Wireless Communication Systems - AMiner Wireless Communication Systems This textbook introduces...

i

Wireless Communication Systems

This textbook introduces wireless communications from the viewpoint of wireless

communication system designers. Existing textbooks on wireless communications

pay more emphasis on fundamental principles and on the derivation of funda-

mental equations in the field. In this textbook, we try to pass to the readers

as much knowledge that is most relevant to wireless system design as possible.

We also give a comprehensive and state-of-the-art introduction to the enabling

techniques for current and future generation wireless communications, such as

CDMA, OFDM, smart antennas, MIMO, UWB, turbo and LDPC coding, cog-

nitive radio, and wireless ad hoc/sensor networks. While some of the wireless

communications textbooks have mentioned front-end subsystems, such as anten-

nas and microwave/RF subsystems, this textbook is the first of its kind that

gives details on how to design and select the antennas, microwave/RF subsys-

tems, and A/D and D/A converters. This is most helpful for readers to get a

clear knowledge of the whole wireless system. Also, this book is the first wire-

less communication textbook that gives a comprehensive introduction to speech

coders and video coders that are used in wireless communication systems.

This book is helpful for all academic and technical staff in the fields of telecom-

munications and wireless communications. Many examples are given to help the

readers to understand the material covered in the book. Additional resources

such as the MATLAB codes for some of the examples are available online at

www.cambridge.org/978-0-521-XXXXX-X.

K.-L. Du received his PhD in electrical engineering from Huazhong University of

Science and Technology, China, in 1998. He is presently on research staff at Cen-

ter for Signal Processing and Communications, Concordia University, Montreal,

Canada. Prior to joining Concordia Univesity in 2001, he was on technical staff

with Huawei Technologies, China Academy of Telecommunication Technology,

and Chinese University of Hong Kong. He spent six months in the summer of

2008 with Hong Kong University of Science and Technology.

Dr Du has coauthored one book (Neural Networks in a Softcomputing Frame-

work, Springer, London, 2006). He has also published more than 30 papers, and

has one U. S. patent pending. He is on the editorial boards of IET Signal Pro-

cessing and Circuits, Systems & Signal Processing, and is on technical program

committees of ICONIP 2009 and PIMRC’09. He has reviewed papers for dozens

of journals and conferences. He is a member of the IEEE. Currently, his research

interests are signal processing, wireless communications, RF systems, and neural

networks.

M.N.S. Swamy received the B.Sc. (Hons.) degree in Mathematics from Mysore

University, India, in 1954, the Diploma in Electrical Communication Engineering

from the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore in 1957, and the M.Sc. and Ph.

D. degrees in Electrical Engineering from the University of Saskatchewan, Saska-

ii

toon, Canada, in 1960 and 1963 respectively. In August 2001 he was awarded

a Doctor of Science in Engineering (Honoris Causa) by Ansted University “In

recognition of his exemplary contributions to the research in Electrical and Com-

puter Engineering and to Engineering Education, as well as his dedication to the

promotion of Signal Processing and Communications Applications”.

He is presently a Research Professor, holder of Concordia Tier I chair, and

the Director of the Center for Signal Processing and Communications in the

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering at Concordia University,

Montreal, Canada, where he served as the first Chair of the Department of Elec-

trical Engineering from 1970 to 1977, and Dean of Engineering and Computer

Science from 1977 to1993. He has published extensively in the areas of circuits,

systems and signal processing, and holds five patents. He is the co-author of four

books: Graphs, Networks and Algorithms (New York, Wiley, 1981), Graphs:

Theory and Algorithms (New York, Wiley, 1992), Switched Capacitor Filters:

Theory, Analysis and Design (Prentice Hall International UK Ltd., 1995) and

Neural Networks in a Softcomputing Framework (Springer, 2006). A Russian

Translation of the first book was published by Mir Publishers, Moscow, in 1984,

while a Chinese version was published by the Education Press, Beijing, in 1987.

Dr. Swamy is a Fellow of many societies including the IEEE, IET (UK)

and EIC (Canada). He has served the IEEE CAS Society in various capaci-

ties such as President in 2004, Vice-President (Publications) during 2001-2002,

Vice-President in 1976, Editor-in-Chief of the IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON CIR-

CUITS AND SYSTEMS-I from June 1999 to December 2001. He is the recipi-

ent of many IEEE-CAS Society awards including the Education Award in 2000,

Golden Jubilee Medal in 2000, and the 1986 Guillemin-Cauer Best Paper Award.

Recently, Concordia University instituted a Research Chair in his name as a

recognition of his research contributions.

Wireless CommunicationSystems

KE-LIN DU and M. N. S. SWAMY

May 19, 2009

iii

cambridge university press

Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, Sao Paulo

Cambridge University PressThe Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 2RU, UK

Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York

www.cambridge.orgInformation on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521XXXXXX

C© Cambridge university Press 2009

This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exceptionand to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,no reproduction of any part may take place withoutthe written permission of Cambridge University Press.

First published 2009

Printed in the United Kingdom at the University Press, Cambridge

A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication data

ISBN-13 978-0-521-XXXXX-X hardbackISBN-10 0-521-XXXXX-X hardback

Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of URLs forexternal or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication, and does notguarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate.

