Witold Migal, Mikołaj Urbanowski

Pradnik knives reuseExperimental approach

1 Assumptions and aims of experiment

A direction of contemporaneous studies on the reuse processes of Middle Palaeolithic tools wasstated by works of H. Dibble (Dibble and Rolland 1992) dealing with Mousterian side scrapers. Asit seems now, habitual tools reuse was one of the main characteristics of Middle Palaeolithic. Theliterature on this subject related to Micoquian assemblages is quite scarce. It is partially due tolimited amount of artefacts. The inventories containing backed knives and their production andrepair debris are far less numerous than the Mousterian finds. It is where the idea of experimentallowing recognition of knives reuse processes has emerged from.

The researches on the backed knives reuse reach backwards in history. Stefan Krukowski, thepioneer in Pradnik knives studies, who distinguished and defied them in the 30ies (1939-1948:55-56), remarked that part of their diversity was a result of repairs. He classified the small Pradnikknives, named Pradniczaks, as the exploited specimens. Also G. Bosinski studied sometechnological aspects of knives production (1967 43; 1969). In the next decades the typologicalanalysis were more popular, however due to technological researches of last decade Krukowskiideas came back due to new publications (Bourguignon 1992; Richter 1997; Jöris 2001). Presently,the idea of Pradniks as the tools deteriorating during the long usage and systematically repairedseems obvious.

Among the large group of backed knives, the Pradniks were selected for research purposes, as thebest defined tools. The term Pradnik signifies here an asymmetrical backed knife, manufacturedaccording to the rules of Pradnik method, characterised by the usage of sharpening blow (Fig. 2).Such tools, occasionally classified as Classic Pradniks are known from Pradnik KnivesAssemblages (PKA) of Central and Western Europe, by other authors called also Micoquo-Pradnikian, Ciemna-type Assemblages or Keilmessergruppe. Both their production and repairrequired organised, systematic behaviours, consisting of reproduction tool mental template’s desiredfeatures in succeeding phases of usage. The standardisation facilitates the reconstruction of thisprocess.

The aims of experiment are the analyses of phenomena occurring during knives reuse. The objectsselected for analyses purposes, limit the conclusions drawn out of experiment to PKA, howeversome of them may have wider meaning. The detailed aims of researches are:

creation of a list of repair-linked phenomena and ways of problems-solving treatments in orderto maintain complex tools features

creation of criteria allowing recognition of the actual state of particular tools – distinction ofrepaired forms, definition of wear degree and possibly reconstruction of initial form

analyses of products and debris distribution from reduction processes in relation to interpretationpossibilities of archaeological inventories.

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1.1 Methodology

The experiment wasplanned as consisting of 10reduction series. In thiscase 10 large Pradnikknives were produced,imitating the largest(potentially the least worn),carefully crafted specimenknown from Poland -Ciemna Cave (Krukowski1939-1948, Kowalski1967), Germany - Buhlen(Bosinski and Kulick 1967;Jöris 2001) and FrenchBethune collection (Marcy1991). In terms oftechnology all the formsfulfil criteria of classicaldefinition by S. Krukowski.However they follow alsomore contemporaryunderstanding of Pradnikphenomenon, based onanalyses of larger amountof inventories and focusedon tool crucial features(Jöris 2001:52-67). Suchfeatures, constructing toolmental template andcorresponding to “idealtype”, as defied by E. Cziesla (1989), we cal here a Pradnik standard. The experimental knivesfollowed this standard with some flexibility, in order to minimalize mistakes caused by its moderninterpretations:

size: up to 15cm, which corresponds with the largest known original forms from the mentionedarchaeological sites. It reflects also the upper limit of ergonomically justified size optimum,corresponding with an average size of human palm.

morphology: marked by three asymmetries between: flat ventral and convex dorsal side; dulledback and sharp, straight cutting edge; massive base and thinned tip and also an asymmetry ofknife tip according to tool axis. The half-back was mainly semicircular. The cutting edge wasstraight. Apart from these features, the tools shapes were determined by raw materialmorphology, which additionally liberalised the criteria for some “elegant” Pradniks.

raw material: Chocolate flint from Wierzbica of good knapping abilities. technology: bifacial. Because the experiment’s aim was the actual analysis of repair methods, no

particular attention was drawn towards the process of tools’ production. After obtaining ofdesired shape, the sharpening blow was made. The detachment was done always on the dorsal(convex) side of a tool, proceeded by half-back preparation.

orientation: after tool’s positioning on its ventral side, the cutting edge should be forming theright side of the tool. This feature is legible on about 85% of Ciemna Pradnik knives, and even

Fig. 1 The Pradnik knife from Ciemna Cave, Poland, excavation of S.Krukowski. Now in collection of State Archaeological Museum in Warsaw. Thetool seems to have many of the features referential for Pradnik standard. Thebasic elements of Pradnik morphology: half-back (A), cutting edge (B), base (C)and back (B). Dotted lines separate different part of the tool, starting from thebottom: dulled base, middle part and thinned tip. There is a negative ofsharpening spall (e) at the convex side. The ventral side shows traces of big,wide negatives, making it flat.

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more from other sites. It suggests correlation with right and left-handers distribution inpopulation of such knives makers, similarly to the contemporary one (Jöris 2001:34).

Each knife was subjected to reuse series, consisting fromfew to several repairs. For experimental purposes thesimplified assumption was made that complete repair,simulating knife’s cutting edge sharpening consisted ofpreparation and performance of sharpening blow.Occasionally this strike must have been proceeded withlarger degree of reduction, because of necessity ofedges’ regulation or correction of tools’ thickness. Nowear of cutting edges was simulated. After realisationand documentation of each phase, the following one wasproceeded immediately. Clearly it was a kind of labsimplification of complex reality. Hence the lack ofreliable data regarding function of Pradnik knivesdoesn’t enable acceptance of more realistic assumptions.However it seems that in real use the wear or chipping ofsilica was quite small. The cutting edge blunting was themost serious reason forcing repair. Some exceptionsmight have been caused by specific knives uses, like i.e.bone whittling, resulting in chipping of siliceous cuttingedges. There are known some specimen with concavecutting edges, which may suggest that repairs wereattempted also in such conditions. However such formsare scarce and in majority of cases their concavityresulted from unfortunate sharpening blow. Thereforeany influence of this phenomenon may be omitted.

