaregiverProgramme, or LCP. The LCP, established in 1992 (replacing the Foreign Domes c Worker Programme, inplace since 1981), is a variant of the economic class programme that enables workers to gain entry to workin Canada without having to meet the quali ca ons of the immigra on points system, family sponsorshipor refugee status. Like many developed na ons, Canada has a shortage of care providers available to live

in the homes of clients in need of care, and this is expected to become more acute with popula on ageing.

According to Ci zenship and Immigra on Canada (CIC), the LCP exists primarily to ll the shortage of caregivers needed to live in the private residence of their client (who may also be their employer). Theterm live-in caregiver, as de ned in the Immigra on and Refugee Protec on Regula ons, is a person whoresides in and provides childcare, senior home support care or care of the disabled without supervision inthe private household in Canada where the person being cared for resides. To work as a live-in caregiver,one must apply directly to CIC. The current requirements include:

a job con rma on le er from Human Resources and Skills Development Canada (HRSDC) to theemployer, outlining its opinion that the labour market situa on necessitates a live-in caregiver;

a wri en contract with the employer; successful comple on of an equivalent of Canadian secondary school educa on; at least six months of recognized formal full- me training in a eld related to the job, or at least one

year of full- me paid work experience (including six months with one employer) in a eld related tothe job, within the three years preceding the applica on;

good knowledge of English or French (Canadas two o cial languages); a work permit before entering Canada.

Although LCP was not established to facilitate residency for migrant care providers, in some cases it canlead to permanent residency. Recent changes in the LCP facilitate transi ons to permanent residence andalso enhance protec ons for live-in caregivers from poten al exploita on and abuse, including an LCPhotline and emergency processing of new work permits for LCP vic ms of abuse in the employers home.The LCP programme has evolved and holds clear poten al in its revised form to be er address the needsof caregivers and clients.

So rces : CIC (2009), Live-In Caregiver Program: Who can apply? h p://www.cic.gc.ca/EnGLish/work/caregiver/apply-who.asp ; CIC (2008), Annual Report toParliament on Immigra on , Ci zenship and Immigra on Canada.

Work permits are usually issued for temporaryemployment. Although the rules that apply tothe work permit system vary across countries,the following procedures normally apply: 28

applica on for admission is usually madeoutside the country in response to aformal job o er;

permission for admission is granted byconsular o cials in the origin country;

an employment or work permit is grantedto the employer or worker some mesboth;

the worker o en has to obtain separatepermission for residence;

the employment or work permit is me-

28 OSCE/IOM/ILO (2006).

limited, but can usually be renewed if the job is s ll available;

free access to employment of their choicecan be granted to migrant workers a era certain number of years of work orresidence.

There are a number of drawbacks with workpermit systems. First, where work permitsare held by the employer and not the worker,there is a risk of exploita on. A second issue isthat the increasing diversity of work permitshas resulted in a growing number of new typesof residence permit. Third, there have beencri cisms that work permit systems can beoverly bureaucra c. 29

29 IOM (2008).


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In several des na on countries, a en on isbeing paid to the future of foreign students. 30

The enrolment of overseas students remainedrobust, even during the global economic crisis,and the global compe on for students isexpected to intensify in the future. Tradi onaland new des na on countries for students

will need to strengthen their capacity tocompete in this market for example, byo ering incen ves to overseas students. Onesuch incen ve is to allow students to stayon and work a er the end of their studies.The 2007 Employment Permit Act in Ireland,for example, introduced a two-stage systemthat permits graduates of ter ary educa onins tu ons in Ireland to remain there for sixmonths a er termina on of their studiesto search for employment. If they are theno ered a job, they can apply for a change of status.

Temporary labour migra on programmesare designed with the inten on that migrantworkers will return home a er the comple onof their employment. The main types are:seasonal programmes, sector-based schemes,working holidaymaker schemes, traineeprogrammes, and domes c workers. 31 In orderto make up for sector-speci c labour shortages,temporary migra on programmes may admit

migrants for employment in speci ed sectorsonly. In the United Kingdom, the Sector BasedScheme (SBS), for example, was intended forthe temporary employment of workers in low-skilled occupa ons in the food manufacturingand hospitality sectors.