iv

To My Son Cynric K.-L. Du

and

To My Parents M. N. S. Swamy

Contents

Preface page xx

List of Abbreviations xxiii

1 Introduction 1

1.1 The wireless age 1

1.2 Spectrum of electromagnetic waves 2

1.3 Block diagram of a communication system 3

1.4 Architecture of radio transceivers 3

1.4.1 Super-heterodyne transceivers 4

1.4.2 Direct-conversion transceivers 5

1.5 Orgaization of the book 8

2 An overview of wireless communications 11

2.1 Roadmap of cellular communications 11

2.1.1 First-generation systems 11

2.1.2 Second-generation systems 12

2.1.3 Third-generation systems 14

2.1.4 Fourth-generation systems 18

2.1.5 Satellite communications 21

2.2 Mobile cellular networks 22

2.2.1 Circuit/packet switching 23

2.3 Roadmap for wireless networking 25

2.3.1 Wireless local-area networks 25

2.3.2 Wireless personal-area networks 27

2.3.3 Wireless metropolitan-area networks 29

2.3.4 Wireless regional-area networks 30

2.3.5 Ad hoc wireless networks 31

2.4 Other applications 33

2.4.1 Paging systems 33

2.4.2 Digital broadcasting systems 33

2.4.3 RF identification 34

2.5 Open systems interconnect (OSI) reference model 35

vi Contents

3 Channel and propagation 40

3.1 Propagation loss 40

3.1.1 Free-space loss 40

3.1.2 Plane earth loss model 41

3.1.3 Okumura–Hata model 42

3.1.4 COST-231–Hata model 43

3.1.5 Other empirical models 44

3.1.6 COST231–Walfisch–Ikegami model 45

3.1.7 Indoor propagation models 46

3.1.8 Channel models in wireless standards 48

3.2 Channel fading 50

3.2.1 Log-normal shadowing 50

3.2.2 Rayleigh fading 52

3.2.3 Two-path model of Rayleigh fading 54

3.2.4 Random frequency modulation 57

3.2.5 Ricean fading 58

3.2.6 Other fading models 59

3.2.7 Outage probability 60

3.3 Doppler fading 61

3.3.1 Doppler spectrum 62

3.3.2 Level crossing rates 64

3.3.3 Average duration of fades 65

3.4 WSSUS model 67

3.4.1 Delay spread 68

3.4.2 Correlation coefficient 70

3.4.3 Channel coherent bandwidth 70

3.4.4 Doppler spread and channel coherent time 71

3.4.5 Angle spread and coherent distance 72

3.5 Propagation mechanisms 74

3.5.1 Reflection and refraction 74

3.5.2 Scattering 77

3.5.3 Diffraction 77

3.6 Atmospheric effects 79

3.6.1 Tropospheric effects 80

3.6.2 Ionospheric effects 81

3.7 Channel sounding 83

4 Cellular and multiple-user systems 93

4.1 The cellular concept 93

4.1.1 Cell planning 94

4.1.2 Increasing capacity of cellular networks 96

4.1.3 Interference in multiuser systems 97

4.1.4 Power control 99

Contents vii

4.1.5 Channel assignment 100

4.1.6 Handoff 101

4.2 Multiple access techniques 103

4.2.1 Duplexing: FDD versus TDD 104

4.2.2 FDMA 105

4.2.3 TDMA 106

4.2.4 CDMA 107

4.2.5 OFDMA 108

4.2.6 SDMA 108

4.3 Random multiple access 109

4.3.1 ALOHA 110

4.3.2 Carrier-sense multiple access 111

4.3.3 Scheduling access 114

4.4 Erlang capacity in uplink 115

4.4.1 Erlang B equation 116

4.4.2 Erlang C equation 116

4.5 Protocol design for wireless networks 118

4.5.1 Layered protocol design 118

4.5.2 Cross-layer design 121

4.6 Quality of service 123

4.7 User location 125

5 Diversity 132

5.1 Diversity methods 132

5.2 Combining multiple signals 135

5.2.1 Selection diversity 136

5.2.2 Maximum ratio combining 139

5.2.3 Equal gain combining 144

5.2.4 Switch diversity 146

5.2.5 Optimum combining 147

5.3 Transmit diversity 150

5.3.1 Open-loop transmit diversity 150

5.3.2 Closed-loop transmit diversity 151

5.4 Multiuser diversity 152

5.4.1 pdf and cdf 153

5.4.2 Multiuser diversity versus classical diversity 154

6 Channel estimation and equalization 160

6.1 Channel estimation 160

6.1.1 Adaptive channel estimation 161

6.1.2 Blind channel estimation 162

6.2 Channel equalization 162

6.2.1 Optimum sequence detection 163

viii Contents

6.2.2 Linear equalizers 164

6.2.3 Decision-feedback equalizers 169

6.2.4 MLSE equalizer 170

6.2.5 Viterbi algorithm 171

6.2.6 Frequency-domain equalizers 173

6.2.7 Blind equalizers 174

6.2.8 Precoding 175

6.3 Pulse shaping 175

6.3.1 Raised-cosine filtering 176

6.3.2 Root raised-cosine filtering 177

7 Modulation and detection 183

7.1 Analog modulation 183

7.1.1 Amplitude modulation 183

7.1.2 Phase modulation and frequency modulation 185

7.2 Introduction to digital modulation 186

7.2.1 Signal space diagram 187

7.2.2 Demodulation and detection 188

7.2.3 Error probability in the Gaussian channel 189

7.3 Baseband modulation 191

7.3.1 Line codes 191

7.3.2 Pulse time modulation 193

7.4 Pulse amplitude modulation 194

7.5 Phase shift keying 197

7.5.1 Binary phase shift keying 198

7.5.2 M -ary phase shift keying 200

7.5.3 Quarternary phase shift keying 204

7.6 Frequency shift keying 208

7.6.1 Binary frequency shift keying 209

7.6.2 M -ary frequency shift keying 212

7.6.3 Minimum shift keying 214

7.6.4 Gaussian minimum shift keying 216

7.6.5 Continuous phase modulation 218

7.7 Quadrature amplitude modulation 220

7.8 Bandwidth efficiencies of M -ary modulation 226

7.9 Matched filtering 226

7.10 Synchronization 228

7.10.1 Carrier synchronization 228

7.10.2 Symbol timing recovery 230

7.11 Differential modulation 232

7.12 Error probability in fading channels 233

7.12.1 Flat Rayleigh fading channel 233

7.12.2 Flat Ricean fading channel 237

Contents ix

7.12.3 Alternative form of the Q-function 238

7.12.4 Error probability using moment-generating functions 238

7.13 Error probabilities due to delay spread and frequency dispersion 239

7.14 Error probability in fading channels with diversity reception 241

8 Spread spectrum communications 248

8.1 Introduction 248

8.2 Spreading sequences 250

8.2.1 Properties of spreading sequences 250

8.2.2 Pseudo-noise sequences 251

8.2.3 Gold sequences 254

8.2.4 Kasami sequences 255

8.2.5 Walsh sequences 255

8.2.6 Orthogonal variable spreading factor sequences 256

8.2.7 Barker sequences 257

8.2.8 Complementary codes 258

8.3 Direct-sequence spread spectrum 259

8.3.1 DS-CDMA model 259

8.3.2 Conventional receiver 262

8.3.3 Rake receiver 263

8.3.4 Synchronization in CDMA 265

8.3.5 Power control 266

8.3.6 Soft handoff 267

8.4 Multiuser detection 268

8.4.1 Introduction 268

8.4.2 Optimum multiuser detector 270

8.4.3 Linear multiuser detection 271

8.4.4 Serial/parallel interference cancellation 273

8.4.5 Combination of linear MUD and nonlinear SIC 274

8.5 Bit error probability and system capacity 275

8.5.1 BER performance 275

8.5.2 Uplink capacity 277

8.6 Other DSSS techniques 279

8.7 DSSS and DS-CDMA in wireless standards 280

8.8 Frequency-hopping spread spectrum 283

8.8.1 Error performance of FHSS 285

8.8.2 FHSS versus DSSS 286

9 Orthogonal frequency division multiplexing 294


9.2 Principle of OFDM 295

9.3 OFDM transceivers 297

9.4 Cyclic prefix 298

x Contents

9.5 Spectrum of OFDM 301

9.6 Fading mitigation in OFDM 304

9.7 Channel estimation 305

9.7.1 Pilot arrangement for channel estimation 306

9.7.2 Pilot-assisted channel estimation 307

9.8 Peak-to-average power ratio 308

9.8.1 Peak factor: definition and impact 309

9.8.2 Peak factor reduction techniques 310

9.8.3 Amplitude clipping or companding 312

9.9 Intercarrier interference 315

9.10 Synchronization 317

9.10.1 Influence of freqnency offset 318

9.10.2 Phase noise effects on OFDM 320

9.10.3 Influence of timing offset 321

9.10.4 Implementation of synchronization 322

9.11 OFDM-based multiple access 326

9.12 Performance of OFDM systems 327

9.13 Multi-carrier CDMA 329

9.14 Other OFDM associated schemes 332

10 Antennas 341

10.1 Maxwell’s equations 341

10.2 Introduction to computational electromagnetics 342

10.2.1 Method of moments 343

10.2.2 Finite difference time-domain method 343

10.2.3 Finite element method 344

10.3 Antenna fundamentals 345

10.3.1 Radiation patterns 346

10.3.2 Antenna field zones 347

10.3.3 Antenna gain and directivity 348

10.3.4 Effective area and effective height 349

10.3.5 Antenna temperature 350

10.3.6 Polarization 351

10.3.7 Receiving and transmitting power efficiency 352

10.4 Antennas for wireless communications 353

10.4.1 Antennas for base stations 354

10.4.2 Antennas for mobile stations 355

10.5 Dipole antennas 356

10.5.1 Wire dipole antennas 357

10.5.2 Baluns 359

10.5.3 Wire monopoles 360

10.6 Patch antennas 361

10.6.1 Microscrip antennas 361

Contents xi

10.6.2 Broadband microstrip antennas 362

10.7 Polarization-agile antennas 363

10.8 Antenna arrays 364

10.8.1 Array factor 366

10.8.2 Mutual coupling and spatial correlation 366

10.9 Wideband antennas 368

10.9.1 Implementation of wideband antennas 369

10.9.2 Ultra wideband antennas 370

11 RF and microwave subsystems 378


11.1.1 Receiver performance requirements 378

11.1.2 Architecture of RF subsystems 379

11.2 RF system analysis 380

11.2.1 Noise 381

11.2.2 Noise figure 383

11.2.3 Link budget analysis 384

11.3 Transmission lines 385

11.3.1 Fundamental theory 385

11.3.2 Types of transmission line 389

11.4 Microwave network analysis 390

11.5 Impedance matching 393

11.5.1 Stub tuners 393

11.5.2 Quarter-wave transformer 394

11.5.3 Multisection matching transformers 395

11.6 Microwave resonators 395

11.6.1 RLC resonant circuits 395

11.6.2 Transmission line resonators 397

11.6.3 Waveguide cavities 398

11.7 Power dividers and directional couplers 399

11.7.1 Three-port networks 399

11.7.2 Four-port networks 400

11.8 RF/microwave filters 401

11.8.1 Insertion loss method 402

11.8.2 Prototyping 405

11.8.3 Stub filters 406

11.8.4 Stepped-impedance lowpass filters 407

11.8.5 Coupled line bandpass filters 407

11.8.6 Computer-aided design for RF/microwave filter design 410

11.8.7 Filters for wireless communications 411

11.9 Phase shifters 413

11.10Basic concepts in active RF circuits 414

11.11Modeling of RF components 418

xii Contents

11.11.1Diodes 419

11.11.2Transistors 422

11.12Switches 427

11.13Attenuators 429

11.14Mixers 430

11.14.1Operation of mixers 431

11.14.2Types of mixers 432

11.15Amplifiers 433

11.15.1Requirements in wireless systems 433

11.15.2Structure of amplifiers 434

11.15.3Classification of amplifiers 436

11.15.4Linearization techniques 439

11.15.5Microwave transistors for amplifiers 440

11.15.6Stability 441

11.15.7Transistor amplifier design 442

11.16Oscillators 443

11.16.1Analysis methods 443

11.16.2Phase noise 444

11.16.3Classification of RF oscillators 446

11.17Frequency synthesis 449

11.17.1Composition of phase-locked loops 449

11.17.2Dynamics of phase-locked loops 452

11.17.3Direct frequency synthesis 454

11.18Automatic gain control 455

11.19MICs and MMICs 457

11.19.1Major MMIC technologies 457

11.19.2Approach to MMIC design 458

11.19.3Passive lumped components 459

11.19.4RF CMOS 461

11.19.5Impedance matching 463

12 A/D and D/A conversions 470


12.2 Sampling 470

12.2.1 Ideal and natural sampling 470

12.2.2 Sampling theorem 472

12.2.3 Aliasing and antialiasing 473

12.2.4 Oversampling and decimation 473

12.2.5 Bandpass sampling theorem 474

12.3 Quantization 476

12.3.1 Uniform quantization 476

12.3.2 Improving resolution by oversampling 478

12.4 Analog reconstruction 479

Contents xiii

12.5 Parameters for A/D and D/A converters 481

12.5.1 SNR of A/D and D/A converters 482

12.5.2 SFDR and dithering 484

12.6 A/D converter circuits 486

12.6.1 Flash A/D converters 486

12.6.2 Successive-approximation register A/D converters 486

12.6.3 Sigma-delta A/D converters 487

12.7 D/A converter circuits 490

12.8 A/D and D/A converters for software-defined radios 491

13 Signals and signal processing 495

13.1 Basic transforms 495

13.1.1 Fourier transform 495

13.1.2 Laplace transform 496

13.1.3 z-transform 497

13.2 Discrete-time Fourier transform 500

13.2.1 Windowing 501

13.2.2 DFT 503

13.2.3 FFT 504

13.3 Digital filters 507

13.3.1 FIR and IIR filters 507

13.3.2 Stability 508

13.3.3 Inverse filters 509

13.3.4 Minimum-, maximum-, and mixed-phase systems 510

13.3.5 Notch and comb filters 511

13.4 Digital filter design 513

13.4.1 FIR digital filter design 514

13.4.2 IIR filter design 516

13.4.3 Hardware implementation of digital filters 519

13.5 Adaptive filters 519

13.5.1 Wiener solution 520

13.5.2 LMS algorithm 521

13.5.3 RLS algorithm 521

13.6 Digital up-conversion and digital down-conversion 522

13.6.1 Numerically controlled oscillators 523

13.6.2 Direct digital frequency synthesis 524

13.7 Sampling-rate conversion 526

13.7.1 Interpolation 527

13.7.2 Decimation 530

13.7.3 Sample rate converters 531

13.7.4 Cascaded integrator comb (CIC) filters 532

13.8 Discrete cosine transform 534

13.9 Wavelet transform 537

xiv Contents

13.9.1 Discrete wavelet transform 538

13.9.2 Multiresolution analysis 539

13.10Filter banks 541

13.11Subband coding 544

13.11.1Two-channel perfect reconstruction filter banks 545

13.11.2Pseudo-QMF filter bank 547

13.11.3Modified DCT (MDCT) 548

14 Fundamentals of information theory 557

14.1 Basic definitions 557

14.2 Lossless data compression 562

14.2.1 Source coding theorem 563

14.2.2 Huffman coding 564

14.2.3 Exponential-Golomb variable-length codes 566

14.2.4 Arithmetic coding 567

14.2.5 Dictionary-based coding 570

14.3 Rate-distortion theorem 572

14.4 Channel capacity 574

14.4.1 Capacity of the AWGN channel for Gaussian distributed input 576

14.4.2 Capacity of the AWGN channel for discrete input alphabets 578

14.4.3 Area spectral efficiency 581

14.5 Source–channel coding theorem 582

14.6 Capacity of fading channels 583

14.6.1 Capacity with CSI at receiver only 583

14.6.2 Capacity with CSI at transmitter and receiver 585

14.6.3 Capacity of frequency-selective fading channels 587

14.7 Channel capacity for multiuser communications 589

14.7.1 AWGN channel 589

14.7.2 Flat-fading channels 591

14.8 Estimation theory 592

15 Channel coding 598

15.1 Prelimiaries 598

15.2 Linear block codes 599

15.2.1 Error detection/correction 601

15.2.2 Simple parity check and Hamming codes 602

15.2.3 Syndrome decoding 603

15.3 Hard/soft decision decoding 605

15.4 Cyclic codes 607

15.4.1 Encoder and decoder 608

15.4.2 Types of cyclic codes 610

15.5 Interleaving 613

15.6 Convolutional codes 615

Contents xv

15.6.1 Encoding of convolutional codes 615

15.6.2 Encoder state and trellis diagrams 619

15.6.3 Sequence decoders 621

15.6.4 Trellis representation of block codes 625

15.6.5 Coding gain and error probability 625

15.6.6 Convolutional coding with interleaving 628

15.6.7 Punctured convolutional codes 628

15.6.8 Trellis-coded modulation 630

15.7 Conventional concatenated codes 631

15.8 Turbo codes 633

15.8.1 Turbo encoder 634

15.8.2 Turbo decoder 636

15.8.3 MAP algorithm 639

15.8.4 Analysis of the turbo code 644

15.9 Serially concatenated convolutional codes 647

15.9.1 Design of the SCCC 648

15.9.2 Decoding of the SCCC 649

15.10Low-density parity-check codes 650

15.10.1LDPC code: a linear block code 650

15.10.2LDPC encoder and decoder 653

15.11Adaptive modulation and coding 655

15.12ARQ and hybrid-ARQ 658

16 Source coding I: speech and audio coding 668


16.1.1 Coding for analog sources 668

16.2 Quantization 670

16.2.1 Scalar quantization 670

16.2.2 Vector quantization 670

16.3 Speech production and auditory systems 672

16.3.1 Speech production 672

16.3.2 Psychoacoustics 675

16.4 Speech/audio quality 677

16.4.1 Subjective quality measures 678

16.4.2 Objective quality measures 678

16.5 Speech coding 681

16.5.1 Logarithmic PCM coding 682

16.5.2 Linear prediction analysis and synthesis 684

16.5.3 Predictive coding 690

16.5.4 Frequency-domain waveform coding 692

16.5.5 Voice activity detection 693

16.5.6 Linear predictive coding 693

16.5.7 Pitch period estimation 696

xvi Contents

16.5.8 Analysis by synthesis 698

16.5.9 CELP-based codecs 701

16.5.10Wideband speech coding 706

16.6 Audio coding 708

16.6.1 MPEG-1 and MPEG-2 Audio 709

16.6.2 MPEG-4 Audio 711

17 Source coding II: image and video coding 718


17.2 Perception of human vision 721

17.2.1 Human visual system 721

17.2.2 Color spaces 722

17.3 Quality of image and video coding 723

17.4 Predictive coding 725

17.5 Transform-based image compression 727

17.6 JPEG standard 727

17.6.1 Four modes of opertion 728

17.6.2 Quantization 729

17.6.3 Coding 731

17.7 Wavelet-transform-based image coding 732

17.7.1 Subband decomposition 733