Every single repair is a subsequent phase of tool reduction process, determining its wear degree.The first phase is the initial tool, the next are subsequent repairs. The reduction was continued up tothe moment, when the tool’s dropped below 40g. It signified that the tool size diminished to 4,5 –6cm. Such size was selected arbitrary, as border of effective production of sharpening blows. Thestrong sharpening blow requires good handling by a knapper, which is difficult to occur below suchtool size. After each repair the knives were weighted and documented photographically in sixpositions. All debris was collected, including sharpening spalls. Apart from that every significantphenomenon occurring during knives’ production was documented, including the characteristicknapping faults. The photos, in total almost 650 pieces were made using digital camera and scanner(Urbanowski 2000). They were subject to detailed computer analyses of each phase, as well as fortools’ morphometric characteristic.

Fig. 2 A-series. Sharpening blow is a keyfeature of Pradnik method. It makes thecutting edge sharp as an edge of fresh flake.The blow is preceded by half-backpreparation, made with series of fan-likedetachments (A), preparation of platform (B)with retouch on ventral side and the guidingblow (C). Final blow (D) can be preceded byretouch straightening the cutting edge ifnecessary. After the blow one can correcteventual hinges at the cutting edge.

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1.2 Critics of method

The experiments as such, apart from undoubtful advantages, are always connected with some risk.Assuming that the advantages are broadly known to the researchers, it seemed more important to usto list here the limitations of method applied in experiment. They will clearly have some impact onthe conclusions, however I hope that conscious use of method and awareness of its limitationsallowed us to avoid committing the largest mistakes. We considered the following factors:

Principles influencing the experiment, i.e. already mentioned simplification of experimentalreuse exclusively to cutting edge rejuvenation. However, because the analysis itself was directedon repair process, these assumptions seem acceptable. Possible disorders caused by the factorswhich were not included in experiment don’t seem to significantly influence the reuse process.

Influence of knappers knowledge and working style on experiment results – one of themost important traps in experiments. Experienced and skilful knapper possesses flint knappingknowledge exceeding this of analysed époque. It leads to anachronisms and sometimes even to“planning” of experiments’ results. In our case, it occurred paradoxically enough, that MrWitold Migal – the knapper, didn’t have previously occasion to analyse Pradnik method.Therefore he was forced to start from training period, creating field for multiple interestingobservations and marginalizing the dangers related to his knapping routine. Therefore it seemsthat in our case this danger was significantly minimized.

Problem of unconscious copying of artefacts. The flint shaping process can be treated quiteelastically by a knapper, regarding personal knapping abilities, to achieve similar morphologicalresults. The particular way of production performed by a knapper may be his unique one, andthe product – a copy imitating the artefact, may be made without understanding of the processesdetermining actual creation of the original. Again in case of our experiments this danger seemsto be overcame for the Pradnik method is well recognised and its recreation involves itsunderstanding, excluding blind imitation. The achieved during experiment sharpening blows upto 7 cm long, similar to those described by Jöris (2001:57-61) are a good proof of properapplication of Pradnik method.

Problem of small sample – difficult to overcame within experiment time limits, particularlytime dedicated to data analyses. Although the number of series is small (10 + 4 additional,excluding the training series and those abandoned due to accidental destruction during knappingprocess), it still results in 82 + 4 reduction phases, giving in fact 86 tools for analyses.Establishing adequate methodology and preparation of few hundred pictures consumed manymonths of work. One should be certainly careful in interpretation of achieved results, hoping,that continuation of such experiments will allow to verify presently obtained results in thefuture.

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2 Course of experiment

Theoretically, there may be unlimited number of ways of repairing knives, as well as such processesmay occur chaotically. Among the factors limiting their course are the efficiency, reflecting inminimal raw material use, and obtaining of desired morphological knife criteria. The moreformalised knife form, the more rigorous should be its repair, to maintain rejuvenated form assimilar to the initial one as possible. For this reason, in case of Pradnik knives, the repair should bealways quite systematic. During the first six reuse series, the easiest possible repair way wasanalysed, meaning the exclusive sharpening of a tip and distal part of cutting edge. Such a wayguaranteed minimal use of flint, as we assumed, but it should have been determined, how did itinfluence changes in knife’s morphology. This repair type seemed to have occurred on Micoquiansites among others also those from Poland (i.e. Ciemna Cave). Next, our plan of experimentassumed the analysis of elements of reduction model proposed by Olaf Jöris for Buhlen assemblage.The key feature of this model was presumably rejuvenation of knives distal part through its tipremoval.

The following series varied in rigorous maintenance of Pradnik form and details of repair methods.The one, which strictly followed Pradnik standard, is named further “rigorous”, while another one,allowing some deviations from such rules is called “liberal”. The 10 Pradnik knifes were produced(apart from the specimen destroyed during production process), and totally 82 reduction phases.

Fig.3 During experiment 10 series of reduction were made. In two series the reorientation (marked red) wasapplied, in longitudinal axis (V) and side reorientation (F).

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Tab. 1 Description of 10 reduction series. Each series is described (from the left to right) with number of phases,general description, initial and final values of subsequent features (from up to dawn): width in grams,dimensions (length, width, thickness in cm), ratios (length-width, length-thickness), distribution of mass in toollongitudinal axis (location of maximum thickness point and location of centre of gravity) and the rotation of toolaxis during reduction sequence (angle between base and cutting edge and the real rotation, measured only forthe last phase). Detailed description of all mentioned parameters can be found in text.

Additionally two smaller tools were made for comparison (series SPEC 1 and SPEC 2). These toolswere not repaired themselves, but served for differences’ analyses between them and similar sizerepaired forms. Two of the knives (series SPEC 3 and SPEC 4) were rejected due to destruction infinal production phase. Generally, there were quite a few knapping accidents, mostly in the finalphase of experiment, when raw material of worse quality was used. Luckily enough they took placeduring initial phase of blank preparation. All the repairs were analysed in detail, during experimentand further documentation. The selection of most important data was listed in Tab.1.

Seria Opis Cecha Faza. pocz. Faza końc.A9phases

Repairs consisted in sharpening of cutting edge. Repairs of liberal type: the edgerounding and plano-convexity disturbances were allowed. Reorientation (VF) inthe last phase, thus the measurement of base-to-cutting edge angle angle wasdisturbed.

weight (g) 271 40len. -wid. -thick. (cm) 13,3 - 7,1 - 3 5,9 - 4,3 - 1,7len/wid - len/thick 1,9 - 4,4 1,4 - 3,5MTP - c.o.grav (%) 44 - 47 53 - 51B-CE angle -rotat. (°) 84 - 118 - 26

B12phases

Repairs consisted in sharpening of cutting edge. Repairs of liberal type, but thecutting edge remains always straight. Plano-convexity disturbances wereallowed.

weight (g) 540 38len. -wid. -thick. (cm) 14,9 - 9 - 3,6 5 - 3,5 - 1,9len/wid - len/thick 1,7 - 4,1 1,4 - 2,6MTP - c.o.grav (%) 31 - 39 42 - 46B-CE angle -rotat. (°) 113- 78-38