Temporary labour migra on programmes maybe open to na onals of any country, as is usuallythe case for skilled migra on programmes orthose targe ng speci c sectoral shortages,or they may operate on the basis of bilateral

recruitment agreements and memorandumsof understanding (MoUs), discussed in moredetail below (see sec on 3.8).

In some countries, recruitment of temporarylabour to ll sectoral gaps in the labourmarket is done by the government, either

30 Ibid.31 Mar n, P. (2007).

centralized at the na onal level or devolvedto local or regional authori es. In mostOECD Member countries, senior sta inemployment, labour or immigra on ministriesconduct the nego a ons with local or regionalgovernments. In a few cases, however,na onal employment o ces develop and

implement the recruitment procedure withorigin countries as, for example, in Germany,where the Federal Employment Agency hiresseasonal workers directly in the origin countriesthrough their respec ve local employmentservices. Policy development and design of recruitment schemes normally also occurswithin employment, labour or immigra onministries. O en these schemes are designedwith the assistance of, or in consulta on with,representa ves of employers, trade unionsand foreign workers. In Spain, the governmentcontracts IOM to recruit on its behalf low-skilled temporary workers from Ecuador.

Recruitment can also be managed by emplo-yers facing labour shortages. They some mesrecruit directly in origin countries where nobilateral agreements exist, or they can useintermediaries such as private recruitmentagencies in origin or des na on countries.The recruitment procedures of the Common-wealth Caribbean and Mexican Agricultural

Seasonal Workers Programme in Canada areo en cited as a model. The programme allowsCanadian farmers to employ foreign workersfor up to eight months a year from a range of countries including Guatemala and Mexico. Inboth cases, migrant workers are recruited andemployed under the terms of a government-to-government MoU that makes the Mexicanand Guatemalan Governments responsiblefor recrui ng workers and nego a ng theirwages with Canadian authori es. A secondprogramme admits Guatemalan workers spe-

ci cally to Quebec, Alberta and Bri sh Colum-bia. The Guatemalan Ministry of Labor recruitsworkers, and the Guatemalan consulate inMontreal provides liaison services to migrantswhile they are in Quebec.

A third main mechanism for recrui ng foreignworkers is private recruitment agencies.These operate in both origin and des na oncountries. Their func on can range from


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a straigh orward matching service to acomprehensive hiring package consis ng of recruitment, skills tes ng, travel, visa and livingarrangements. 32 How to regulate and monitorprivate recruitment agencies is considered insec on 3.6.

3.4 Determining condi ons a achedto employment permits

States that employ foreign labour, especiallytemporarily, need to make clear andtransparent decisions about the condi onsa ached to employment permits, andhave the capacity to monitor and enforcethese condi ons. There is a wide rangeof experiences rela ng to the condi onsa ached to employment permits, in terms of

their dura on and renewability; occupa onalmobility; procedures governing migrantsrights upon loss of employment; possibili esfor permanent residence; family reuni ca on;and other social rights. As a generaliza on,be er condi ons are a ached to employment-based immigra on programmes, and o eredto skilled workers, although this approach hasraised concerns from an equity perspec ve.

The length of me a work permit is validneeds to be considered carefully as it can

have important consequences. In par cular,programmes with permits with too short adura on and no possibility for renewal maynd it di cult to a ract even low-skilledworkers. Most seasonal temporary labourmigra on programmes impose quite strictlimits on permit holders. Seasonal workersadmi ed to the United Kingdom underthe Seasonal Agricultural Workers Scheme(SAWS), for example, are issued a work cardwith a validity ranging from ve weeks to sixmonths. If the work card is issued for lessthan six months, it is possible to apply for anew work card when the rst one expires,and any new work card will take into accountany me already spent as a seasonal worker.A er six months, it is not possible to extendthe work card. Workers are permi ed toreapply to the SAWS programme a er a three-month gap, during which me they will not

32 OECD (2004).

have permission to remain in the country.In contrast, temporary labour migra onprogrammes aimed at more skilled workerstend to o er longer ini al periods for permits,a straigh orward procedure for renewal, ando en also a path to permanent residence.Skilled workers are granted an ini al permit

for three years in France, and for ve years inthe United Kingdom.