17.7.2 Wavelet filter design 733

17.7.3 Coding of wavelet subimages 735

17.8 Wavelet-based image coding standards 740

17.8.1 JPEG2000 standard 740

17.8.2 MPEG-4 still image mode 742

17.9 Comparison of image coding standards 742

17.9.1 Comparison of six popular standards 742

17.9.2 DjVu and adaptive binary optimization (ABO) 744

17.10Video data compression 745

17.10.1Frame format 745

17.10.2Frame types 746

17.10.3Motion compensation 746

17.10.4Basic structure of video 751

17.10.5Video encoder/decoder 752

17.10.6Scalability 753

17.10.7Integer DCT transform 755

17.10.8Shape coding 756

17.10.9Object-based coding and sprite coding 757

17.10.10Rate control 758

17.11Introduction to video standards 759

18 Multiple antennas: smart antenna systems 770

Contents xvii


18.1.1 The concept of smart antennas 771

18.1.2 Smart antennas in mobile communications 772

18.2 Direction-finding 773

18.2.1 Pseudospectrums 773

18.2.2 MUSIC 775

18.3 Beamforming 777

18.3.1 Blind source separation 777

18.3.2 ZF, MRC, and Wiener beamformers 778

18.3.3 Switched-beam antennas 779

18.4 Adaptive beamforming 780

18.4.1 DoA-based beamforming 781

18.4.2 Training-based beamforming 784

18.4.3 Blind beamforming 786

18.5 Cyclostationary beamforming 789

18.5.1 Preliminary on cyclostationaity 789

18.5.2 Summary of some algorithms 791

18.5.3 ACS algorithm 793

18.6 Wideband beamforming 796

18.6.1 Tapped-delay-line structure 796

18.6.2 Pure delay-line wideband transmitter beamformer 797

19 Multiple antennas: MIMO systems 802


19.2 MIMO system 803

19.2.1 MIMO system model 803

19.2.2 Spatial correlation and MIMO channel model 803

19.2.3 MIMO decoding 805

19.2.4 MIMO channel decomposition 806

19.2.5 Channel estimation 807

19.2.6 CSI or partial CSI at the transmitter 808

19.3 Capacity in i.i.d. slow fading channels 810

19.3.1 No CSI at the transmitter 811

19.3.2 CSI known at the transmitter 812

19.3.3 Channel capacities for transmitter with versus without CSI 814

19.4 Capacity in i.i.d. fast fading channels 816

19.4.1 Outage and ergodic capacities 816

19.4.2 Capacity bounds 821

19.4.3 Ricean channels 823

19.5 Space–time coding 824

19.5.1 Performance analysis of space–time codes 825

19.5.2 Orthogonal space–time block codes 827

19.5.3 Space–time trellis codes 832

xviii Contents

19.5.4 Differential space–time coding 834

19.6 Spatial multiplexing 834

19.6.1 Layered space–time receiver structures 835

19.6.2 Space–time receivers 838

19.6.3 Spatial precoding 841

19.6.4 Other closed-loop MIMO schemes 844

19.6.5 Beamspace MIMO 845

19.7 Diversity, beamforming, versus spatial multiplexing 845

19.7.1 Diversity, beamforming, and spatial multiplexing gains 845

19.7.2 Error probabilities for MIMO systems 848

19.7.3 MIMO beamforming 851

19.8 MIMO for frequency- or time-selective fading channels 852

19.8.1 MIMO-SC 852

19.8.2 MIMO-OFDM 854

19.8.3 MIMO for time-selective channels 857

19.9 Space–time processing 857

19.9.1 Linear space–time processing model 858

19.9.2 ZF and MMSE receivers 858

19.10Space–time processing for CDMA systems 860

19.10.1Signal model 860

19.10.2Space–time detection algorithms 862

19.10.3Adaptive implementation of ST-MUD 866

19.11MIMO in wireless standards 872

20 Ultra wideband communications 887


20.2 UWB indoor channel 890

20.3 UWB capacity 893

20.4 Pulsed UWB 894

20.4.1 Pulse shape 894

20.4.2 Modulation and multiple access for pulsed UWB 897

20.4.3 Time-hopping and direct-sequence UWB signals 899

20.4.4 Pulsed-UWB transceivers 901

20.4.5 Challenges for pulsed UWB systems 902

20.4.6 Rake receivers 904

20.4.7 Transmitted reference receivers 905

20.5 Multiband UWB 908

20.5.1 Modulation of pulsed multiband UWB 909

20.5.2 MB-OFDM UWB 909

21 Cognitive radios 917

21.1 Conception of software-defined radio 917

21.2 Harware/software architecture of software-defined radio 918

Contents xix

21.3 Conception of cognitive radio 920

21.3.1 Topics in cognitive radio 921

21.3.2 Cognitive radio in wireless standards 924

21.4 Spectrum sensing 925

21.4.1 Secondary user-based local spectrum sensing 925

21.4.2 Cooperative spectrum sensing 928

21.5 Spectrum sensing using cyclostationary property 929

21.5.1 Spectrum cyclic analysis based spectrum sensing 930

21.5.2 Cyclostationary beamforming based spectrum sensing 931

21.6 Dynamic spectrum access 935

21.6.1 Water-filling for dynamic spectrum access 935

21.6.2 Basic game theory 940

21.6.3 Four persona models 944

21.6.4 Game-theoretic models for dynamic resources allocation 945

22 Wireless ad hoc/sensor networks 953


22.1.1 Wireless sensor networks 954

22.2 Routing 956

22.3 Security 958

22.3.1 Security problems 958

22.3.2 Encryption 960

22.4 Technical overview for wireless ad hoc networks 961

22.5 Technical overview for wireless sensor networks 965

22.6 Data aggregation and routing for WSNs 970

22.6.1 Data aggregation 970

22.6.2 Routing 971

22.7 Relay, user cooperation, and MIMO relay networks 973

22.7.1 Relay 974

22.7.2 User cooperation 976

22.7.3 MIMO relay networks 979

The Q-function 988

Wirtinger calculus 990

Index 993

Preface

In the last three decades, the explosive growth of mobile and wireless communi-

cations has radically changed the life of people. Wireless services have migrated

from the conventional voice-centric services to data-centric services. The circuit-

switched communication network is now being replaced by all-IP packet-switched

network. Mobile communications have also evolved from the first-generation (1G)

analog systems to the third-generation (3G) systems now being deployed, and

the fourth-generation (4G) systems are now under development and are expected

to be available by 2010. The evolution of wireless networking has also taken place

rapidly during this period, from low-speed wireless local-area networks (LANs) to

broadband wireless LANs, wireless metropolitan-area networks (MANs), wireless

wide-area networks (WANs), and wireless personal-area networks (PANs). Also,

broadband wireless data service has been expanded into broadcasting service,

leading to satellite TV broadcasting and wireless regional-area networks (RANs)

for digital TV. The data rate has also evolved from the 10 kbits/s voice com-

munications to approximately 1 Gbits/s in the 4G wireless network. In addition,

the 4G wireless network will provide ubiquitous communications.

Scope and PurposeA complete wireless system involves many different areas. However, most existing

textbooks on wireless communications focus only on the fundamental principles

of wireless communications, while many other areas associated with a whole

wireless system, such as digital signal processing, antenna design, microwave

and radio frequency (RF) subsystem design, speech coding, video coding, and

channel coding, are left to other books.

This book provides a broad, also in certain depth, technical view of wire-

less communications, covering various aspects of radio systems. Various enabling

technologies for modern wireless communications are also included. Unlike the

existing books in the field, this book is organized from a wireless system

designer’s viewpoint. We give wide coverage to the techniques that are most

relevant to the design of wireless communication and networking systems. We

focus ourselves on the lower layers of wireless systems, since the upper layers such

as network layers and transport layers are topics of general data communication

systems. Due to limited space, we do not provide lengthy mathematical details,

but rather emphasize on the practical aspects.

Preface xxi

The book is divided into twenty-two chapters, including introduction, over-

wiew of wireless communications and networking, wireless channel and radio

propagation, cellular systems and multiple access, diversity, channel equaliza-

tion, modulation and detection, spread-spectrum communications, orthogonal

frequency devision multiplexing (OFDM), antennas, RF and microwave subsys-

tems, A/D and D/A conversions, digital signal processing, information theory,

ultra wideband (UWB) communications, speech/audio coding, image/video cod-

ing, channel coding, smart antennas, multiple input multiple output (MIMO)

systems, cognitive radios, and wireless ad hoc/sensor networks. Each chapter

contains some examples and problems.

Intended AudienceThis book is primarily intended as a textbook for advanced undergraduate and

graduate students specializing in wireless communications and telecommunica-

tion systems. It is also a good reference book for practising engineers. The reader

is supposed to have a background in electrical engineering and to be familiar

with the theory of signals and systems, probabilities and stochastic processes,

basic circuits, basic digital communications, linear algebra, and advanced cal-

culus. These courses are offered in most electrical engineering undergraduate

programs. The contents are useful for mobile celluar communications, satellite

communication, and wireless networking.

The material in this book can be taught in two semesters. The first semester

may cover Chapters 1 to 13, which deal with the principles of wireless communi-

cations, and the analog and digital designs. The second semester could cover the

remaining chapters, including information theory and coding, and some advanced

and emerging technolgies. If only one semester is available for this course, we sug-

gest teaching Chapters 1 to 13, 15, and selected sections from Chapters 18 to 22.

Since each chapter is rather comprehensive on the topics treated and is relatively

self-contained, the reader can select to read only those chapters that are of inter-

est to the reader. MATLAB codes for the examples in the book are downloadable

from the book website.

AcknowledgmentsFirst of all, we would like to thank the anonymous reviewers, whose comments

have enriched this book. Our appreciation is extended to Ayhan Altintas of

Bilkent University (Turkey) for commenting on Chapters 3 and 10, Chunjiang

Duanmu of Zhejiang Normal University (China) for reviewing Chapter 17, and

Wai Ho Mow of Hong Kong University of Science and Technology (China) for

his valuable comments on Chapter 21. The authors would like to express their

special thanks to Ezio Biglieri and Giorgio Taricco from Politecnico di Torino

(Italy) for helpful discussion.

K.-L. Du would like to express his gratitude to Wei Wu of Concordia University

(Canada), Doru Florin Chiper of Technical University ”Gh.Asachi” Iasi (Roma-

nia), Jie Zeng of Meidian Technologies (China), Yi Shen of Huazhong University

xxii Preface

of Science and Technology (China), Hong Bao and Jiabin Lu of Guangdong Uni-

versity of Technology (China), Qiang Ni of Brunel University (UK), Yin Yang

and Daniel Gaoyang Dai from Hong Kong University of Science and Technol-

ogy (China), Xiangming Li of Beijing Institute of Technology (China), Qingling

Zhang of ZTE Corporation (China), Yi Zhang of Huawei Technologies (China),

and Andrew Chi-Sing Leung from City University of Hong Kong (China) for

their personal help during the period for preparing this book. M. N. S. Swamy

also wishes to thank his family for their support during the period of preparing

this book.

We feel extremely fortunate to have worked with Cambridge University Press.

We express our utmost appreciation to Philip Meyler, Publishing Director, Engi-

neering, Mathematical and Physical Sciences, at Cambridge University Press,

for his guidence. The encouragement and support provided by Philip Meyler has

made the process of writing this book very joyful. Finally, special thanks go to

the staff from Cambridge University Press: Sabine Koch, Sarah Matthews, and

Sehar Tahir, without whose help the production of the book would have been

impossible.

FeedbackA book of this length is certain to have some errors and omissions. While we

have made significant attempts to a comprehensive description of major tech-

niques related to modern wireless communications, there are many new emerging

techniques, some of which may not have been included. Feedback is welcome via

email at [email protected] or [email protected], and we promise to reply all

the messages.

K.-L. Du and M.N.S. Swamy

Concordia University

Montreal, Canada

May 2009

List of Abbreviations

1xEV-DO 1x Evolution, Data Optimized1xEV-DV 1x Evolution, Data and VoicenG nth generation3DES Triple DES3GPP Third-Generation Partnership

Project3GPP2 Third-Generation Partnership

Project 24GFSK Quarternary GFSKAAC Advanced Audio CodingACAB adaptive CABACELP algebraic codebook excited linear

predictionACF autocorrelation functionACI adjacent channel interferenceACLR adjacent channel leakage ratioACPR adjacent channel power ratioACS adaptive cross-SCOREACTS Advanced Communication Tech-

nology SatelliteA/D analog-to-digitalADC A/D converterADPCM adaptive differential PCMAES Advanced Encryption StandardAF amplify-and-forwardAFC automatic frequency controlAGC automatic gain controlAM amplitude modulationAMC adaptive modulation and codingAMI alternative mark inversionAMPS Advanced Mobile Phone ServicesAMR adaptive multi-rateAMR-WB adaptive multi-rate widebandANSI American National Standards

InstituteAPS adaptive phase-SCOREARQ automatic repeat requestASIC application-specific integrated cir-

cuit

ASK amplitude shift keyingAVC Advanced Video CodingAWGN additive white Guaasian noisebalun balanced-to-unbalanced trans-

formerBAN body area networkBCH Bose-Chaudhuri-HocquenghemBCJR Bahl–Cocke–Jelinek–RavivBER bit error probabilityBER bit error rateBFSK binary FSKBICM bit-interleaved coded modulationBJT bipolar junction transistorBLAST Bell Labs Layered Space–TimeBPSK binary phase shift keyingBRAN Broadband Radio Access Net-

workBS base stationBSC binary symmetric channelBS-CDMA block-spreading CDMACAB cyclic adaptive beamformingCABAC context-based adaptive binary

arithmetic codingCAVLC context-based adaptive variable-

length codeCCF cross-correlation functionCCI co-channel interferenceCCK complementary code keyingCCSDS Consultative Committee for

Space Data Systemscdf cumulative distribution functionCDMA code division multiple accessCDPD Cellular Digital Packet DataCELP code-excited linear predictionCF compress-and-forwardCFO carrier frequency offsetCIC cascaded integrator combCIF common intermediate formatCIR carrier-to-interference ratioCLS constrained least-squares

xxiv List of Abbreviations

CNR carrier-to-noise ratioCORBA common object request broker

architectureCORDIC Coordinate Rotation Digital

ComputerCP-CDMA cyclic prefix assisted CDMACPFSK continuous phase FSKCPM continuous phase modulationCQF conjugate quadrature filtersCRC cyclic redundancy checkCRLB Cramer–Rao lower boundCRSC circular recursive systematic con-

volutionalCS-ACELP

Conjugate Structure ACELP

CSI channel state informationCSMA carrier sense multiple accessCSMA/CA CSMA with collision avoidanceCSMA/CD CSMA with collision detectionCT2 Second Generation Cordless Tele-

phoneCVSDM continuous variable slope DMD/A digital-to-analogDAB Digital Audio BroadcastingDAC D/A converterD-BLAST diagonal BLASTDBPSK differential BPSKDCT discrete cosine transformDDCR decision-directed carrier recoveryDDS direct digital synthesisDEBPSK differentially encoded BPSKDECT Digital Enhanced Cordless Tele-

phoneDEMPSK differentially encoded MPSKDEQPSK differentially encoded QPSKDES Data Encryption StandardDF decode-and-forwardDFE decision-feedback equalizationDFT Discrete Fourier transformDiffServ differential servicesDM delta modulationDMB Digital Multimedia BroadcastingDMPSK differential MPSKDNL differential nonlinearityDoA direction-of-arrivalDoD Department of Defense; also

direction-of-departureDPCM differential PCMDPSK differential phase-shift keyingDQPSK differential quarternary phase

shift keying

DR dielectric resonatorDS direct sequenceDSB double sidebandDSB-LC DSB-large carrierDSB-SC DSB-small carrierDSL, xDSL digital subscriber lineDS-CDMA direct-sequence CDMADSCQS double stimulus continuous qual-

ity scaleDSMA digital sense multiple accessDSP digital signal processorDSSS direct-sequence spread spectrumDST discrete sine transformDSTTD double-STTDDTFT discrete-time Fourier transformDVB-H DVB-HandheldDVB-RCL Digital Video Broadcasting–