C7phases

Repairs by sharpening of cutting edge. Repairs of rigorous type: the edgerounding and plano-convexity disturbances were not allowed.

weight (g) 302 32len. -wid. -thick. (cm) 14,3 - 7,5- 3,2 5,8 - 3,3 - 1,8len/wid - len/thick 1,9 - 4,5 1,8 - 3,2MTP - c.o.grav (%) 47 - 48 48 - 49B-CE angle -rotat. (°) 90 - 76 - 30

D13phases

Repairs consisted in sharpening of cutting edge. Repairs of very liberal type: themaximum deviation of the Pradnik standard was allowed.

weight (g) 584 44len. -wid. -thick. (cm) 14,4 - 9,2 -4,2 5,7 - 4-2, 3len/wid - len/thick 1,6 - 3,4 1,4 - 2,6MTP - c.o.grav (%) 43 - 46 49 - 49B-CE angle -rotat. (°) 95 - 92 - 61

E8phases

Repairs consisted in sharpening of cutting edge. Repairs of very rigorous type:no deviation of Pradnik standard was allowed. Before and after the sharpeningblow the cutting edge was straightened.

weight (g) 264 32len. -wid. -thick. (cm) 11,8 - 7 - 3,7 6,4 - 3,8 - 1,5len/wid - len/thick 1,7 - 3,2 1,7 - 4,3MTP - c.o.grav (%) 40 - 45 38 - 45B-CE angle -rotat. (°) 96 - 68 - 24

F9phases

Repairs consisted in sharpening of cutting edge. Repairs of very rigorous type:no deviation of Pradnik standard was allowed. Before and after the sharpeningblow the cutting edge was straightened.

weight (g) 352 36len. -wid. -thick. (cm) 13,5 - 8,1 -3,2 6,4 - 3,6 -1,6len/wid - len/thick 1,7 - 4,2 1,8 - 4MTP - c.o.grav (%) 45 - 47 54 - 51B-CE angle -rotat. (°) 85 - 71 - 40

G5phases

Repairs consisted in removing the tip and half-back by a blow from the cuttingedge. Repairs of liberal type: the edge rounding and plano-convexitydisturbances were allowed. During reduction the cutting edge is becoming aburin-like one.

weight (g) 212 34len. -wid. -thick. (cm) 12 - 5,9 - 3,1 5,3 - 3,5 - 1,9len/wid - len/thick 2 - 3,9 1,5 - 2,8MTP - c.o.grav (%) 45 - 47 46 - 49B-CE angle -rotat. (°) 97 - 84 - 11

H5phases

Repairs consisted in removing the tip and half-back by a blow from the ventralto dorsal side. Repairs of liberal type, the reorientation of a tip with a base wasallowed. The number of phases could be bigger, because for the researchpurposes the reduction was more intense than necessary.

weight (g) 174 30len. -wid. -thick. (cm) 11,5 - 5,2 - 3 4,5 - 3,7 - 1,7len/wid - len/thick 2,2 - 3,8 1,2 - 2,6MTP - c.o.grav (%) 50 - 50 52 - 51B-CE angle -rotat. (°) 90 - 83 - 29

I8phases

Repairs just like in H-series, but tip removal was applied only if necessary andit was struck slightly to the ventral side for such created platform to allow betterthinning of convex side of the tool. Actually the tip removal technique was notapplied only in one phase. The thinning of platform created by the tip removalwas allowed, it turned out to be necessary for the preparation of sharpeningblow.

weight (g) 274 34len. -wid. -thick. (cm) 13,4 - 6,7 -3,3 4,8 - 3,8 - 1,8len/wid - len/thick 2 - 4,1 1,3 - 2,7MTP - c.o.grav (%) 44 - 46 49 - 50B-CE angle -rotat. (°) 89 - 84 - 23

J6phases

Repairs consisted in removing the tip from the cutting edge and slightly to theventral side for such created platform allows better thinning of the convex side.The thinning of platform created by the tip removal was always done. Thenumber of phases could be bigger, because for the research purposes thereduction was more intense than necessary.

weight (g) 352 36len. -wid. -thick. (cm) 13,1- 6,9 - 3,5 5,6 - 3,7 - 1,6len/wid - len/thick 1,9 - 3,7 1,5 - 3,5MTP - c.o.grav (%) 52 - 52 46 - 49B-CE angle -rotat. (°) 98 - 70 - 25

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3 Conclusions

3.1 Features of reuse

Direct effect of experiment is the below presentation of features occurring during repair.

3.1.1 Shift of Maximal Thickness PointThe shift of Maximal Thickness Point is mainly a result of tool tip reduction, most heavily affectedby subsequent repairs. It causes distance shortening between the tip and Maximal Thickness Point(MTP), located initially close to the tool base. Italso results from gradual rotation of subsequentreduction phases in relation to the initial phase(described further). The feature is very negative, forits intensity causes sharpening blows to hingewithin too thick tool centre. Such obstacle can beovercome through regular tool thinning, performedevery 2 to 4 phases, even during liberal rapair,mainly from a half-back.Due to systematiccorrections, the featurepoorly reflects duringreduction process. MTPplacement changesmaximally few percent inknife’s length,sporadically exceeding 50percent of distancemeasured from base to tip.

Fig. 4 A-Series knife, foursubsequent phases ofreduction, viewed form theback. The MTP shift isvisible. In the fifth phasethe correction wasnecessary for lowering theMTP to its initial value.

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3.1.2 Tip and half-back changesAs seen in longitudinal cross-section, tool tip “disappears” within tool mass during few followingreduction phases (which is connected with upward shift of Maximal Thickness Point). Even ifsometimes a reverse tendency occurs, and the tip is isolated and thinned during one or two phases,finally, due to its fragility it has to be reduced. The tip reduction, requiring continuous half-backcorrections (striking platform preparation for sharpening blow) causes half-back flattening as seenfrom tool’s dorsal view. The half-back changes from semi-circular form to a straight one. Theappearance of forms with straight half-back at low angle to cutting edge (named typologicallyKlausennische forms), as a resultof repair, was described correctlyfor the first time by Olaf Jöris(2001:63-68). However, theexperiment revealed thatdescribed feature was not anelement of knife transformationsystematic process, but occurredquite randomly and most likelywas intentionally corrected. Thefrequency of this feature variesfrom few times to none duringtotal reduction process. Duringrigorous repair it needed to havebeen corrected, for the triangulartip shape prevent propersharpening blow (too narrow and fragile strikingplatform). One of the correctionmodes of this feature may be tooltip removal to obtain goodstriking platform for toolthinning from distal part, so anew sharpening blow may beconducted. This correction maybe observed in Pradnikinventories. The tip was removedprobably from the cutting edge,and the flake detached slightlytowards tool ventral side. Thanksto this the angle of strikingplatform was suitable for flat retouch. Additionally some remains of similar procedures butperformed on the tools bases are present in archaeological materials. Above observations enable todistinguish in archaeological material, tips removed intentionally from those detached accidentallyi.e. during tool thinning from the back.