In general, entrants under highly skilledmigra on programmes can also be freeagents with free access to the labour market,either immediately upon entry or a er acertain number of years. Low-skilled migrants,in contrast, tend to be ed to par cularemployers either for the dura on of theirpermit or for longer periods than is the case forhighly skilled migrants, and the rules governingtheir access to other jobs are more rigorous.The freedom to change jobs in des na oncountry labour markets can be an importantprotec on for lower-skilled migrants, allowingthem to escape abusive employers.

Regional free labour markets such as theEU allow freedom of movement, so that EUna onals can move and seek jobs on an equalbasis with local workers. Foreign students,working holidaymakers, and other migrants

who are primarily in the des na on countryfor a purpose other than work, are alsogenerally free agents in the labour market. 33

There is a consensus in the speci c ILOand UN standards that if a migrant workerloses his or her job, he or she should notnecessarily or immediately have to leave thecountry but should be viewed as part of thenormal workforce. In cases in which migrantsinvoluntarily lose their jobs because of illness,or because the employer terminates the

employment rela onship or goes bankrupt,ILO Conven on No. 143 (Ar cle 8) considersthat:

1. On condi on that he has resided legallyin the territory for the purposes of employment, the migrant worker shallnot be regarded as in an illegal or irregular

33 Mar n, P. (2007).


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situa on by the mere fact of the loss of his employment, which shall not in itself imply the withdrawal of his authoriza onof residence or, as the case may be, workpermits.

2. Accordingly, he shall enjoy equality of treatment with na onals in respect in

par cular of guarantees of security of employment, the provisions of alterna veemployment, relief work and retraining.

Normally migrant workers should be alloweda reasonable period (not less than six months)to seek employment in the event of thetermina on of previous employment; thisis seen as a basic en tlement that shouldbe granted even to temporary migrants tosafeguard their rights (including the right toaccess core bene ts) and to protect themfrom exploita on.

It is also important to determine other socialrights, such as access to public services. InIreland, for example, migrant workers accessto public services and bene ts, includingunemployment bene ts, is regulated by thehabitual residency test, which means thatmigrants become eligible for certain bene tsonly a er they have been in the country fora certain minimum period of me. 34 The termhabitually resident is intended to conveya degree of permanence evidenced by aregular physical presence enduring for someme. It implies a close associa on betweenthe applicant and the country from whichpayment is claimed and relies heavily on fact.The following are the relevant factors thathave been set down in Irish and European law:

length and con nuity of residence inIreland or in any other par cular country;

length and purpose of any absence from

Ireland; nature and pa ern of employment; applicants main centre of interest; future inten ons of applicant as they

appear from all the circumstances.

34 Ruhs (2006).

Another issue that arises in this context isthe extent to which any contribu ons madeby migrant workers to social security systemsare portable back to their origin country.The consensus is that best prac ce forbene t portability is bilateral social securityagreements, preferably based on mul laterally

agreed standards. 35 The innova ve regionalarrangement in CARICOM countries holdspromise for regional approaches andmechanisms. 36