Return Channel for LMDSDVB-RCS DVB–Return Channel via Satel-

liteDVB-S Digital Video Broadcasting Satel-

liteDVB-S2 DVB-Satellite Second GenerationDVB-T Terrestrial DVBDVB-T2 Terrestrial DVB Second Genera-

tionDWT discrete wavelet transformDySPAN Dynamic Spectrum Access Net-

worksEBCOT Embedded block coding with

optimized truncationECMA European Computer Manufactur-

ers AssociationEDGE Enhanced Data for GSM Evolu-

tionEFR enhanced full rateEGC equal gain combiningEIA Electronics Industry AssociationEM electromagneticENOB effective number of bitsEPC Electronic Product CodeESPAR electronically steerable parasitic

array radiatorESPRIT Estimation of Signal Parameters

via Rotational Invariance Tech-niques

ETSI European TelecommunicationsStandards Institute

E-UTRA Evolved UTRAE-UTRAN Evolved UTRA NetworkEVRC enhanced variable rate codec

List of Abbreviations xxv

EVRC-WB EVRC-WidebandEXIT extrinsic information transferEZW embedded zero-tree waveletFBSS fast base station switchingFCC Federal Communications Com-

missionFDD frequency division duplexingFDE frequency-domain equalizationFDMA frequency division multiple accessFDTD finite difference time domainFEC forward error correctionFEM finite element methodFET field-effect transistorFFT fast Fourier transformFH frequency hoppingFH-CDMA frequency-hopping CDMAFHSS frequency-hopping spread spec-

trumFIR finite impulse responseFM frequency modultionFPGA field programmable gate arrayFR full-rateFSK frequency shift keyingFWT fast wavelet transformGaAs gallium arsenideGEO geostationary earth orbitGFSK Gaussian FSKGMC generalized multi-carrierGMSK Gaussian minimum shift keyingGOB group of blocksGOP group of picturesGoS grade of serviceGPS Global Positioning SystemGRPS General Packet Radio ServiceGSC Golay Sequential CodeGSM Global System for Mobile Com-

municationsHAPS high-altitude aeronautical plat-

form systemHARQ hybrid-ARQH-BLAST Horizontal encoding BLASTHBT heterojunction bipolar transistorHDTV high definition televisionHEMT high electron mobility transistorHFET heterostructure FETHiperACCESSHigh-Performance AccessHiperLAN High Performance Radio LANHiperMAN High Performance Metropolitan

Area NetworkHiSWAN High Speed Wireless Access Net-

work

HILN harmonic and individual linesplus noise

HLR home location registerHR half-rateHSCSD High Speed Circuit Switched

DataHSDPA High-Speed Downlink Packet

AccessH-S/MRC hybrid selection/maximum ratio

combiningHSPA High-Speed Packet AccessHSUPA High-Speed Uplink Packet AccessHTS high-temperature superconduc-

torI in-phaseIC integrated circuitICI intercarrier interferenceIDCT inverse DCTIDMA interleave division multiple accessIDWT inverse DWTIEC International Electrotechnical

CommissionIETF Internet Engineering Task ForceIF intermediate frequencyIIP3 input IP3IIR infinite impulse responseIMD intermodulation distortionIMDCT inverse MDCTIMI intermodulation interferenceIMPATT impact avalanche and transit

timeIMT-2000 International Mobile Telecommu-

nications 2000IntServ integrated servicesINL integral nonlinearityIP Internet ProtocolIP3 third-order intercept pointIPv4/v6 Internet Protocol version 4/ver-

sion 6IS Interim StandardISI intersymbol interferenceISM industrial, scientific, medicalISO International Organization for

StandardizationITU International Telecommunication

UnionITU-R ITU’s Radiocommunication Sec-

torITU-T ITU’s Telecomunication Stan-

darization SectorJPEG Joint Photographic Experts

Group

xxvi List of Abbreviations

JTRS Joint Tactical Radio SystemLAN local area networkLBG Linde–Buzo–GrayLCC lost call clearingLCH lost call holdLCMV linearly constrained minimum

varianceLCR level crossing rateLD-CELP low-delay CELPLDPC low density parity codeLEACH low-energy adaptive clustering

hierarchyLEO low earth orbitLHCP left-hand circular polarizationLINC linear amplification using nonlin-

ear componentsLLC logical link controlLLR log-likelihood ratioLMDS Local Multipoint Distribution

ServiceLMS least mean squaresLNA low-noise amplifierLO local oscillatorLOS line-of-sightLOT lapped orthogonal transformLPC linear predictive codingLS least squaresLSB least significant bitLS-DRMTA

least squares despread respreadmultitarget array

LSF line spectral frequencyLSP linear spectral pairLTCC low-temperature cofired ceramicLTE Long-Term EvolutionLTI linear time-invariantLTP long-term predictionLUT look-up tableMAC medium access control; also

multiply-accumulateMAD mean absolute differenceMAHO mobile-assisted handoffMAI multiple-access interferenceMAN metropolitan area networkMANET mobile ad hoc networkingMAP maximum a posterioriMASK M -ary amplitude-shift keyingMB-OFDM multiband OFDM-basedMCA maximally constrained autocorre-

lationMC-CDMA multi-carrier CDMAMC-DS-CDMA

multi-carrier DS-CDMA

MCM multicarrier modulationMCU microcontroller unitMDCT modified DCTMDF magnitude difference functionMDHO macro diversity handoffMDS minimum detectable signalMELP mixed excitation linear predictionMEMS micro-electromechanical systemMESFET metal-semiconductor field effect

transistorMFSK M -ary FSKMIC microwave integrated circuitMIM metal-insulator-metalMIMO multiple input multiple outputMIMO-SC MIMO single carrierMIMO-SS MIMO spread spectrumMIPS million instructions per secondMISO multiple-input single-outputML maximum-likelihoodMLSE maximum-likelihood sequence

estimationMLSR maximal length shift registerMLT modulated lapped transformMMDS Multichannel Multipoint Distribu-

tion ServiceMMIC monolithic microwave integrated

circuitMMSE minimum mean squared errorMoM method of momentsMOS mean opinion scoreMOSFET metal-oxide-semiconductor field

effect transistorMPAM M -ary pulse amplitude modula-

tionMPE multipulse excitationMPEG Moving Pictures Experts GroupMPLS multiprotol label switchingMP-MLQ multipulse maximum likelihood

quantizationMPSK M -ary PSKMQAM M -ary QAMMRC maximum ratio combiningMS mobile stationMSC mobile switching centerMSE mean squared errorMSK minimum shift keyingMT-CDMA

multi-tone CDMA

MUD multiuser detectionMUI multiple-user interferenceMUSIC MUltiple SIgnal Classifications

List of Abbreviations xxvii

MVDR minimum variance distortionlessresponse

NADC North American Digital CellularNCO numerically controlled oscillatorNMT Nordic Mobile TelephoneNRZ/-L/-M/-S

nonreturn-to-zero/-level/-mark/-space

NTT Nippon Telephone and TelegraphOCC orthogonal complementary codeOFDM orthogonal frequency division

multiplexingOFDMA orthogonal frequency division

multiple accessOOK on-off keyingOQPSK offset QPSKOSI Open Systems InterconnectOSIC ordered serial (successive) inter-

ference cancellationOSTBC orthogonal space–time block codeOVSF orthogonal variable spreading

factorPABX private automatic branch

exchangePACS Personal Access Communication

SystemPAE power-added efficiencyPAL Phase Alternation LinePAM pulse amplitude modulationPAN personal area networkPAPR peak-to-average power ratioPCCC parallel concatenated convolu-

tional codePCM pulse code modulationPCS Personal Communications Ser-

vicePDC Personal Digital Cellularpdf probability distribution functionPDF Portable Document FormatPDP power delay profilePEAQ perceptual evaluation of audio

qualityPESQ perceptual evaluation of speech

qualityPHS Personal Handyphone System)PIC parallel interference cancellationPLL phase-locked loopPM phase modulationPN pseudo-noisePOCSAG Post Office Code Standard Advi-

sory GroupPPM pulse position modulation

PSD power spectral densityPSI-CELP pitch synchronous innovation

CELPPSK phase-shift keyingPSNR peak signal-to-noise ratioPSTN public switched telephone net-

workPWM pulse-width modulationQ quadrature-phaseQ2PSK quadrature quadrature PSKQAM quardrature amplitude modula-

tionQCELP Qualcomm CELPQCIF quarter-CIFQMF quadrature mirror filterQO-STBC quasi-orthogonal STBCQoS quality of serviceQPSK quarternary phase shift keyingQS-CDMA quasi-synchronous CDMAQSIF quarter-SIFRAN regional area networkRCELP relaxed CELPRCPC rate-compatible punctured con-

volutionalRELP residual excited linear predictionRF radio frequencyRFID radio frequency identificationRHCP right-hand circular polarizationRLE run-length encodingRLS recursive least-squaresrms root-mean-squaredROC region of convergenceROI region of interestRPE regular pulse excitationRPE-LTP regular pulse excitation with

long-term predictionRS Reed–SolomonRSSI radio signal strength indicationRTMS Radio Telephone Mobile SystemRTP Real-time Transport ProtocolRZ return-to-zeroSA-DCT shape-adaptive DCTSA-DWT shape-adaptive DWTSAR successive approximation regis-

terSAW surface acoustic waveSB-ADPCM subband-split ADPCMSC single-carrierSCCC serially concatenated convolu-

tional codeSCD spectrum cyclic density

xxviii List of Abbreviations

SCORE Signal Communication by OrbitalRelay Equipment; also self-coherence restoral

SDMA space division multiple accessSDR software-defined radioSECAM SEquential Couleur Ave MemoireSEGSNR segmental SNRSEP symbol error probabilitySER symbol error rateSFBC space–frequency block codeSFDR spurious-free dynamic rangeSFIR spatial filtering for interference

reductionSF-OFDM space–frequency coded OFDMS/H sample-and-holdSIC serial interference cancellationSICM symbol-interleaved coded modula-

tionSIF source input formatSiGe silicon-germaniumSIMO single-input multiple-outputSINAD signal-to-noise-and-distortionSINR signal-to-interference-plus-noise

ratioSIR signal-to-interference ratioSISO soft-in/soft-outSMV selectable mode vocoderSNDR signal-to-noise-plus-distortion

ratioSNR signal-to-noise radioSOI signal-of-interestSOVA soft output Viterbi algorithmSPIHT set partitioning in hierarchical

treesSPIN Sensor Protocols for Information

via NegotiationSQNR signal-to-quantization-noise ratioSS7 Signalling System No. 7SSB single sidebandSSMA Spread spectrum multiple accessSTBC space–time block codeSTDO space–time DopplerST-MF space–time matched filterST-MUD space–time MUDSTF-OFDM

space–time–frequency codedOFDM

ST-OFDM

space–time coded OFDM

STP short-term predictionSTS space–time spreadingSTTC space–time trellis code

STTD space–time transmit diversitySUI Standford University InterimTACS Total Access Communication

SystemTCM trellis-coded modulationTCP Transmission Control ProtocolTDAC time domain aliasing cancellationT-DMB Terrestrial-DMBTDD time-division duplexingTDoA time-difference-of-arrivalTD-SCDMA Time Division-Synchronous

Code Division Multiple AccessTDMA time division multiple accessTDRSS Tracking and Data Relay Satel-

lite SystemTEC total electron contentTEM transverse electromagneticTH time hoppingTHSS time-hopping spread spectrumTIA Telecommunications Industry

AssociationToA time-of-arrivalTR transmitted referenceTXCO temperature-controlled crystal

oscillatorUDP User Datagram ProtocolUMB Ultra Mobile BroadbandUMTS Universal Mobile Telecommuni-

cations SystemUPE unequal error protectionUQ-DZ uniform quantizer with dead

zoneUSB Universal Serial BusUTRA UMTS Terrestrial Radio AccessUWB ultra widebandUWC-136 Universal Wireless Communica-

tion 136V-BLAST vertical encoding BLASTVCO voltage-controlled oscillatorVGA variable gain amplifierVLR visitor location registerVMR-WB variable multi-rate widebandVO video objectVoIP voice over IPVOP video object planeVQ vector quantizationVSELP vector-sum excited linear predic-

tionVSWR voltage standing-wave ratioVTC Visual Texture CodingWAN wide area network

List of Abbreviations xxix

WCDMA Wideband CDMAWiBro Wireless BroadbandWi-Fi Wireless FidelityWiMAX Worldwide Interoperability for

Microwave AccessWSN wireless sensor networkWSSUS wide sense stationary, uncorre-

lated scatteringXPD cross-polarization discriminationZCR zero-crossing rateZF zero-forcingZMCSCG zero-mean circularly symmetric

complex Gaussian

1 Introduction

1.1 The wireless age

Subsequent to the mathematical theory of electromagnetic waves formulated by

James Clerk Maxwell in 1873 [3] and the demonstration of the existence of these

waves by Heinrich Hertz in 1887, Guglielmo Marconi made history by using

radio waves for transatlantic wireless communications in 1901. In 1906, ampli-

tude modulation (AM) radio was invented by Fessenden for music broadcasting.