Fig.5 All the phases of reduction of all the reduction series in lateralview. The tip morphology changes are visible. The Klausennische-likeforms are marked red.

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3.1.3 Proportion changes

Theoretically the repair could proceed in such a way, that all knife parameters changeproportionally. It is very unlike in practice, because reduction of particular parameters is subject to

different rules. The slowest changes apply totool thickness. The thickness is reduced mainlyfrom the back and may cause tool cracking. Todiminish this risk additional procedures areapplied such as removal of tool tip or base,which allows thinning from distal or proximalpart. Intense thickness reduction shortens toollife. Generally, even in rigorous mode of toolreuse, it is impossible to correct the toolthickness in every subsequent repair. Thiscauses fluctuation of length – thickness ratio.During liberal repair knife thickens observably,so final length – thickness ratio (on average 2,5- 3) constitutes about 60 – 80% of the initial (onaverage 4 - 4,5). It is different in case of length– width ratio. During rigorous repair length andwidth scaling should be done equally in a steadyrhythm. However it requires large flintconsumption thanks to two following reasons.First of all the length is reduced quicker thanwidth, particularly when tip’s removal

technique is used. Therefore width reduction to impose exact scaling needs to be greater that itseemed initially. Furthermore, along with width reduction, the tool has to be systematically thinned;otherwise it becomes too thick, which results in cutting edge blunting and unsuccessful sharpeningblows of burin-like character. This is why during liberal reductions clear drop in length – width ratiolevel is observed (from 2 to 1,5 on average). This tendency reinforces in terminal phases ofreduction, even relatively rigorous one.

Summarising, due to technological requirements of sharpening blow, the simplest repair mode -through tool thinning from the cutting edge, resulting in steeply retouched, narrow, relatively thickforms - does not occur in PKA. On the contrary, PKA repair type leads to creation of relatively wideforms. Presence of some narrow forms in inventories from i.e. Ciemna or Buhlen could be justifiedthrough morphology of used raw material. These forms are difficult to repair, enforcingreorientation and relatively early tool abandoning.

Fig. 6 The I-series knife changes of proportions duringall reduction sequence. The length is reduced fast, thethickness – slow.

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3.1.4 Rotation in relation to the initial phase of usageIn every consecutive reduction phase, the knife’s dorsal surface view, overlapped onto its equalview of previous reduction phase, covers slightly smaller area. Theoretically, when sized ideally, thearea should cover partially with back and base of previous tool and withdraw from tip, half – backand cutting edge of it. In practice, quite often occurs leftward rotation of consecutive tools’ views inrelation to initial form. Such phenomenon is caused by uneven reduction of cutting edge, intensifiedtowards the tip. It provokes an appearance of cutting edge curvature, which needs to be promptlycorrected, for sharpening blow requires straight cutting edge line. The correction removingcurvature is conducted from the actual tip to tool base in order to minimise flint consumption.Consequently a tool from succeeding reduction phase rotates in relation to the previous one. One ofthe effects of this phenomenon is a decrease of angle between base and cutting edge (B-CE angle).Another effect related to rotation comes to light when the consecutive tools are positionedtypologically, meaning vertically with cuttingedges. The morphological change occurs, becausethe base contracts while the tip widens. Thisphenomenon corresponds with upward (from basetowards tip) shift of MTP in dorsal surface view.The cause of this phenomenon is the fact that backand half-back of rotating consecutive tool reductionphases fit into base and lower part of half-back ofthe initial tool. The worn out knives assumetriangular or crescent-shaped form. The describedfeatures’ intensity varies for different reductionseries.

The rotation phenomenon influences also scarspattern character. On the surfaces, where preservedthe negatives of transversal detachments from tool’sprimary axis, a degree of rotation of analysedreduced tool is legible – compare at 3.1.6. Therotation phenomenon is not visible withoutconfrontation of all reduction phases’ views,therefore unknown to a knapper. Only some effectsof rotation may be visible after few repairs, whenthey reach up certain intensity. The analyses ofarchaeological materials reveal that, drastic decreaseof B-CE angle might have been corrected throughtool base removal, analogical to previously described tip removal. However such correctionoccurred relatively rarely. Moreover in advanced reduction phases they have probably been ignoredcompletely. For that reason the degree of rotation seems suitable for defining tool reduction phase.

Fig. 7 Changes of the angle between base andcutting edge during three subsequent phases ofreduction of E–series. A: current angle,B: primary angle.

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3.1.5 Plano – convexity and reorientationPlano – convexity is an essential feature for asymmetric knife mental template. Overlookingarchaeological artefacts, the knapper’s determination for plano – convexity maintenance is visibleeven among worn out forms. This fact suggests its possible functional character, determining chisel– like cross-section of the edge. Such shape of the cutting edge provides increased sharpness andeasier upholding of edge’s acuteangle, comparing with lens shapedcross-section. Some knivespreserved on their flat, ventralsides scar relieves from earlyreduction phases, which suggeststhat they were unmodified touphold knives’ plano – convexity.It happens however, that duringknives’ thinning suchmodifications need to be done.Therefore primary plano –convexity may disappear inadvanced reduction phases. Thisnegative feature was corrected as itoccurred. Occasionally, whendeformation was difficult toremove with knapping, the knifewas reoriented.

There are 3 possibilities ofreorientation: vertical (tip for baseexchange), lateral (back for cuttingedge exchange) and facial (convex dorsal for flat ventral surface exchange). The experimentsproved that most effective was combination of vertical and facial reorientation. It enabled exchangeof deformed dorsal and ventral sides, maintaining cutting edge in its place and upholding rightwardknife orientation. Additionally it allowed continuing sharpening blows in the same manner as it wasbefore, while singular facial reorientation would have forced technical changes. The reorientationwas also helpful, when very narrow forms were reduced and little space for repairs with otherknapping procedures was left. In such cases vertical reorientations were preferred. The rarest inPKA was lateral reorientation. The exchange of massive back for cutting edge was very ineffectivefor huge raw material consuming.

Fig. 8 H-series reorientation. During phase 2 – tip reorientation (V)after unsuccessful sharpening. During phase 3 – reorientation of sides(F) for returning proper tool orientation. In the corner: tool in atypological view.