Generally, temporary labour migra on pro-grammes do not provide the right to familyreuni ca on. In contrast, employment-basedimmigra on programmes targeted at moreskilled workers tend to permit family reuni -ca on, although condi ons vary. Proceduresalso vary as regards the ability of dependantsto work. In the United Kingdom, dependantsof Ordinary Work Permit holders are en tledto undertake any employment or self-em-ployment, provided they hold a valid UK EntryClearance. Employment-based immigra on programmes,such as those in Australia, Canada and the USA,tend to be oriented towards the possibility forpermanent residence, and the main varia onis the number of years a worker needs to waitbefore being permi ed to apply. Possibili es forapplying for permanent residence for workersadmi ed on temporary migra on programmesare more limited. Some des na on countriesfacilitate a strictly limited and regulatedtransfer of migrants employed on temporarylabour migra on programmes into permanentresidence based on a set of clear rules andcriteria. One alterna ve is a points system. Tobe eligible for permanent residence in Canada,for example, applicants must:

meet certain minimum work experiencerequirements;

prove that they have the funds requiredfor se lement;

35 OSCE/IOM/ILO (2006).36 See IOM Interna onal Dialogue on Migra on, Migra on and

Transna onalism, March 2010, h p://www.iom.int/jahia/Jahia/policy-research/international-dialogue-migration/intersessional-workshops/migra on-and-transna onalism , CARICOM presenta onby Reginald Thomas h p://www.iom.int/jahia/webdav/shared/shared/mainsite/microsites/IDM/workshops/migration_and_transna onalism_030910/Session1-Thomas.pdf


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earn enough points on six selec onfactors: educa on, language skills,experience, age, arranged employment inCanada and adaptability.

Des na on countries may also granttemporary migrants permanent residence

on non-economic grounds such as marriageto a ci zen or a permanent resident. Underthe new Immigra on and Integra on Law inFrance, spouses of French ci zens must waitthree years before applying for a ten-yearresidence permit. Four years of marriage arerequired for the spouse of a French ci zen toapply for French ci zenship.

3.5 Training of migrant workers andplacement services

While des na on countries with a need forlabour migrants need to develop capaci esto facilitate the orderly admission of workersand guarantee their associated rights, there isalso a responsibility on origin countries keento promote labour migra on to train poten almigrant workers, and to work with des na oncountries to iden fy job openings, ensure thatquali ca ons are recognized, and also protectmigrant workers rights. Although this func onis usually ful lled by the private sector, some

governments are looking into carrying it outthemselves Mauri us is one example. Withthe assistance of IOM, a database for foreignplacement has been established, and theMinistry of Finance, in conjunc on with IOM,undertakes the selec on. In Indonesia, IOMrecently nished working with the Governmentto develop placement and pre-departuresystems, mechanisms for the protec on of labour migrants, a be er sta s cal overviewof the situa on of Indonesian labour migrants,and enhanced labour migra on management

capacity and coopera on, par cularly withBahrain, Kuwait, Malaysia and Singapore.

Increasingly, these ac vi es take placethrough Migrant Resource Centres (MRCs)(see textbox 4). 37 MRCs provide support fortraining, either through referral to trainingfacili es and nancial support for training,

37 IOM study on migrant resource centres, GFMD, 2009.

or through direct provision of training. TheMigra on Informa on Centre (MIC) in Slovakiais an example of good prac ce in this area.A er an intensive programme of personalizedcounselling and interviews to assist migrants todevelop a personal development plan and toiden fy appropriate courses, the MIC provides

grants to migrants for job-related training.Sta members follow the migrants progressand help them make links with employers. Theprocess is evaluated by sta at the end of thecourse to ensure that appropriate training hasbeen provided.

Providing support to persons seekingemployment is another key part of the workof many MRCs. Currently, this assistance tendsto be provided indirectly, especially in theabsence of concrete mul lateral or bilateralagreements providing recruitment supportmechanisms. One example is the Maisondes Congolais de lEtranger et des Migrants(MCDEM) in the Democra c Republic of theCongo, which has a job portal on its websitewith links to job websites both in-countryand abroad. This provides an opportunityto see which jobs are available and to applyfor them. The Migra on Informa on Centrein Croa a provides informa on on quotasopen to Croa ans overseas, similarly enablingindividuals to target their migra on projecttowards speci c posi ons.