In 1918, Edwin H. Armstrong invented the superheterodyne receiver, based on

which the first broadcast radio transmission took place at Pittsburgh in 1920.

The land-mobile wireless communications was first used in 1921 by the Detroit

Police Department. In 1929, Vladimir Zworykin performed the first experiment of

TV transmission. In 1933, Edwin H. Armstrong invented frequency modulation

(FM). The first public mobile telephone service was introduced in 1946 in five

American cities. It was a half-duplex system that used 120 kHz of FM bandwidth

[4]. In 1958, the launch of the SCORE (Signal Communication by Orbital Relay

Equipment) satellite ushered in a new era of satellite communications. By the

mid-1960s, the FM bandwidth was cut to 30 kHz. Automatic channel trunking

was introduced in the 1950s and 1960s, with which full-duplex was introduced.

The most important breakthrough for modern mobile communications was the

concept of cellular mobile systems by AT&T Bell Laboratories in the 1970s [2].

The last two decades have seen an explosion in the growth of radio systems.

Wireless communication systems migrated from the first-generation (1G) nar-

rowband analog systems in the 1980s, to the second-generation (2G) narrowband

digital systems in the 1990s, to the current third-generation (3G) wideband mul-

timedia systems that are being deployed. Meanwhile, research and development

in the future-generation wideband multimedia radio systems is actively being

pursued worldwide.

We have experienced a cellular revolution. In 2002, mobile phones worldwide

began to outnumber fixed-line phones. By November 2007, the total number of

worldwide mobile phone subscriptions had reached 3.3 billion, and by 2007 over

798 million people around the world accessed the Internet or equivalent mobile

2 Chapter 1. Introduction

Table 1.1. Division of electromagnetic waves

Electromagnetic waves Frequency Wavelength

Extremely low frequency ELF 30–300 Hz 10–1,000 km300-3,000 Hz 1–100 km

Very low frequency VLF 3–30 kHz 100–10 kmLow frequency LF 30–300 kHz 10–1 kmMedium frequency MF 300–3,000 kHz 1,000–100 mHigh frequency HF 3–30 MHz 100–10 mVery high frequency VHF 30–300 MHz 10–1 mUltra high frequency UHF 300–3,000 MHz 100–10 cmSuper high frequency SHF 3–30 GHz 10–1 cmExtreme high frequency EHF 30–300 GHz 10–1 mm

300–3,000 GHz 1–0.1 mmInfrared rayes 43,000–416,000 GHz 7–0.7 µmVisible light 430,000–750,000 GHz 0.4–0.7 µmUltravioleta 750,000–3,000,000 GHz 0.4–0.1 µm

a Beyond ultraviolet are X-rays and Gamma-rays.

Internet services at least occasionally using a mobile phone 1. This also makes

the mobile phone the most common electronic device in the world. In addition to

its multimedia services such as speech, audio, video, and data, the pervasive use

of wireless communications has also entered many aspect of our life, including

health care, home automation, etc.

1.2 Spectrum of electromagnetic waves

The medium for wireless communications is the open space, and information

is transfered via electromagnetic waves. In order to separate different wireless

systems, the spectrum of electromagnetic waves is divided into many frequency

bands. The wavelengths and frequencies of electomagnetic waves are listed in

Table 1.1.

At lower frequencies, radio waves tend to follow the earth surface, while

at higher frequencies, e.g., above about 300 MHz, they propagate in straight

lines. The range from dc to SHF has been widely used for communications and

other purposes such as radar, industry, heating, spectroscopy, radio astronomy,

medicine, power transmission, and science. In contrast, EHF waves and beyond

is wide open due to technical difficulties. This is due to considerable attenuation

in the atmosphere, and there are many difficulties in wave generation, ampli-

fication, detection, and modulation techniques. At above 1,000 GHz, the wave

propagation turns optical. Optical communications are now ristricted to optical

fibers.

1 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_phone, retrieved on Oct 21, 2008

Introduction 3

Demodulator

Source Sourceencoder

SourcedecoderDestination Channel

decoder

Channelencoder Modulator

Channel

Transmitter

Receiver

Waveform

Figure 1.1 Block diagram of a general communication system.

1.3 Block diagram of a communication system

A communication system deals with information or data transmission from one

point to another. The block diagram of a general digital communication system

is given in Fig. 1.1. This block diagram is also applicable to remote sensing

systems, such as radar and sonar, in which the transmitter and receiver may be

located at the same place.

The source generates either analog signals such as speech, audio, image, and

video, or digital data such as text or multimedia. The source encoder gener-

ates binary data from the source. The generated binary data is then subject to

channel encoder so that the binary data sequences can be reliably reproduced

at the receiver. The channel-encoded data stream is then modulated to generate

waveforms for transmission over a channel, which is a physical link such as a

telephone line, a high frequency radio link, or a storage medium. The channel is

subject to various types of noise. At the receiver, the above procedure is reversed

so as to finally restore the oringinal source information.

There are three types of common transmission channels: wireless channels,

guided electromagnetic wave channels, and optical channels. The wireless channel

can be the atmosphere or free space. Due to its open nature, there are various

noise sources added to the channel. Coaxial cable line was once a major guided

wave channel, and optical fiber is a special type of guided wave channel. The

long-distance telephone network once used coaxial cable lines, which has now

been replaced by optical fiber.

1.4 Architecture of radio transceivers

The well-known super-heterodyne receiver architecture was invented by Arm-

strong in 1913. Armstrong also demonstrated frequency modulation in 1933.

In this section, we introduce two architectures of radio transceivers: the super-

heterodyne transceiver and the direct-conversion transceiver.


1.4.1 Super-heterodyne transceivers

Conventional super-heterodyne transceiversThe 1G radio systems were analog systems using frequency division multiple

access (FDMA). For each user, there is a fixed super-heterodyne transceiver.

The received signal is first passed through surface acoustic wave (SAW) filters

for image suppression. The filtered signal is low-noise amplified, and is then

subject to one or more intermediate frequency (IF) stages (mixing and bandpass

filtering) and baseband processing. For transmission, the baseband signal is first

filtered, then upconverted by multiple IF conversion stages, power amplified,

and finally passed to an antenna for transmission. The oscillators and filters are

generally not adjustable.

The 2G systems use the same super-heterodyne transceiver architecture for

conversion between radio frequency (RF) and basedband signals. Analog-to-

digital (A/D) converters and digital-to-analog (D/A) converters are used for

conversion between analog and digital baseband signals. The receiver typically

converts the RF signal to baseband signal after applying a few IF stages, and

then separates orthogonal in-phase (I) and quadrature-phase (Q) baseband sig-

nals prior to applying A/D conversion for each of these. Due to the application

of time division multiple access (TDMA) and/or code division multiple access

(CDMA), each transceiver can support multiple users and this requires a wider

frequency slice for each transceiver. In the digital part, many dedicated digital

application-specific integrated circuits (ASICs) as well as general-purpose digital

signal processors (DSPs) are used to perform various signal processing tasks such

as equalization, modulation/demodulation, channel coding/decoding, and voice

coding/decoding.

The super-heterodyne architecure achieves good I/Q matching, and has no

problems of dc offset and LO (local oscillator) leakage. However, it suffers from

the image problem, as is illustrated in Fig. 1.2. For two signals x1(t) = A1 cosω1t

and x2(t) = A2 cosω2t, after lowpass filtering the product x1(t)x2(t), we get a

signal of the form cos(ω1 − ω2)t, which is the same as cos(ω2 − ω1)t. Thus the

bands that are symmetrical above or below the LO frequency will be downcon-

verted to the same band. In order to suppress the image, an image-rejection

filter has to be placed before the mixer. Since the image-rejection filter is typ-

ically realized as a passive, external component, it requires the preceding low

noise-amplifier (LNA) to drive a 50-ohm load. Most RF transceivers employ two

stages of downconversion to relax the Q required for each filter. In most RF

applications, the overall image suppression is required to be around 60 to 70 dB

[6].

Super-heterodyne transceivers for software-defined radioIn conventional super-heterodyne transceivers, the analog filters are designed for

a carrier frequency and a channel bandwidth. This is not suitable for multiband

systems. More recent transceivers employ low-IF sampling rather than baseband

Introduction 5

IFω

Image

2ωLOω1

bandDesired

ω

Figure 1.2 Illustration of the image problem.

sampling. The low-IF scheme has a number of advantages. First, the dc offset

problem does not occur. Second, the expensive IF SAW filter, IF phase-locked

loop (PLL), and image rejection filter are not necessary. Also, the impact of near-

dc flicker (1/f) noise on the receiver performance is significantly reduced. As to

the downside, it suffers from LO pulling/leakage due to coupling or imperfect

isolation between the RF components; it also requires stringent image rejection

to suppress strong interferers from adajacent channels, which are images of the

desired signals arising from the low IF.

The low-IF scheme is employed in the classical architecture for software-defined

radio (SDR) at the base station (BS), as shown in Fig. 1.3. The wideband RF

front-end replaces many narrowband transceivers used in 1G or 2G systems.

The wideband front-end converts an entire band containing multiple carriers to

a suitable IF signal, which is then digitalized, while conventional 2G systems

shift individual carriers to baseband prior to digitization.

Note, that in Fig. 1.3, BP3 is the anti-aliasing bandpass filter. The selection

of IFD is dependent on the frequency converters that are COTS (commercial

off-the-shelf) available. Note that the RF filters can be inserted between the

LNA and mixer in the receiver, and between the mixer and power amplifier in

the transmitter, to reject any signal generated by the nonlinarity of the LNA or

mixer.

The digital signal procesing module implements an independent digital front-

end, baseband processing for each carrier, and O&M (operation and manage-

ment) signaling. For each carrier, a digital front-end downconverts the digital IF

signal to I and Q baseband signals by a numerically controlled oscillator (NCO);

this is followed by baseband processing that contains sampling rate conversion,

demodulation and filtering, channel decoding, and source decoding. The trans-

mit path is the reverse of the receive path. Note that on the transmit path the

signals of all carriers are summed before D/A conversion is appied. Care must

be taken to avoid numerical overflow.

1.4.2 Direct-conversion transceivers

Another common transceiver architecture is the direct-conversion or zero-IF sys-

tem, also known as homodyne system. A direct-conversion receiver downconverts

6Chapte

r1.

Intro

ductio

n

f s

ΣΣ

IF1

ADC

IFD

VGA

BP1 BP2 BP3 AGC

IF2 (IF )D

90 I

QChannel

90PA

BP5BP6

LO1 LO2RF combiner Codec

Q

NCO

NCO

For each carrier

To each carrier module

Analog wideband front−end Digital signal processing module

decodingDemodulation

Filtering

ModulationFilteringI

layerMACTo

LNA

Channelcoding

BP4

DAC

DecimationFiltering

FilteringDecimation

Interpolation

Filtering

Interpolation

Filtering

all carriersSum of

Fig

ure

1.3

Acla

ssicalSD

Rim

plem

enta

tion

at

the

BS.IF

nsta

nds

for

the

nth

IFsta

ge,

IFD

for

the

dig

italIF

,B

Pn

for

the

nth

bandpass

filter,

LO

nfo

rth

enth

LO

,LN

Afo

rlow

noise

am

plifi

er,PA

for

pow

eram

plifi

er,V

GA

for

varia

ble

gain

adapto

r,A

DC

for

A/D

converter,

DA

Cfo

rD

/A

converter,

AG

Cfo

rauto

matic

gain

contro

l,and

NC

Ofo

rm

um

erically

contro

lledoscilla

tor.

Introduction 7

the RF signal directly to baseband by using an LO, whose frequency is exactly

equal to the frequency of the RF signal. Direct conversion requires only a single

frequency synthesizer and avoids an off-chip IF filter, thus is preferred to in a

fully integrated design.

Since the intermediate frequency ωIF is zero, the image to the RF signal is the

RF signal itself. Thus, the image problem does not arise and the method elimi-

nates the use of bulky, off-chip, front-end image rejection filters. However, since

the synthesizer operates at the same frequency as the RF signal, LO leakage and

frequency pulling occur. Other disadvantages include the problems of dc offset,

flicker or 1/f noise and I/Q mismatch. These disadvantages can be overcome

in the super-heterodyne architecture by using an off-chip IF filter and an extra

frequency synthesizer.

LO leakage arises due to limited isolation between the LO port and the inputs

of the mixer and the LNA, causing a leakage LO signal to feed through the

LNA and the mixer or a large leakage interfering signal to feed through the LO

input. The orginal RF signal as well as the LO leakage is then mixed with the

LO, and a dc offset is generated in both the cases. This is known as the self-

mixing phenomenon. Cancellation of the dc offsets is a primary concern in direct-

conversion receiver design. Thus, this method requires an LO with a very high

precision and stability. The LO leakage to antenna may be reradiated, creating

interference to other receivers. The Federal Communications Commission (FCC)

requires that the upper bounds of the in-band LO radiation is typically between

−50 dBm and −80 dBm for wireless standards [6].