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3.1.6 Scar patternScar pattern of a tool preserves some information of its repairs. Depending on analysed surface, theinformation has different value. We primarily assumed, that convex side should preserve sequencesof consecutive, overlapping retouches along the cutting edge, partially covering superficial retouchfrom tool’s primary surface forming. No such pattern has been observed during experiments,however. Usually, reduction of cutting edge was focused on tip part, but flat surface retouch wasapplied occasionally while bigger repair was needed and it totally removed previous surface scarpattern. It might have resulted from either specific style of knapper’s work or the principles ofexperiment. However, in case of archaeological evidence such retouch sequences are also unusual toobserve. The observation of negatives of consecutive sharpening blows could be possibly morefruitful, but again in archaeological assemblages the artefacts demonstrating such sequences arescarce. Apart from that it is difficult to establish if particular sharpening blow negatives result fromone or different reduction phases.

More informative is observation ofventral side of the knife, which wasintentionally made flat. One of theways to obtain its flatness wasdetachment of few long, broadflakes, crossing the tool’s centralaxis in order to thin and correctlyflatten the ventral surface. Optimalseems perpendicular strike from theback or cutting edge. Consideringknapping skills of particularknapper, this kind of detachmentrequires large precision, therefore itmight not have been selected byeveryone. Although the fact that thisway of ventral side’s thinningdominates among the largest andmost meticulous knives fromCiemna and Buhlen, does not seemaccidental.

Precisely prepared flat ventralsurface was protected during repairs.The edge retouches, however causingunnecessary surface folding alongthe edges, were sometimes necessaryduring bigger repairs. This couldlead to plano – convexity disturbance and to either knife’s reorientation or disposal. However inarchaeological material quite often occur forms which demonstrate high wear degree next toremnants of initial tool shaping negatives on the ventral surface. Such negatives may preserveinformation about primary tool width and specify a degree of its rotation in relation to the initialform (compare at fig. 9). It offers potentially interesting possibilities of a reduction degree analysis.

Fig. 9 F-series, ventral side view. In the phase 1 (to the left) thenegative of large flake is visible (red colour). It comes through thecentre of the tool. The direction of the blow is perpendicular to thecutting edge. After three repairs (fourth phase of reduction, to theright) basal and middle part of the ventral side remains intact. Onecan see a part of mentioned negative (marked yellow), shorter ofabout 1,5 cm (1/3). The angle between axis of negative and cuttingedge decreased to about 75° due to the rotation of the knife inrelation to the its original form (see the outline of phase 4 put intothe picture of phase 1).

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3.2 Conditions of repair process

Apart from systematical diminishing of tool’s size and weight, practically each of the repair sideeffects might have been somehow neutralised. The experimental observations together with theanalyses of referential archaeological inventories (Ciemna, Buhlen, Bethune, Okiennik, Riencourt-les-Bapaume,Yonne) demonstrate that during subsequent repairs maintains a specific balancebetween naturally proceeding tool deformation and conscious procedures performed to keep up withPradnik standard.

The rigorous repairs are much more raw material consuming, while liberal ones allow longer tooluse. A selection of the tool parameters that should remain unchanged during repairs explainspreferences of prehistoric knapper. Furthermore, in case of Pradnik standard, some of its featureswere strictly related to the sharpening blow technique – their deformation resulted in sharpeningblow failure. The observation of repair traces and corrections of their side-effects in archaeologicalmaterial enable to determine the tool features that really mattered for their users. In this way wemanage to better reconstruct the principles of Pradnik standard. Moreover the knowledge of repaireffects enables an estimation of wear degree.

Fig. 10 Changes of tool dimensions and weight in relation to initial values in %. Repairs of series A have a liberalcharacter – the weight decrease slowly, the tool is utilised long, but its form is deformed. The length is reducedslower than width, which cases clear change in proportions of both features in the final phases of reduction. E-series repairs are of rigorous character: length-width ratio is constant during all phases of reduction, but the flintvolume is reduced faster and so the tool-life is shorter.

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Weight Length Width

3.3 Determination of wear degree

The answer to a question on whether analysed tool form was reduced and its wear (reduction)degree determination is a complex process, sometimes without a satisfactory answer. The analysisof experiment reveals the two groups of repairs side effects, important from this point of view. Firstof all the relative features, which increase during reduction, but after achieving some values arecorrected by a user. This process may repeat several times. Assuming that in terminal reductionphases a rigour of following Pradnik standard decreases, such features may be legible onarchaeological artefacts. These features however do not indicate a character of the entire reduction,but only document its very moment. Almost all the mentioned above features enter this group.Much more interesting would be features proving knife’s absolute position within reductionsequence. To determine such features is not easy in both experimental and archaeological materials,however. It implies that Pradnik knife was created and utilised consciously, with continuous controlover its features, to keep them fitting into a Pradnik standard.

3.3.1 Analysis of rotationSome possibilities of wear degree determination offers rotation evaluation, analysed in relation to ahypothetical initial form. The experiment revealed that regardless the character and techniquesapplied, the final reduction phases are always rotated comparing with the primary form.Unfortunately apart from experiment in all the other cases , the actual rotation degree may bemeasured only after reconstruction of initial tool’s cutting edge (3.4.2), which is not alwayspossible. In ordinary conditions remains an analysis of selected tool’s features, supplying with thisinformation. Sadly, a relation of such features with rotation is not linear, moreover theirinterpretation is also problematic. The main way to determine rotation degree is a value of B – CEangle. This deficient method bases on the assumptions that the B – CE angle in ideal, unreducedPradnik knife ranges between 80 and 90°, that it changes due to rotation during the subsequentreduction phases and that the angle changes do not force the tool corrections for they do not destroythe rigour of Pradnik standard.

Among the large, potentially least worn-out Pradnik knives from Ciemna or Buhlen dominatestraight bases at 80 to 90°angles towards the cutting edges. Therefore it may be carefully assumedthat such feature is desired in Pradnik method, according to the rule, that the method should bereconstructed basing on rare/ exceptional forms, neglecting mass material as the waste. However, itstill remains the assumption, especially that during the experiment various initial bases weresuccessfully tested. It is also known that both bases and backs morphologies were often treatedopportunistically - in PKA many knives have natural, cortical bases. The matter of proper basesmoothing might have been of more importance than its actual shape, but judging from the largestspecimen, it seems that existed certain variability range of this feature.

Second assumption is certainly the weakest point of the whole method. While the rotation may beaveraged during various forms reductions, the changes of the B – CE angle occur much morechaotically. As it is shown in Table 1., the relations between rotation and the B – CE angle changesduring reduction are not absolute. For this reason the B – CE angle value may only indicate, with alarge margin of error, whether the tool wear degree is low, medium or high.