MRCs also play an important, if indirect,role in ensuring that migrants quali ca onsare recognized wherever they are. A lackof recogni on of quali ca ons can bean important factor preven ng migrantsand returnees from being able to accessemployment that matches their skill sets. Anumber of MRCs have engaged in nego a onsfor the recogni on of foreign quali ca onsin the country of des na on. In Portugaland Slovakia, where systems of quali ca onrecogni on are already in place, MRCssupport migrants going through this process:the Centro Nacional de Apoio ao Imigrante(CNAI, or Na onal Immigrant Support Centre)in Portugal, for example, works as a facilitatorand informa on service provider to linkmigrants and government schemes for therecogni on of quali ca ons.


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Textbox 4: Migrant Reso rce Centres

Since the 1970s, governments, non-governmental organiza ons (NGOs), and intergovernmentalorganiza ons (IGOs) have established Migrant Resource Centres (MRCs) and other similar facili es in bothcountries of origin and des na on. This interest in MRCs re ects the support they provide in migra onmanagement. Indeed, MRCs aim to become reference points in regular migra on processes.

Although MRCs go under a number of di erent names, re ec ng the diversity of actors involved in theirset-up, func oning and the objec ves that they serve, they share a number of key features. Principally,they provide an independent and impar al structure through which migrants are able to obtain accurateinforma on on legal migra on procedures; the rights and responsibili es that migrants have throughout themigra on process; and informa on on how to protect themselves so that migra on is a posi ve experience.

In providing this service, MRCs support a number of key policy objec ves, directly or otherwise. Theseobjec ves include:

facilita on of regular migra on; protec on of regular and irregular migrants; preven on of irregular migra on; promo on of sustainable, voluntary return (where relevant);

integra on of migrants into the country of des na on (where relevant); promo on of the links between migra on and development.

In recent years, the number of MRC hysical structures providing services to migrants to facilitate andempower them to migrate in a regular, voluntary, orderly and protected fashion has grown signi cantly.They represent good prac ces in empowering migrants to facilitate development and ensuring thatthrough this empowerment they can be er protect themselves:

In rela on to empowering migrants for development, MRCs play an important role in providingmigrants with informa on on how their migra on, remi ances and return plans can be linked todevelopment.

In rela on to providing services which enable migrants to protect themselves, MRCs gather and ac velydistribute informa on to enable migrants to exercise their rights and prevent their exploita on. Moreover,a number of MRCs also provide services to migrants to ensure they are able to access their rights.

So rce : Migrant Resource Centres: Examining Global Good Prac ces in Providing Services to Empower Migrants for Development and Protec on , IOM/LFM,2009 (rapid assessment of Migrant Resource Centres (MRCs) submi ed in the context of roundtable 2 of the 2009 Global Forum on Migra on andDevelopment in Athens, Migrant integra on, reintegra on and circula on for development).

3.6 Protec on of migrant workersrights

The protec on of migrant workers rights isa signi cant challenge, especially for workersin the informal and unregulated sectors of the economy such as domes c work and

those involved in forced labour. Migrantworkers with irregular status are par cularlyvulnerable to exploita on in work. Areas of concern include: threat or physical harm tothe worker; restric on of movement andcon nement to the workplace or to a limitedarea; debt bondage; withholding of paymentor excessive wage reduc ons; reten on of passports and iden ty documents; and threatof denuncia on to the immigra on authori eswhere the worker has an irregular immigra on

status. As labour mobility increases, theseconcerns are likely to become even moreacute for low-skilled and irregular migrants.