In direct-conversion transceivers, I/Q mismatch can be viewed as the so-called

self-image problem, where the baseband equivalent signal is essentially interfered

by its own complex conjugate [7]. I/Q mismatch at the receiver will corrupt the

downconverted signal constellation, leading to a higher BER, while I/Q mismatch

at the transmitter can lead to increased out-of-band emissions with nonlinear

power amplifiers. Signal processing techniques may be used to correct the I/Q

mismatch [7, 1].

In addition, 1/f noise is a severe problem in CMOS implementations, with a

flicker noise corner frequency in the vicinity of 1 MHz [5]. The flicker noise in SiGe

and BiCOMS technologies are much lower than that in CMOS technology. 1/f

noise can be reduced by incorporating large devices at the stages following the

mixers, since the operating frequency is relatively low. The CMOS technology is

not suitable for high-sensitivity direct-conversion receivers such as narrow-band

systems, while the SiGe and BiCMOS techologies make it possible to achieve

higher receiver sensitivity for wideband systems.

For the transmitter part, the power amplifier will disturb the transmit LO,

and will corrupt the oscillator spectrum, despite the shielding techniques used.

This is the injection-pulling or injection-locking mechanism. This influence can

be reduced if the power amplifier output spectrum is sufficiently away from the

LO frequency. This can be achieved by offsetting the LO frequency by mixing

two voltage-controlled oscillators (VCOs). Another way to prevent LO pulling


is to upconvert the baseband signal in two steps, yielding the power amplifier

output spectrum that is far from the frequency of the VCOs. This is implemented

in modern super-heterodyne transceivers.

1.5 Orgaization of the book

This book gives a comprehensive introduction to wireless communication sys-

tems. The contents are organized into four parts. Part 1 (Chapters 2 to 9) intro-

duces the principles of wireless communications. Part 2 (Chapters 10 to 13) deals

with the analog and digital implementation of wireless communication systems.

Information theory and coding are treated in Part 3 (Chapters 14 to 17). Part 4

(Chapters 18 to 22) describes some advanced and emergying technologies for

future-generation wireless communications.

The contents by chapters are listed below.

r In Chapter 2, we give an overview of wireless communcations and its history.

Circuit/packet switching and the OSI reference model are also described in

this chapter.r Electromagnetic wave propagation is subject to propagation loss. Chapter 3

introduces propagation loss models, characteristics of wireless channels, and

the mechanisms of signal propagation in the channel.r Fundamentals on multiuser communications are developed in Chapter 4. This

chapter treats the cellular concept, various multiple access techniques, Erlang

capacity, protocol design, quality of service (QoS), and user location.r Wireless channels are usually in a fading state. Diversity is the common

method for combatting fading. Diversity ensures that the same information

reaches the receiver from statistically independent channels. By combining

multiple independently fading copies of the same signal, fading can be sub-

stantially reduced. Diversity is examined in Chapter 5.r Channel estimation and equalization are necessary for signal detection. Chan-

nel estimation finds the channel information when the transmission signal

propagates through the channel. Using this channel information, the equalizer

can remove the influences of fading and other undersirable channel conditions,

and thus restore the original transmitted signal. These topics are discussed in

Chapter 6.r Modulation is a process that incorporates the message into a carrier for trans-

mission. The message can be embedded into the amplitude, frequency, or phase

of the carrier, or a combination of these. Modulation and demodulation, which

are subject to RF or microwave operations, are necessary for signal transmis-

sion. Chapter 7 introduces digital modulation and demodulation.r Spread spectrum communications, or the CDMA technolgy, spread each user’s

signal over the same wider bandwidth for transmission. At the receivers, these

Introduction 9

user signals are separated by using their specific codes. CDMA is the underly-

ing technology for 3G cellular communications, and is introduced in Chapter 8.r OFDM technology transmits messages simultaneously over multiple carriers

in a linear band-limited channel. It is robust against multipath fading, but

with a low complexity. OFDM technology has been widely implemented in

high-speed wireless networking and is an enabling technique for 4G mobile

communications. Chapter 9 introduces OFDM technology.r An antenna is the interface between the RF/microwave circuits and the free

space. It transmits the generated RF or microwave signals over the wire-

less channel, and at the same time, passes the received signal on to the

RF/microwave circuits at the receiver. Antennas are described in Chapter 10.r RF/microwave subsystems, known as the front-ends of wireless transceivers,

are the analog circuits in wireless communication systems. They convert RF

signals into baseband signals, and vice versa. RF/microwave subsystems are

introduced in Chapter 11.r Modern wireless communication systems are digital systems, where informa-

tion processing is performed in digital form, whereas the received/transmitted

signal at the antenna is in analog form. A/D and D/A converters are used

for conversion between the analog and digital signals within the wireless

transceiver. A/D and D/A converters are described in Chapter 12.r Digital signal processing is an enabling technique for digital communication

systems. Chapter 13 introduces basic digital signal processing techniques that

are used in wireless communications and source coding.r Information theory was established by Shannon. It lays the theorectical foun-

dation for source coding, channel coding, as well as the entire communication

networks. Information theory is the subject of Chapter 14.r After the redundancy in a message is removed during source coding, the mes-

sage is more vulnerable to errors. For the purpose of reliable storage or trans-

mission over noisy channel, error-correcting codes are used for error recovery.

This is the topic of channel coding. Channel coding is described in Chapter 15.r Source coding or data compression is performed to removing redundancy in

the original data so as to maximize the information storage and transmission.

Speech communication is the most fundamental service provided by wireless

networks. Source coding of speech and audio signals is presented in Chap-

ter 16.r Wireless communications are being escalated to deliver multimedia service.

This involves image and video coding. Source coding for images and videos is

introduced in Chapter 17.r Use of multiple antennas is an effective solution for high-speed or high-

reliability communications. Smart antennas and MIMO communications are

two major multiple-antennas technologies. Smart antennas can be used

for diversity combining and beamforming. Chapter 18 discusses the smart

antenna technology.


r Chapter 19 continues with the discussion of multiple antenna systems: MIMO

technology. MIMO technology can be implemented as space–time coding or

spatial mutiplexing. MIMO is an enabling technique for 4G mobile communi-

cations and future-generation wireless networks.r Ultra wideband (UWB) technology employs the spectrum in excess of 500

MHz that overlaps licensed bands in an unlicensed mode. It is an enanabling

technique for gigabits/s wireless networking. UWB technology is described in

Chapter 20.r Software-defined radio (SDR), or software radio, provides a solution for one

hardware platform, multiple wireless standards. It makes possible multiband,

multimode, multistandards low-power radio communications. Cognitive radio,

based on the platform provided by SDR, solves the problem of crowded spec-

trum allocation. Both technologies are enabling techniques for 3G and 4G

wireless systems. They are treated in Chapter 21.r Wireless ad hoc networks are playing an increasing role in current and future-

generation wireless and mobile networks. Wireless sensor networks, as an

emerging technology, are being employed in a range of applications such as

home, industry, militrary, public security, environment monitoring, and med-

ical applications. Both the wireless ad hoc and sensor networks are important

for ubiquitous networking. These topics are described in Chapter 22.

In each chapter, some problems are included and should be helpful to students

to review the contents of the chapter.

References

[1] J. J. de Witt & G.-J. van Rooyen, A blind I/Q imbalance compensation

technique for direct-conversion digital radio transceivers. IEEE Trans. Veh.

Tech., 58:4 (2009), 2077–2082.

[2] V. H. MacDonald, The cellular concept. Bell Sys. Tech. J., 58:1 (1979), 15–

41.

[3] J. C. Maxwell, A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism (Oxford: Clarendon

Press, 1873; New York: Dover, 1954).

[4] T. S. Rappaport, Wireless Communications: Principles & Practice, 2nd edn

(Upper Saddle River, NJ:Prentice Hall PTR, 2002).

[5] B. Razavi, Design Consideration for direct-conversion receiver. IEEE Trans.

Circ. Syst. II, 44:6 (1997), 428–435.

[6] B. Razavi, RF Microelectronics (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pretice Hall, 1998).

[7] M. Valkama, M. Renfors & V. Koivunen, Advanced methods for I/Q imbal-

ance compensation in communication receivers. IEEE Trans. Signal Process.,

49:10 (2001), 2335–2344.

The Q-function

Computation of probabilities that involves a Gaussian process requires the cal-

culation of the integral of the Gaussian pdf

p(x) =1

σ√

2πe−

(x−m)2

2σ2 (A.4)

The probability of a Gaussian random variable x exceeding x0 is given by

Pr(x ≥ x0) =

∫ ∞

x0

p(x)dx (A.5)

Substituting y = x−mσ , we have

Pr

(y >

x0 −mσ

)=

∫ ∞x0−m

σ

1√2πe−y

2/2dy (A.6)

where the kernel of the integral is the normalized Gaussian pdf with zero mean

and unit variance.

The Q-function is defined as

Q(x) =

∫ ∞

x

1√2πe−y

2/2dy (A.7)

which is the complementary Gaussian cdf Pr(y ≥ x) for the pdf of the zero-

mean, unit-variance Gaussian random variable. There is no closed-form solution

for Q(x). Some analysis results for the Q-function are listed here [1]:

Q(x) +Q(−x) = 1 (A.8)

Q(x) >1

x√

2π

(1− 1

x2

)e−x

2/2, x > 1 (A.9)

Q(x) <1

x√

2πe−x

2/2, x > 0 (A.10)

Q(x) ≤ 1

2e−x

2/2, x ≥ 0 (A.11)

Q(x) ≤ e−x2/2, x ≥ 0 (A.12)

REFERENCES 989

Q(x) ≤ 1

2e−x√

2/π , x ≥ 0 (A.13)

Q(x) =1

π

∫ π/2

0

e−x2/(2 sin2 θ), x ≥ 0 (A.14)

Q(x) =1

2− 1√

2π

(x− x3

2+

x5

2 · 4 −x7

2 · 4 · 8 + · · ·)

(A.15)

Q(x) =e−x

2/2

x√

2π

(1− 1

x2+

1 · 3x4− 1 · 3 · 5

x6+ · · ·

)(A.16)

where (A.9) and (A.10) are very tight lower and upper bounds, obtained from

(A.16). Equation (A.12) is the well-known Chernoff bound.

The error function erf(x) and the complementary error function erfc(x) are

sometimes used. They are defined as

erfc(x) =2√π

∫ ∞

z

e−x2

dx, erfc(x) =2√π

∫ z

0

e−x2

dx (A.17)

erf(x) = 1− erfc(x) (A.18)

They relate to the Q-function by

Q(x) =1

2erfc

(x√2

)(A.19)

erfc(x) = 2Q(x√

2)

(A.20)

MATLAB provides the erfc and erf functions for numerical evaluation of these

functions.

References

[1] S. Verdu, Multiuser Detection (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press,

1998).

Wirtinger calculus

The optimization of system parameters depends on the definition of certain cri-

terion functions. An analytical optimum solution can be derived by setting the

derivatives with respective to the adjustable system parameters to zero. In dig-

ital communications, signals and systems are typically represented in complex

form. The Wirtinger calculus is defined for deriving the derivative of the criteria

with respect to the complex parameters.

The complex derivative of a complex function f(z), f ′(z) = df(z)dz , is a very

fundamental notion in complex analysis. If f ′ exists in a region X ⊂ C, f(z) is

said to be analytic or holomorphic in X . In order for f(z) to be holomorphic,

f(z) = u(x, y) + jv(x, y), z = x+ jy (B.21)

the Cauchy–Riemann equations must be satisfied

∂u(x, y)

∂x=∂v(x, y)

∂y,

∂v(x, y)

∂x= −∂u(x, y)

∂y(B.22)

Then, f ′(z) can be expressed by [1]

df(z)

dz=∂u(x, y)

∂x+ j

∂v(x, y)

∂x(B.23)

In digital communications, we face the problem of optimization of a real func-

tion with respect to complex parameters. Optimization based on complex cost

functions makes no sense, since no ordering operation is defined for complex

numbers. The real function f(z) is not holomorphic, unless it is a real constant.

The optimization of a real function of a complex variable, f(z) = u(x, y), can

be implemented as optimizing u(x, y) with respect to two real variables x and y.

The Wirtinger calculus is based on this idea, but gives a compact notation.

Definition (Wirtinger Calculus): Given a (complex) function f(z) of a com-

plex variable z = x+ jy ∈ C, x, y ∈ R, its derivatives with respect to z and z∗

are defined, respectively, as

∂f

∂z=

1

2

(∂f

∂x− j ∂f

∂y

),

∂f

∂z∗=

1

2

(∂f

∂x+ j

∂f

∂y

)(B.24)

Wirtinger calculus 991

Based on the above definition, we have the following important results:

f(z) = cz =⇒ ∂f

∂z= c,

∂f

∂z∗= 0 (B.25)

f(z) = cz∗ =⇒ ∂f

∂z= 0,

∂f

∂z∗= c (B.26)

f(z) = zz∗ =⇒ ∂f

∂z= z∗,

∂f

∂z∗= z (B.27)

These results can be very easily verified. For example, for f(z) = zz∗, ∂f∂z∗ can

be derived as

∂f

∂z∗=

∂

∂z∗(zz∗) =

1

2

(∂(x2 + y2

)

∂x+ j

∂(x2 + y2

)

∂y

)=

1

2(2x+ j2y) = z

(B.28)

Differentiation using the Wirtinger calculus is similar as with real functions

with real variables. Note that z∗ is treated as constant when differentiating with

respect to z and vice versa. It can be verified that the sum, product, quotient,

and chain rules for the derivatives of a real function still hold for Wirtinger

calculus differentiation. For the product rule, given f(z) = f1(z)f2(z), we have

∂

∂z[f1(z)f2(z)] =

∂f1(z)

∂zf2(z) + f1(z)

∂f2(z)

∂z(B.29)

For the chain rule, given f(z) = h(g(z)), g(z) ∈ C, we have [1]

∂f(z)

∂z=∂h(w)

∂w

∣∣∣∣w=g(z)

· ∂g(z)∂z

+∂h(w)

∂w∗

∣∣∣∣w=g(z)

· ∂g∗(z)

∂z(B.30)

∂f(z)

∂z∗=∂h(w)

∂w

∣∣∣∣w=g(z)

· ∂g(z)∂z∗

+∂h(w)

∂w∗

∣∣∣∣w=g(z)

· ∂g∗(z)

∂z∗(B.31)

Unlike the complex derivative of a complex function, the Wirtinger derivative

exists for all functions. For holomorphic function f(z), the Wirtinger derivative

with respect to z agrees with the ordinary derivative of a complex function.