It finally seems that the slight base morphology changes occurring from a growth of the B – CEangle were not corrected during repairs. It might have resulted from a fact that the base shape didnot have functional meaning. As it comes for a tool style, obviously the prehistoric knappers weretolerant with it to some extent. Occasional traces of tranchet blows on some knives’ bases may onthe other hand indicate that the larger deviations were corrected. There are dual results of this

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information. First of all the base shape was forming the element of Pradnik method, being correctedit enlarges the limits of error for the described analytical method. Basing on experimental data, itmay be assumed that changes of the B – CE angle did not exceed 30° in most of the cases, whichseems to fit within variability range of Pradnik knives, therefore was accepted by tool users.Taking of the B – CE angle measurement is quite problematic. It is not so in case of straight bases,but it occurs with irregular and rounded bases. The base line will be formed then by the straightlines led between points of tangency of back – base and cutting edge – base. In cases when the backpasses fluently into the base, there is no possibility of measurement taking. Then the rotation may bejudged on a basis of an angle between direction of initial negatives preserved as a scar pattern on aventral surface and actual tool’s axis (compare at 3.1.6). The initial negatives, if preserved on a tool,may be recognised for they cross the tool’s axis. Another assumption in this case is that thenegatives result from detachments struck off at more or less straight angle at the initial tool axis.And although it may not be true in every case, it seems to confirm in the assemblages. Whereversuch possibility exists, both rotation degree evaluation methods should be utilised. Small deviationsmay be averaged, while in case of the larger differences , the more appropriate seems the B – CEangle index. In cases of very irregular bases, the negatives angles should be favoured.

Basing on experiments the general model of the B – CE angle changes can be created depending onactual reduction phase (compare at Table 2.). It is imprecise, for the rotation may occur quiteindividually. Specifying the rotation angle degree of analysed knife will only vaguely define its weardegree. As such this method should be used together with the others.

3.3.2 Analysis of scar patternThe analysis of negatives – the scar pattern – may supply with information about rotation changes.It may also add some data to specify wear degree basing on other premises. The most valuable scarpattern from initial tool preparation preserves most likely on a knife’s ventral surface. Basing on thefeatures observed on negatives such as ripples and hackles, one may reconstruct their initial courseand length (3.4.6., fig. 13). The length of reconstructed negative precisely determines the initialknife’ s width. The relation of the actually preserved knife width to the reconstructed widthindicates the wear degree. If one assumes that the reconstructed width is 100%, while the minimalwidth characterising the exploited forms (about 3 cm on average, but every assemblage should beaveraged individually) is 0% , such relation will result in a quite precise specification of weardegree. Basing on standard Pradnik knives proportions, one may also attempt to reconstruct aninitial length. However it may not be entirely successful if the analysed tool does not upkeep withinrigorous Pradnik method in case of length – width ratio.

3.3.3 Analysis of length to thickness ratioAnother feature of absolute character is length – thickness ratio, where length reduces the quickest,while the thickness – the slowest. This decline has quite a stable character, however during biggerrepairs, even in a final reduction phase may occur temporary reverse tendencies. Also in case of thisratio, the general changes model may be proposed, which will permit some general evaluation ofwear degree of Pradnik knives (Table 2).

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3.3.4 Analysis of MTP locationThe last feature taken into account here is the location of MTP (look 3.1.1). This feature is difficultto analyse, because the movement of MTP location is corrected during the repairs. It is also not easyto establish the initial value of that feature. Seemingly, among the biggest Pradniks the MTP islocated between 30% and 40% of their length, but not without exceptions. The shape of the noduleplays a role here. Interestingly, the MTP of initial, non-reduced forms can be located relatively high.Only when the knife size is reduced so that the distance between tip and widened tool centre isabout 3-5 cm, it is necessary to move MTP down to avoid hinging of sharpening blows.

Measuring of MTP in tool longitudinal section is difficult, because tool thickness can be nearlyconstant at large part of its section length. For the purposes of research it was assumed that MTPlays in the centre of that part of tool longitudinal cross-section, which exceeds 2/3 of tool maximumthickness. Another way to express the tool mass distribution is to show the locality of centre ofgravity (CG). The location of CG in longitudinal cross-section, interesting from the ergonomicalpoint of view, is less useful for the analyses of wear degree, because of its limited variability. TheCG locates usually between 40 and 50% of tool’s length.

During the experiments mainly the relatively high locations of MTP were tested. For this reason, theMTP variability listed in tab.1 is minimal and quite useless for construction of general models.However, during the terminal reduction phases of majority of series, a slight movement of MTPtowards the tip can be observed. Similar, but more intense tendency occurs when large and smallPradniks from archaeological assemblages are compared. The appearing conclusions should becarefully assumed, keeping in mind a fact that it was more difficult for the tool maker to upkeep thecorrect tool parameters and proportions in the final reduction phases. As well as approaching tool’slife end might have caused much more careless treating by the maker. All of the above cause thatthe proposed MTP model (tab. 2) should be only considered as a general clue.

3.3.5 Total wear degree estimationThe combination of averaged features caused by repair can be helpful in tool wear degreeestimation, as seen in table 2:

No. Feature 1: slight wear degree,close to initial form

2: average weardegree, reduced, butfunctional form

3: high wear degree,maximally exploitedform

1. Width in relation toinitial width (%)

up to 75% 76 – 50% below 50%

2. Base angle 90 - 75° 74 - 65° below 65°3. Length-width relation up to 3,5 3,4 - 3 below 34. MTP location up to 40% 40 – 45% above 45%

Tab. 2 Correlation of most diagnostic features of reuse.

Particular features compiled in table 2 are of different use. The most reliable is primary widthreconstruction on scar pattern basis. It also offers the most detail classification of wear degree. Theleast applicable is analysis of MTP location. The classification of a tool to one of the three generalwear classes, basing only on MTP location can be a subject of large error.

That heuristic tool should be rather carefully used for other analyses. Much more than formalisedmethod of analyses, it should be treated as the set of clues. Tool repair process is so diverse, thattogether with all the weaknesses of archaeological source cause failures when it comes to

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construction of uniform methods. Instead only a general way of proceeding may be proposed. Thewear degree analysis should therefore include all of the features shown in table 2, with diversifiedsignificance (in the following order): 1 – most important; 2 and 3 – additional; 4 – minimal. Theresults should be modified in case of reorientation or plano – convexity disturbance, suggesting atleast average degree of wear. Although the achieved results should be treated with caution, theauthors hope that conscious use of experimentally obtained data will be helpful in various knivesinterpretation.

The important advantage of presented method is that it enables to conclude about wear degree ofanalysed forms regardless their absolute dimensions. The knife’s length - the most sensitivereduction marker, changing most rapidly during reuse - is not analysed at all. Estimation of weardegree allows to evaluate, whether analysed knife form, regardless its size, was reduced or made inactual size. If the analysed tool does not present any features of reuse, should be regarded asintentionally made in actual size. However, if the large tool shows reduction features, it is probablethat its morphology was affected by reuse. In this way the artefacts most representative fordetermination of ideal product can be selected. Final analyses of these forms will allow to define indetail Pradnik standard.