Migrants have rights under two sets of interna onal instruments: the core humanrights trea es currently in force, namely

ICCPR, ICESCR, CAT, ICERD, CEDAW, CRC,CRPD and ICRMW,38 and interna onal labour

38 ICCPR (Interna onal Covenant on Civil and Poli cal Rights, 1966);ICESCR (Interna onal Covenant on Economic, Social and CulturalRights, 1966); CAT (Conven on against Torture and Other Cruel,Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment, 1984); ICERD(Interna onal Conven on on the Elimina on of All Forms of RacialDiscrimina on, 1965); CEDAW (Conven on on the Elimina on of AllForms of Discrimina on against Women, 1979); CRC (Conven on onthe Rights of the Child, 1989); CRPD (Conven on on the Rights of Persons with Disabili es, 2006); ICRMW (Interna onal Conven on onthe Protec on of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families, 1990).


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law, which includes the two speci c ILOConven ons concerned with the protec onof migrant workers (Nos. 97 and 143).The tra cking and smuggling protocols,supplemen ng the UN Conven on againstTransna onal Organized Crime, also referto protec ng the human rights of tra cked

persons and smuggled migrants. There isa par cularly vigorous debate around theConven on on Migrant Workers, which hasbeen ra ed by 42 States, none of which isa major developed country of des na onor an EU Member State. Some of the mainreasons provided for non-ra ca on include:the Conven ons breadth and complexity; thetechnical and nancial obliga ons it placeson States that have ra ed; the view thatit contradicts or adds no value to exis ngna onal migra on legisla on; and concernsthat it provides migrants (especially those withirregular status) rights that are not found inother human rights trea es. The ILO has playedan important role in de ning labour standards,which have had a signi cant impact, especiallyon domes c law in ILO Member States. Thehuman rights of migrants are also protectedunder regional bodies (e.g. European Courtof Human Rights (ECtHR) and Inter-AmericanCourt of Human Rights (IACtHR)).

At the same me, there are signi cantshortcomings and implementa on gapsin interna onal labour and human rightsstandards concerning migrant workers, as wasexplored at the IOM Interna onal Dialogue onMigra on in 2009, focusing on E ec ve Respect for Human Rights: A Shared Responsibility .39 Human rights protec on for migrants remainsmuch less developed than the interna onalrefugee protec on system and no interna onalins tu on has a speci c legal protec onmandate applying to all migrants. The

dynamics and dimensions of labour migra onhave changed since the main labour standardsand conven ons were adopted, especiallywith regard to: the decreasing signi cance of the State in the recruitment of migrant labourand the increasing importance of privateagents and intermediaries (although ILO

39 http://www.iom.int/jahia/Jahia/policy-research/international-dia-logue-migra on/intersessional-workshops/e ec ve-respect-human-rights-migrants-shared-responsibility

Conven on No. 181 aims to regulate privateemployment agencies); the feminiza on of migrant labour with the overrepresenta onof women migrant workers in extremelyvulnerable posi ons; the increasing short-term nature of migra on and the expansion of temporary migrant worker programmes; and

the growth in irregular migra on and the needto balance control measures with measuresto facilitate labour migra on and to protectmigrant workers. Signi cant problems persistin the implementa on of the principles towhich States have formally agreed, some mesdue to a lack of poli cal will, but also a lack of capacity and resources.

In response, it has been proposed that capaci-es be developed to provide supplementaryand complementary mechanisms for protec-on. One focus is to enhance na onal protec-on for example, through na onal courts ap-plying interna onal human rights law, case lawand advisory opinions from regional trea esto cases that come before them. A numberof na onal policies can also be cited as com-prising good prac ce in protec ng the rightsof migrant workers for example, the state-managed policy for the employment of Fili-pino na onals overseas; the extensive consu-lar network of Mexico; the United Kingdoms

Gangmaster Act (2004); the issuance of Tvisas in the USA; and the Live-in Caregiver Pro-gramme in Canada, which allows temporarymigrant workers to change employers whilein the country, provided that the new employ-ment o er is con rmed by the authori es.

Capacity-building is also required amongcivil society to increase its e ec veness in:lobbying for the human rights of migrants andmigrant workers; monitoring and repor ng oncondi ons for migrant workers; and providing

migrant workers with services and informa on.Trade unions across Western Europe have beenac ve in protec ng migrant domes c workers;the Unin General de Trabajadores (UGT) inSpain is one example. In the Philippines andSri Lanka, civil society has lobbied for standardcontracts as a means of enforcing minimumwages for their migrant workers.