For multipe complex variable systems, z = (z1, z2, · · · , zn)T ∈ Cn, and we have

f(z) ∈ R. The gradient can be defined as

∂f

∂z=

∂f∂z1∂f∂z2...∂f∂zn

,

∂f

∂z∗=

∂f∂z∗1∂f∂z∗2...∂f∂z∗n

(B.32)

At the optimum, these gradients are equal to zero vector. The following Wirtinger

derivatives are important:

f(z) = cTz = zTc =⇒ ∂f(z)

∂z= c,

∂f(z)

∂z∗= 0 (B.33)

992 Wirtinger calculus

f(z) = cTz∗ = zHc =⇒ ∂f(z)

∂z= 0,

∂f(z)

∂z∗= c (B.34)

f(z) = zHMz = zTMz∗ =⇒ ∂f(z)

∂z= MTz∗,

∂f(z)

∂z∗= Mz (B.35)

where c = (c1, c2, · · · , cn)T ∈ Cn.The gradient of a real function that has complex variables is usually defined

as

∇ =

∂∂x1

+ j ∂∂y1

∂∂x2

+ j ∂∂y2

...∂∂xn

+ j ∂∂yn

(B.36)

Thus,

∇f(z) = 2∂f(z)

∂z∗(B.37)

(∇f(z))∗ = 2∂f(z)

∂z(B.38)

The gradient representation is not elegant, since it introduces a factor of 2. The

Wirtinger Calculus is more elegant since it has clearer arithmetic rules.

References

[1] R. F. H. Fischer, C. Windpassinger, A. Lampe & J. B. Huber, MIMO pre-

coding for decentralized receivers. In Proc. IEEE ISIT, Lausanne, Switzerland,

Jun-Jul 2002, 496.

Index

A-law PCM, 682

C-means algorithm, 671K-best Schnorr-Euchner (KSE) decoding,

841M -algorithm, 624M -ary PPM, 897M -band maximally decimated

analysis/snthesis system, 544Mth band filter, 534Mth-power loop, 229N× EV-DO, 16Q-function, 61, 189S-parameters, 392∆-K model, 892µ-law (mu-law) PCM, 682π/4-DQPSK, 13, 208π/4-QPSK, 14, 207p-persistent CSMA, 113s-random interleaver, 647z-transform, 497*, 859Homo equalis, 945Homo parochius, 945Homo reciprocans model, 944a posteriori probability (APP) algorithm,

6361-dB compression point, 4161-persistant CSMA, 11316QAM, 151G, 112-D IDCT, 5362-D isotropic scattering, 652G, 123.5G, 153.9G, 183DES, 9613G, 143GPP LTE, 173GPP channel model, 484G, 18

variable-length code, 566

A/D conversion, 4

A/D converter, 4AAA (authentication, authorization, and

accouting), 958AAC, 711absorbing boundary condition (ABC), 344ac coefficient, 732access channel, 119access network (AN), 22ACELP, 687, 703ACF, 62, 67, 250ACI, 98acknowledgment (ACK), 658ACLR, 418ACPR, 418acquisition or coarse synchronization, 322ACTS system, 215ad hoc on-demand distance vector (AODV)

routing, 957adaptive beamforming, 780adaptive binary optimization (ABO), 744adaptive block transform, 756adaptive CAB (ACAB), 789adaptive cross-SCORE (ACS), 789, 793adaptive duty-cycling, 967adaptive equalizer, 167adaptive filter, 519adaptive full-rate (AFS), 704adaptive Huffman coding, 566adaptive PCM, 669adaptive phase-SCORE (APS), 789ADC, 470additive color matching, 721adjacent channel selectivity, 379admittance matrix, 391ADPCM, 670, 691AES, 960AF, 974AFC, 230AGC, 225, 455Alamouti code, 828, 872Alamouti’s space–time diversity scheme, 150aliasing, 473

993

994 Index

all-digital PLL, 526all-transisor technique, 458ALOHA, 110alternate horizontal scan, 752alternate scan, 752alternate vertical scan, 752AM, 183AMC, 19, 655amplifier, 433amplitude clipping, 311amplitude clipping or companding, 312amplitude modulation (AM), 1AMPS, 11AMR, 693, 703AMR-WB, 707analog modulation, 183analog or digital predistorter, 434analog reconstruction, 479analysis bank, 542analysis by synthesis, 698anchor, 969angle spread, 72angular diversity, 134antenna array, 364antenna dispersion, 910antenna field zones, 347antenna gain, 348antenna temperature, 350antialiasing, 473antialiasing prefilter, 473aperture-coupled microstrip-patch antenna,

369application layer, 38area spectral efficiency (ASE), 581arithmetic coding, 567ARQ, 19, 598, 658array factor, 366articulation index (AI), 680ASIC, 4ASK, 34, 186asymmetric key encryption, 960asymptotic equipartition property (AEP),

582attack, 958attenuator, 429

auction game, 943Audio Coding, 708authentication center (AuC), 22autocorrelation-based method, 696AVC, 759average duration of fades, 64, 65, 146axial ratio (AR), 364axial-mode helical antenna, 369axis ratio, 76

bad urban (BU), 69, 83

balanced amplifier, 442balun, 359bandpass sampling theorem, 474BARITT didode, 421Barker sequence, 257Barkhausen criteria, 444base layer, 740, 753battery exhaustion attack, 969battery technology, 970Bayes’ rule, 558, 637Bayesian network, 653BCH code, 611BCJR algorithm, 625, 636beacon, 969beam area, 346beam steering, 781beam-space processing, 783beamforming, 26, 777beamforming gain, 365, 845beamspace MIMO, 845beamwidth between the first nulls (FNBW),

346beehive pattern, 93belief or probability propagation, 653BEP, 188, 193Bessel filter, 404Best-effort service, 124Bethe hole coupler, 401BFSK, 190, 209BICM, 628biconical dipole antenna, 369biconical vee antenna, 369bidirectional predicted picture (B), 746bilinear transformation method, 516binary arithmetic coding (tier 1 coding), 739binary symmetric channel (BSC), 578binomial or Butterworth filter, 403binomial transformer, 395biorthogonal, 734biphase modulation, 897bipolar transistor, 422bit loading, 328bit plane coding, 740bit plane quantization, 739bit stream organization (tier 2 coding), 739

bit-flipping algorithm, 654BJT, 423blackhole or sinkhole attack, 959blackmail attack, 959Blass matrix, 780BLAST, 835BLAST scheme, 274blind, 162, 856blind beamforming, 786blind channel estimation, 162blind equalizer, 174

Index 995

blind source separation, 777block, 728, 751block error rate (BLER), 660block matching algorithm, 746block turbo code, 632, 648block-type pilot arrangement, 306Boltzmann’s constant, 350boundary element method (BEM), 343BPSK, 15, 198BRAN, 26branch metric, 622branch-line hybrid, 401Brewster angle, 76broadband amplifier, 442broadband fixed wireless access, 31broadband microstrip antenna, 362broadband reconfigurable antenna, 370broadband wireless access, 19broadcast channel, 103BS-CDMA, 279Bussgang theorem, 312Butler matrix, 779buzziness problem, 696

CAB algorithm, 788CABAC, 739capacity region, 962care-of address (CoA), 25, 103carrier frequency synchronization, 229carrier phase recovery, 229carrier synchronization, 228, 324carrier-to-interference ratio (CIR), 108Carson’s rule, 186causality, 498CAVLC, 570CCF, 250CCI, 93, 98CCK, 26CCSDS, 633CDMA, 4, 12, 107CDMA2000, 15, 282CDMA2000 1x (Phase 1), 15CDMA2000 1xEV-DO, 15CDMA2000 1xEV-DV, 15CDMAOne, 13

CDPD, 13cell planning, 94cell-sectoring, 97cell-splitting, 96cellular concept, 93CELP, 669, 699cepstral distance (CD), 680cepstrum method, 698CF, 974channel assignment, 100channel capacity, 574

channel coding theorem, 575channel coherence bandwidth, 70channel coherence time, 71channel equalization, 162channel estimation, 160, 305channel inversion, 586channel sounding, 83channel structure, 118chase combining, 660Chase-II algorithm, 632Chebyshev optimal method, 515Chebyshev transformer, 395Chernoff bound, 190chi-square distribution, 822chip-rate processing, 918chrominance, 722CIC filter, 532CIF, 745CIR, 384circuit switching, 23circularly polarized microstrip antenna, 363circulator, 399Clarke or Jakes model, 62class A amplifier, 310, 436class AB amplifier, 436class B amplifier, 436class C amplifier, 437class D amplifier, 437class E amplifier, 437class F amplifier, 437class F−1 (invertd class F) amplifier, 437class S amplifier, 438classical Doppler or Jakes spectrum, 62clock jitter, 483closed-loop MIMO scheme, 843closed-loop MIMO system, 808closed-loop power control, 100, 266closed-loop transmit diversty, 872cluster size, 93clusterhead, 963CNR, 384coaxial cavity resonator filter, 411codebook, 670coded cooperation, 978codeword, 670

coding gain, 626cognitive radio, 920coherent distance, 73color decorrelation, 741color space, 722comb line, 899comb-type pilot arrangement, 306combine bandpass filter, 409comfort noise generation, 693companding (compressing-expanding), 682complementary code, 258

996 Index

complex orthogonal sequence, 331computational electromagnetics, 342Comvik, 12conditional entropy, 559conditional joint entropy, 562conditional self-information, 559congestion control, 964conical monopole, 369conjugate matching, 443conjugate-gradient method, 342constant modulus algorithm, 174, 788constitutive relation, 341constrained least-squares (CLS), 789constraint length, 615content-adative encoding, 756control channel, 119convolutional code, 615cooperative diversity, 135cooperative spectrum sensing, 928CORBA, 920CORDIC (Coordinate Rotation Digital

Computer), 522, 536cordless telephone, 13core network (CN), 22COST-231–Hata model, 43COST231–Walfisch–Ikegami (COST-WI)

model, 45COST259, 48COST273, 48Costas loop, 229coupled line bandpass filter, 407coupled line coupler, 401coverage, 963coverage hole, 963CP-CDMA, 279CPFSK, 213CPM, 218CQF, 539, 547CRC, 603CRLB, 126, 161, 325, 592cross-layer design, 121cross-SCORE, 788CRSC code, 634cryogenic cooling, 434crystal resonator, 447

CS-ACELP, 703CSI, 104CSI known at the transmitter, 812CSMA, 111CSMA/CA, 26, 111CSMA/CD, 111CT2, 13CT2+, 13CT3, 13CVSDM, 669, 690cycle frequency, 790

cyclic (or cyclic conjugate) autocorrelationfunction, 790

cyclic (or cyclic conjugate) cross-correlationfunction, 791

cyclic or CRC code, 607cyclic prefix, 298cyclic-prefix OFDM (CP-OFDM), 300cyclostationary beamforming, 789

D-AMPS (Digital-AMPS), 12D-BLAST, 836D-frame, 746D/A converter, 4DAB, 34DAC, 470data aggregation, 970data link layer, 36, 966data partitioning, 754data-centric routing, 971database, 968Daubechies wavelet filter, 734DBPSK, 199dc coefficient, 731dc offset, 4, 7DCT, 534, 692, 728DDCR, 230DDS, 449, 524DEBPSK, 199decimation, 473, 526, 530decimation filter, 531decision-directed channel estimation, 808decision-directed estimation, 231decision-directed PLL, 229decorrelation or ZF receiver, 271DECT, 13, 17delay dispersion, 240delay diversity code, 832DEMPSK, 203denial-of-service attack, 959deployment of cell size, 95DEQPSK, 206DES, 960destination-sequenced distance vector

(DSDV) routing, 957detection and avoidance (DAA), 889

detour attack, 959Deygout’s method, 79DF, 974DF multirelay, 979DFE, 163, 169DFT, 501, 503diagnostic acceptability measure (DAM), 678diagnostic rhyme test (DRT), 678diamond cell, 93dictionary-based coding, 570differential Alamout code, 834