Clearly, it does not mean that the tool size has no actual significance. On the contrary, one feelsintuitively that 4 cm tool is not the same as the 15 cm long knife. The analyses of Buhlen andCiemna Cave assemblages prove that knives strictly following Pradnik standard group among thelongest artefacts. In other words, the small Pradniks can be regarded as a different tool class. Itseems that the prehistoric knives users did not bother if the tool was repaired or not, but cared for itsparticular parameters, especially considering the length of cutting edge. It leads to a conclusion thatthe size (mainly length) of Pradnik knife is a predominant feature of a tool class and thereforeprobably also a function.

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3.4 Possibilities of a tool initial form reconstruction

Observation of phenomena caused by tools reuse and the methods of wear degree estimationsupport research under the Pradnik standard. The methods of initial tool reconstruction presentedbelow are just the opposite – they are based on the experiment results and studies of archaeologicalmaterials. Thus, they have an interpretative character and should be used with caution.

3.4.1 Base to Cutting edge (B-CE) angle - based reconstructionThe method is based on numerous assumptions regarding ideal Pradnik features, reconstructedaccording to the largest and most elaborated specimen encountered in archaeological assemblages.Such assumptions include preferred initial B – CE angle, proportions, tip and back morphologytogether with other features. For reconstruction purpose it is also assumed that an initial Pradnikform fulfils all of the desired criteria. Technically the method requires a projection of analysed formon an outline of the ideal Pradnik, placing base at the initial angle – close to 90° to a cutting edge.Next the outline of ideal Pradnik is proportionally scaled to include within the analysed tool, withslight (10%) increase of width. This increase is intended to compensate the minimal widthreduction, which can occur at the basal part of the cutting edge (see Fig. 11). In this way a

reconstruction of primary knife’s shape is made. The basic problem is connected with thereconstruction of ideal knife template. The method uses a simplified, schematic outline of the toolfollowing the basic rules of Pradnik standard. Obviously, this gives only an approximation of realtool initial shape, especially if the tool didn’t strictly fit into a Pradnik standard. Another methoduses a template based on the actual tool shape, scaled to the proper size (the dark grey colour in theFig. 11). Because the basal part of the tool often stays intact during subsequent repairs, it canpreserve some information of initial tool shape and thus allow better reconstruction of its

Fig. 11 F-series, an attempt to initial form reconstruction. Reduced form (phase 10, to the left) is projected intoa template and rotated so that the angle between the tool base and the template cutting edge is about 90° (in themiddle). Scaled template gives an impression of the outline of primary tool form. Verification (to the right)shows, that the reconstruction range is about 4 phases of reduction (phase 6). The precision of thereconstruction is rather small.

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morphology. It is also possible to combine both methods. However, an important problem isconnected with proportions of the template. In big, elaborate forms, the length-width ratio usuallyexceeds 2,5. Many of smaller forms, less elaborate or more dependent to raw material morphology,show sometimes even as low ratio as 1,5. This illustrate difficulties in constructing the universaltemplate for reconstruction. The solution could be to increase the length-width ratio of the templatein relation to an actual tool. However, experiment showed, that it is hardly possible to reconstructvery initial form from the very final one. The method only allows to regress up to few precedingreduction phases. Thus the question of potential proportion changes can be omitted, and the length-width ratio of actual tool can be used as a base for the template construction. This also leads to a

conclusion, that initial tools reconstruction can be made for the to the slightly reduced specimenonly. It will be also difficult to evaluate the efficiency of this method basing on the experiments, forthe morphology of knives used in experiments was intentionally distant from assumed idealPradniks, which is illustrated on Fig. 10. It was particularly true in case of base shape and length –width proportions. It is why the reconstruction attempts basing on the assumptions of absolutecompatibility of initial form with the ideal. Concluding, because of numerous assumptions andunconfirmed effectiveness this method of analysis is rather complementary to the other.

3.4.2 Scar pattern – based reconstructionOther possibilities of initial forms reconstruction base on scar pattern interpretation, if only onemanages to localise at least one negative from primary tool shaping. An example of suchreconstruction is illustrated in Fig. 12. The methods relies on reconstruction of initial length of suchnegative based on its pattern of waves and radial fissures. The radial fissures occur usually onnegatives borders and are parallel to the direction of flake detaching force, pointing at bulb position.

Fig. 12 F-series, an attempt to reconstruction as like in Fig. 11, but slightly earlier in reduction sequence: phase4 (to the left). The reconstruction (in the middle) was based on the negatives from primary tool shaping. Theoriginal length of the negatives was estimated by extensions of the radial fissures (marked red). Their sectionallowed to find a destructed bulbs (black dot). The verification showed, that reconstruction range is exactly 3phases: the initial (first) phase was found (to the right).

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Drawing the lines (red colour in Fig. 12), which extend at least two fissures lying, if possibly, at theopposite sides of negative axis, allows to find position of destructed bulb.

The initial cutting edge can be reconstructed basing on assumption, that the flake was detached atright or almost right angle to it. The optimal solution is to reconstruct at least two negatives of theprimary shaping. The independent reconstruction of two points of primary cutting edge allows torecreate its line unconditionally of uncertain judgement of striking angle. The method is realised insubsequent steps:

Observation of radial fissures and waves pattern allows to determine axis of negative, whichcorrespond to direction of striking force used to detached the flake. Rotating the artefact so thatnegative axis (yellow colour in Fig. 12) lie horizontally one can reconstruct primary orientation ofthe tool. It is possible if one assumes, that the flakes of primary tool shaping were struck at the 90°angle to the former cutting edge.

Extending the axis of negative about 10% beyond its reconstructed bulb, one can find theapproximate localisation of the primary cutting edge. It allows to reconstruct the initial length ofnegative and therefore a primary tool width. Next one can use the method described above, findingthe outline of the reconstructed tool by scaling the template based on idealised Pradnik or by scalingthe outline of the actual tool (dark-grey in Fig. 12).

The best possibilities of original form reconstruction are connected with analysis of at least twonegatives of primary shaping, as illustrated in Fig 12. Placing the reconstructed bulbs in line allowsto estimate the localisation of original cutting edge and original tool orientation. It is then notnecessary to make any additional assumptions about angles between negatives axis and originalcutting edge.