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An enhanced role for UN Special Mechanismshas also been proposed: the SpecialRapporteur on the human rights of migrantshas a mandate to improve knowledge of thecircumstances of migrants, establish dialoguewith governments, and give prac cal e ect tohuman rights principles. But the interna onal

mechanisms that implement UN humanrights trea es are chronically underfunded.Finally, there may be value in ar cula ng thedispersed legal and norma ve framework ina single compila on of all treaty provisionsand other norms that are relevant to theprotec on of the human rights of migrants tofacilitate the consistent implementa on of theprovisions, no ng the contribu on that IOMsCompendium of Interna onal Migra on Law Instruments has made in this regard. 40

3.7 Reducing labour migra on costs

One of the obstacles to the e ec ve matchingof labour supply and demand across bordersis the upfront costs of labour migra on for example, the costs incurred in obtaininginforma on, documenta on, health checks,pre-departure orienta on and training,and paying for transporta on. ILO and UNconven ons call for employers to absorbthe economic costs of migra on. 41 Yet,

while employers typically pay these costsfor professional and highly skilled migrantworkers, the migrant-paid share of migra oncosts tends to rise as skill levels fall. Onereason is that des na on States, especially inthe developed world, increasingly depend onprivate recruiters to iden fy foreign workersand match them with job openings in thelabour market. In some cases, recruitersexploit migrant workers for example, bypromising them more wages and bene tsthan they will actually receive. But even in thecase of legi mate recruiters, there has beena tendency to shi the costs of recruitmentfrom employers to workers.

There are three broad government responsesto private recruitment costs. One is to step

40 h p://publica ons.iom.int/bookstore/index.php?main_page=product_info&cPath=19&products_id=107

41 Mar n, P. (2010).

up enforcement to eliminate unscrupulousagents for example, by requiring recruitersto iden fy themselves to authori es viaregistra on, ensuring that they can meetminimum standards by requiring them topass tests, and genera ng some nancialsecurity for migrants by having agents post

bonds that can be tapped if agents do notful l their promises. A second is to encouragemore legi mate agents to become involvedin the migrant brokerage business so thatcompe on gives migrants op ons andleads to e ec ve self-regula on and ra ngsto guide migrants towards be er agents. Athird approach is to try to increase the roleof public employment service agencies inmoving workers over borders, in the hopethat public agencies will be most likely toensure that minimum standards are sa s edin recruitment and deployment.

Responsibility for reducing labour migra oncosts lies as much with origin countries aswith des na on countries. The Philippines isconsidered a leader in regula ng recruiters. 42 The government operates three agencies toserve and protect migrants: the PhilippineOverseas Employment Administra on(POEA) regulates recruitment and providespre-departure orienta on; labour a achs

sta oned at consulates abroad provideassistance to migrants while they areabroad; and the Overseas Workers WelfareAdministra on (OWWA) operates centres inareas with concentra ons of Filipinos thatcover the cost of emergency repatria on andprovide various services to families le behind.These ac vi es are nanced by fees collectedfrom migrants, including a PHP 3,000 (USD 60)processing fee charged by the POEA, whosegoverning board includes representa ves of the recruitment industry, and a USD 25 fee paid

to the OWWA.43

While the Philippine systemis o en considered a model for regula ngrecruitment and protec ng migrants abroad,there is an ac ve debate among migrantorganiza ons, some of which allege that over-regula on of recruitment raises the costsof Filipino migrants to foreign employers,

42 Ibid.43 Abella et al. (2004).


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reducing the number of foreign jobs forFilipinos. Most recruiters, as well as the Unionof Filipino Overseas Contract Workers (OCW-Uni l), want less government regula on of recruitment, arguing that it increases the costsof sending migrants abroad at a me whenother countries in the region that o er lower-

wage workers are aggressively expandingdeployment. Furthermore, cost implica onsmay mean that the Philippines systems arenot easily replicable in other developingcountries.