The comparison of two methods of primary tool reconstruction shows, that the latter is morereliable. First method allow to reconstruct the morphology of the form younger in the sequence ofreduction only if it follows the rules of Pradnik standard, especially connected with the basal part ofa tool. If the tool broke such rules, as like as the tool shown in Fig 12 during first four phases ofreduction, only the second method can be used. This method allows reconstruction without toomany assumptions concerning the ideal tool morphology, but needs much better preservation ofprimary scar pattern.

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3.5 Products and debris of reduction process distribution

It is hard to conclude about the reuse model of tools in Pradnik assemblages basing on only 10 tools.The experiment lacked of data related to knives use, which may point at direction of futureproceedings. Somehow general observations about tool usage efficiency can be made. Duringexperiment average quantity of reduction phases per knife was eight, which means eight episodes oftool usage and seven episodes of its repair. It correlates with the number of flakes from Pradnikblows, called here sharpening spalls. Actually the sharpening spalls were more numerous for somePradnik blows required corrections, but regarding all the flakes destroyed during detachments, they

sum up to approximately same number. The materialresult of experiment is 82 sharpening spalls, 10 heavilyreduced knives and few buckets of remaining debris. Therelation of sharpening spalls to knives, 8:1 is exceedstwice proportion from archaeological site (Buhlen). Thequestion remains if archaeological data reflects actualefficiency of Pradnik knives reduction process. It ispossible considering the factors limiting real tool life.They mainly include damages occurring duringutilisation, not included in experiment. The necessitiesof repairs must have shortened tools lives. However

considering the fact that experimentally obtained results averaged also the phases, when reductionwas much stronger that was necessary, the numbers do not seem to be significantly raised.Obtaining 10 to 12 phases of usage of typical size Pradnik knife is not a problem. Even whenrigorous reduction takes place. Furthermore, the knives from archaeological assemblages werereduced to smaller size tools than the experimental ones, which additionally increased theoreticalnumber of reduction phases of real Pradniks. Perhaps another explanation of observed differencesshould be considered. Assuming that one deals on a site with settlement traces, it is possible that atleast half of the tool’s reduction was connected with its usage outside a camp site. Withoutadditional experiments there is no answer to a question about how the number of reuse phasescorrespond to the tool life-time, however.

Another remark is a confirmation of a fact that among large cutting tool reduction debris dominatesmall and damaged forms. The knife gets abandoned after its total exploitation, in small degreeresembling Pradnik mental template. Important is also characteristic debris from each reductionphase. Analysing distribution of sharpening spalls one can notice that every consecutive reductionseries delivers more flakes from the final reduction phases (small, poorly standardised) than fromthe initial ones (large, regular). The analogical situation repeats in archaeological assemblages.Basing on experiment results there is reason for interpretation of absence of big sharpening spalls asan evidence of their usage as the tools or half-products. Actually there is no evidence of such usage,even big sharpening spalls found i.e. in Buhlen do not appear to have ever been used.

Fig. 13 C-series, phase1: sharpening spall.There is noarchaeologicalevidence of usage ofthese flakes as thetools.

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0 5 10 15 20

13,5 - 15cm12 - 13,5cm10,5 - 12cm

9 - 10,5cm7,5 - 9cm6 - 7,5cm4,5 - 6cm

3 - 4,5cm1,5 - 3cm0 - 1,5cm

The

clas

s of

siz

e

Number of reduction phases

Moreover, the number of negative features increases in the final reduction phase, when the knapperbecomes aware of reaching tool life end. He tries to maximally exploit decreasing values of a toolwithout taking care of its features allowingfurther usage and reduction. Occasionally thetool is abandoned earlier, when number ofnegative featurescaused by knappingerrors or bas rawmaterial qualitycumulate to suchextent, that repairwould be inefficient.In both describedcases, deposited formsare strongly deformedand deviate fromoriginal Pradnikmental template.

The above remarks demonstrate defective nature of archaeological source and impose larger cautionin its interpretation. Preserved Middle Palaeolithic flint artefacts represent false image ofNeandertahl tool makers. The experiment is one of the methods allowing verification of such vision.

4 References

Bourguignon, L., 1992, Analyse du processus opératoire des coups de tranchet latéraux dansl’industrie moustérienne de l’Abri du musée (Les Eyzies-de-Tayac, Dordogne), Paléo vol. 4, 69-89.

Bosinski G. 1967, Die Mittelpaläolitischen Funde im Westlichen Mittleuropa, Fundamenta A/4.

Bosinski, G., 1969, Eine Variante der Micoque-Technik am Fundplatz Buhlen, Kreis Waldeck.JMV, vol. 53, 59-74.

Bosinski G. and J. Kulick, 1967, Der mittelpaläolitische Fundplatz Buhlen. Kr. Waldeck.Vorbericht über die Grabungen 1966-1969, Germania 51, 1-41.

Cziesla E. 1989, Siedlungsdynamik auf steinzeitlichen Fundplätzen. Methodische Aspekte zurAnalyse Latenter Strukturen, Study in Modern Archaeology, 2.

Dibble H. and N. Rolland 1992, On assemblage variability in the Middle Palaeolithic of WesternEurope: history, perspectives, and a new synthesis, In: H. Dibble and P. Mellars, (eds.), The MiddlePalaeolithic: Adaptation, Behaviour and Variability, University Museum Press, Philadelphia, p. 1-28.

Jöris O. 2001, Der spätmittelpaläolitische Fundplatz Buhlen (Grabungen 1966 - 69),Universitätsforschungen zur prähistorischen Archäologie, Band 73, Dr. Rudolf Habelt GmbH,Bonn.

Kowalski S. 1967, Ciekawsze zabytki paleolityczne z najnowszych badań archeologicznych (1963-1965) w Jaskini Ciemnej w Ojcowie, pow. Olkusz, Materiały Archeologiczne, 8, 39-46.

Fig. 14 The graph showsrelation between numberof reduction phases andthe tool size classes.Among total 82 episodesof reduction, majoritywas made in late stagesof tool-lives. That factcauses the excess ofsmall and deformedforms and reductiondebris.

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Krukowski S. 1939, Paleolit, w: Prehistoria Ziem Polskich, z.1., Encyklopedia Polska PAU, t. IV,cz. 1, dz. 5, 117, KrakówMarcy J-L. 1991, Les Prondniks du Mont de Beuvry à Bethune (Pas-De-Calais), w: A. Tuffreau ed.,Paleolithique et mesolithique du nord de la France, nouvelles recherches: II.

Richter J. 1997, Sesselfelsgrotte III Der G-Schichten-Komplex der Sesselfelsgrotte – ZumVerständnis des Micoquien, Quartär-Bibliothek, Band 7, Saarbrücker Druckerei und Verlag.

Urbanowski M. 2003,The visual documentation of archaeological finds, Skamander, 1,http://www.archeo.uw.edu.pl/skam/S2.asp.

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