Another ini a ve proposed in an importantorigin country for labour migrants Bangladesh is aimed at reducing pre-departure loan costsfor migrants. The Bangladeshi Governmentproposed at the Global Forum on Migra onand Development in Brussels (2007) thatdonors consider expanding the countrys ac vemicro nance industry to migrants leaving thecountry. Pre-departure loans for Bangladeshimigrants would go primarily to men who leavethe village, and the bene t of the loan wouldcome in the form of remi ances and the returnof migrants with experience gained abroad.Under one proposal, a partnership of banksand NGOs could assess risks, make low-costloans and ensure repayment, as NGOs with apresence in the migrants home villages form

partnerships with banks seeking to expandtheir customer base. 44

3.8 Strengthening and implemen ngbilateral labour mobilityagreements

Bilateral labour mobility agreements havebeen iden ed as a promising mechanismfor ensuring that the poten al bene ts of migra on accrue both to origin and des na oncountries, as well as to migrants themselves. 45

Some countries recruit labour on the basis of MoUs for example, in the case of programmesbetween Spain and major origin countries formigrants there, including Colombia, Ecuadorand the Dominican Republic, and betweenGermany and Poland to facilitate a contract

44 Mar n, P. (2010).45 World Economic Forum (2010).

worker scheme. 46 The majority now rely onmore formal bilateral agreements that arelegally binding.

There has been a signi cant increase inbilateral agreements in recent years in 2004,there were reported to be 176 bilateral labour

agreements signed by OECD countries. Thereason that increasing numbers of countriesare signing bilateral labour agreementsis that they o er an e ec ve method of regula ng the recruitment and employmentof foreign workers; they allow for greaterState involvement in the migra on process;they can be tailored to the speci c supplyand demand characteris cs of the origin anddes na on countries; and they can providee ec ve mechanisms for protec ng migrants.

Des na on countries normally select a bi-lateral partner origin country for four mainreasons. 47 Some countries use bilateral agree-ments to manage migra on by asking origincountries to sign, in exchange, re-admissionagreements for migrants in an irregular situ-a on. This is the case for agreements signedbetween Italy and Romania, and betweenSpain and Morocco. Some countries may wishto promote speci c economic es or widerregional economic integra on, as is the casefor bilateral agreements signed between Ger-

many and some Central and Eastern Europeancountries. Another objec ve is to strengthencultural es between partner countries, as isthe case for the Working Holiday Maker pro-gramme in Australia. Finally, some countriesmay sign bilateral agreements to prevent in-discriminate interna onal recruitment in spe-ci c sectors, par cularly health as is the casefor a number of bilateral agreements betweenthe United Kingdom and sub-Saharan Africanna ons. This range of goals makes the e ec-veness of bilateral agreements di cult togauge, because such goals can some mes con-ict, and the e ec veness of agreements willdepend on the weight assigned to each goal. 48

The ILO has iden ed 24 basic elements tobe addressed in bilateral labour agreements,

46 OECD (2004).47 Ibid.48 OECD (2004).


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that these types of measures have becomemore important during the global economiccrisis (see Asia Regional Overview, in part B).Ecuadors Welcome Home programme, forexample, provides guidelines on the customsand tax regula ons that returning migrantsface; and Moroccos Na onal Agency for the

Promo on of Employment and Skills (ANAPEC),which (among other things) helps returningmigrants to reintegrate into professional life. In the Philippines, the Na onal Reintegra onCenter for Overseas Filipino Workers is a one-stop centre catering to the needs of returningoverseas Filipino workers and their families.Operated by the Department of Labor andEmployment, this PHP 7 million (USD 140,000)facility is funded by the Overseas WorkersWelfare Administra on a government-runmigrant welfare

Wmr 2010 English

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