Index 997

differential entropy, 560differential FET mixer, 432differential modulation, 232differential OSTBC, 834differential space–time coding, 834differential unitary space–time code, 834diffraction, 77DiffServ (differential services), 123digest, 961digital broadcasting, 33digital down-conversion, 522digital phase shifter, 414digital PLL, 450digital sense multiple access (DSMA), 114digital up-conversion, 522dipole antenna, 357direct frequency synthesis, 454direct-conversion or zero-IF system, 5directed diffusion, 972direction-finding, 773directional coupler, 399, 400directivity, 348Dirichlet boundary condition, 342dirty paper coding (DPC), 587, 841discontinuous transmission, 693discrere memoryless source (DMS), 563discrete Hartley transform, 504discrete sine transform (DST), 536distance spectrum analysis, 644distance vector routing (DVR), 957distance–product criterion, 827distortion-rate function, 574distributed amplifier, 442distributed antenna, 366distributed Bellman-Ford (DBF) algorithm,

957distributed contention, 114distributed coordinated function (DCF), 968distributed STBC, 980distributed technique, 458distribution-preserving precoding, 175dithering, 484diversity, 132diversity combining, 771diversity gain, 826, 845

diversity MIMO, 834diversity reception, 241diversity set, 102diversity–multiplexing tradeoff, 982divided-by-M device, 230DjVu, 744DM, 487, 669, 690DMB, 34DMPSK, 203DNL, 481DoA positioning, 125

DoA-based beamforming, 781Dolby AC-3 or Dolby Digital, 708Doppler effect, 61Doppler fading, 61Doppler power spectral density, 71Doppler spectrum, 62Doppler spread, 61, 71double-balanced diode mixer, 432double-balanced mixer, 432double-scattering MIMO channel model, 805double-sideband (DSB) AM, 183double-stub tuner, 393doubly-selective fading channel, 857DPCM, 669, 690, 691, 719, 725DQPSK, 206DR, 398DR filter, 411DR oscillator, 447DS, 248DS-CDMA, 107DS-CDMA model, 259DS-UWB, 28DS-UWB signal, 900DSB modulation, 431DSB-LC, 184DSB-SC, 184DSCQS method, 724DSP, 4DSSS, 26, 127, 259DSTTD, 832DTFT, 500DTWT, 538dual-gate FET mixer, 432DVB-H, 34DVB-RCL, 31DVB-RCS, 637DVB-S, 21DVB-S2, 34DVB-T2, 34dwell time, 284DWT, 538, 741dyadic wavelet transform, 539dynamic channel assignment, 100dynamic channel selection, 100dynamic frequency selection, 921

dynamic source routing (DSR), 957dynamic spectrum access, 935DySPAN, 924

E-911, 125E-UTRA, 17E-UTRAN, 17early–late gate synchronizer, 231Earth’s magnetic field, 82EBCOT, 737ECMA International, 890

998 Index

EDGE, 13, 16effective area, 349effective height, 349EFR, 687EGC, 135, 144electromagnetic compatibility, 380electromagnetic interference, 380elliptic (or Cauer) function filter, 404encoder state diagram, 619encryption, 960end-of-block (EOB) codeword, 732enhancement layer, 740, 753ENOB, 483entropy, 557environmental noise, 99EPC, 35Epsterin-Petersen method, 79equal ripple filter, 403erasure correction code, 922Erceg model, 48ergodic capacity, 816Erlang B equation, 116Erlang C equation, 116Erlang capacity, 115ERMES, 33error detection/correction coding, 598error floor region, 644error weighting filter, 701ESPAR antenna, 366, 845ESPRIT, 774estimation theory, 592EV-DO Multicarrier, 16even discrete cosine transform II (EDCT-II),

536EVRC, 705EVRC-B, 705EVRC-WB, 705EXIT analysis, 647exosphere, 80Exp-Golomb code, 566exponential-Golomb (Exp-Golomb)

variable-length code, 729, 763exposed terminal problem, 112extended CELP, 706extended Clarke’s model, 64

extended rtPS (ErtPS), 124extended Saleh-Valenzuela model, 47, 49EZW, 736

factor graph, 651Fano algorithm, 623far field or Fraunhofer zone, 347Faraday rotation, 82Faraday’s law, 341fast 2-D DCT, 536fast block motion estimation, 748

fast cell selection, 102fast DCT, 535fast frequency hopping, 286fast frequency shift keying (FFSK), 215FastICA, 778FBSS, 101FDD, 104FDE, 173, 316FDMA, 4, 11, 105FDTD method, 343FEC, 598feedback model, 443feedforward linearization, 434, 440FEM, 344ferrite phase shifter, 413FET, 423FET switch, 427FFT, 504FH, 248FH-CDMA, 107FH-CDMA or FH-SSMA, 287FHSS, 26, 283filter bank, 541filter coefficient or filter tap, 507finite or Galois field, 599finite state machine, 173, 450, 619FIR filter, 508Fisher information matrix, 592fixed channel assignment, 100fixed channel assignment with borrowing,

100flat architecture, 962flat-plane bow-tie dipole antenna, 369FLEX, 33flexible channel assigment, 100flexible precoding, 175flicker (1/f) noise, 5flicker or 1/f noise, 7, 382flooding, 956FM, 185formant, 674forward channel, 103forward–backward algorithm, 636Fountain code, 923four-port network, 400

Fourier code, 331Fourier series, 495Fourier transform, 495fourth-power loop, 230FR, 699fractional bandwidth (FBW), 368fractional out-of-band power, 192fractional pitch period detection, 697frame timing, 232Frank code, 331free Hamming distance, 620

Index 999

free Hamming weight, 621free-space loss, 40frequency coherence, 70frequency diversity, 133frequency divider, 451frequency masking, 676frequency modulation (FM), 1frequency multiplier, 451frequency offset, 318frequency pulling, 7frequency sampling method, 515frequency synthesis, 449frequency-domain coding, 544frequency-hopping diversity code, 873frequency-independent antenna, 353Fresnel cosine and sine integrals, 79Fresnel reflection and transmission

coefficients, 75Fresnel–Kirchoff diffraction parameter, 78Friis noise formula, 384Friis power transmission equation, 40Friis transmission formula, 345FSK, 11, 186, 208full-search method, 747full-wave EM solver, 410FWT, 539

game theory, 940Gamma distribution, 60gaseous absorption, 80gateway MSC, 22Gauss’s electric law, 341Gauss’s magnetic law, 341Gaussian doublet, 895Gaussian filter, 217, 405Gaussian monocycle, 895Gaussian pulse, 895generalized Lloyd agorithm, 671generalized multi-carrier (GMC), 545generalized sidelobe canceller, 781, 783generator polynomial, 609genetic algorithm, 270GEO, 21geometrical optics, 47, 342geometrical theory of diffraction, 78

GFSK, 14Gibbs phenomenon, 514, 669GIF (Graphics Interchange Format), 571Gilbert-cell mixer, 432global motion compensation, 757Globalstar, 21GMSK, 12, 216go-back-N ARQ, 658Golay code, 610Golay complementary sequence, 258, 311Gold sequence, 254

GoS, 116gossiping, 956GPS, 22, 127gradient-descent algorithm, 521Gram–Schmidt orthogonalization, 187Gray coding, 190grayhole attack, 959group of pictures (GOP), 746, 751GRPS, 13GSC paging system, 33GSM, 12Guaranteed Time Slots (GTS), 28Gunn diode, 421

H-BLAST, 835H-S/EGC, 145H-S/MRC, 144H.261, 760H.263, 761H.264/AVC, 763half-band filter, 533half-power beamwidth (HPBW), 346Hamming code, 602Hamming distanace, 601Hamming weight, 601Hamming window, 502handoff, 101handoff management, 103HAPS, 21hard decision decoding, 605hard handoff, 102harmonic and individual lines plus noise

(HILN), 712harmonic oscillator, 447harmonic vector excitation coding (HVXC),

712HARQ, 19, 599, 975Hartley, Clapp and Colpitts oscillators, 446hash function, 961HBT, 423hearing or auditory system, 675hearing threshold, 676helical antenna, 355HEMT, 425Hertzian electric dipole, 356

heterostructure FET (HFET), 434hidden terminal problem, 112hierachical encoding, 729hierarchical architecture, 962high-order statistics, 174high-temperature superconductor (HTS), 402HiperACCESS, 30HiperLAN, 25HiperLAN/1, 26HiperLAN/2, 27HiperMAN, 19, 30

1000 Index

HiSWAN, 25hold interpolator, 529home address (HoA), 103home agent, 25home location register (HLR), 22HomeRF, 27Homo economicus model, 944homodyne system, 5hop interval, 284Howells–Applebaum array, 783HSCSD, 13HSDPA, 15HSPA, 15HSUPA, 15HTS filter, 412Huffman Coding, 564Huffman coding, 563human visual system, 721Huygen’s principle, 78hybrid coupler, 401hybrid scalability, 755hybrid-ARQ (HARQ), 659

I/Q matching, 4I/Q mismatch, 7ICI, 98, 315ideal reconstructor, 480identity transform, 542idle signal casting multiple access (ISMA),

112IDMA, 280IDWT, 538IEEE 1451, 955IEEE 802.11, 25IEEE 802.11a, 26IEEE 802.11b, 26IEEE 802.11g, 26IEEE 802.15.1 (Bluetooth), 27IEEE 802.15.3, 28IEEE 802.15.3c, 28IEEE 802.15.4 (ZigBee), 28IEEE 802.15.4a, 29IEEE 802.16 (WiMAX), 29IEEE 802.16a/d/e (WiMAX), 29IEEE 802.16e, 17

IEEE 802.20, 18IEEE 802.22 (Wi-TV), 30IF, 4IIR filter, 507Ikegami model, 45image problem, 7image processing, 720image rejection mixer, 432IMDCT, 548IMPATT diode, 421

impedance (K) or admittance (J) inverter,407

impedance matching, 393, 463impedance matrix, 391impluse radio, 887impulse noise, 720impulse radio UWB, 889IMT-2000, 14in-band distortion, 311incremental redundancy, 660, 975incremental relaying, 975incumbent profile detection, 921independent component analysis (ICA), 778indoor propagation model, 46information, 557information MIMO, 834infrared, 26INL, 481input impedance, 388insertion loss (IL), 388insertion loss (IL) method, 402integer DCT transform, 755intelligent network (IN), 22interdigital capacitor, 461interdigital transducer, 413interference-free window (IFW), 258interference-to-noise ratio (INR), 149intermodulation distortion (IMD), 416intermodulation interference, 98intermodulation product, 415interpath interference, 908interpolation, 526, 527interpolation filter, 528intersymbol interference (ISI), 54intra-picture (I), 746intraframe quantization table, 752IntServ (integrated services), 123inverse z-transform, 499inverse DCT (IDCT), 534inverse DTFT, 501inverse filter, 509inverse Fourier transform, 495inverse Laplace transform, 496ionosphere, 80ionospheric effects, 81

IOWEF (input–output weight enumerationfunction), 631

IP, 22Ipatov ternary sequence, 900IPSec protocol, 25IPv4, 25, 103IPv6, 19, 25Iridium, 21irregular LDPC code, 651irreversible color transform, 741IS-136, 12

Index 1001

IS-2000, 15IS-54, 12IS-856, 15IS-95, 12, 281IS-95A, 13IS-95B, 13ISI, 99iterative soft-decision decoding, 651ITU channel models, 49ITU empirical model, 79ITU V.34 voiced-band modem, 175

jamming hole, 963Johnson noise, 381joint detection, 269joint entropy, 559, 561joint information, 559joint source–channel coding, 976JPEG standard, 727JPEG-LS, 743JPEG2000 standard, 740JTACS, 11

Kaiser window, 502Kalman estimation, 519Kalman filtering, 161Karhunen–Leove transform, 535, 692, 727Karush-Kuhn-Tucker Theorem, 936Kasami sequence, 255key management, 960keyhole, 804Klystron power amplifier, 440Knife-edge or half-plane diffraction, 78Kuroda’s identities, 406

L-match circuit, 463ladder network, 405Laguerre polynomial of order k, 817Lange coupler, 401Laplace transform, 496large area (LA) code, 258large set of Kasami sequences, 255large-scaled space diversity, 134LAS code family, 258layered space–time scheme, 834

layered video coding, 753LBG, 671LCMV beamformer, 782, 783LCR, 64, 146LD-CELP, 701, 704LDPC, 26LDPC code, 650LDPC decoder, 653LDPC encoder, 653LEACH, 963, 971learning automaton, 940

Lee’s model, 44Leeson’s model, 445LEO, 21Levinson–Durbin algorithm, 685LHCP, 351LINC, 434line code, 191linear block code, 599linear dispersion code, 834linear equalization, 163linear equalizer, 164linear interpolator, 529linear phase filter, 404linear precoding, 843linear prediction analysis, 684linear prediction synthesis, 684, 689linear preequalization, 175linear reward–penalty (LR−P) scheme, 941linear transconductor cell, 462linearization technique, 439link budget analysis, 384, 893list sphere decoding, 841LLC sublayer, 36, 966Lloyd–Max algorithm, 670LLR, 636LLR-ordered SIC, 840LMDS, 30LMS algorithm, 161, 521LNA, 4LO, 443LO leakage, 4, 7LO pulling, 7LO pulling/leakage, 5loaded-line phase shifter, 414local oscillator (LO), 4location, 969location management, 103location registration, 103log area ratio (LAR), 686log-FFT, 506log-MAP, 643log-normal shadowing, 50log-periodic dipole array, 369logarithmic PCM coding, 682logical channel, 119

long code, 250long-channel MOSFET, 462long-term linear prediction analysis, 688long-term or pitch synthesis filter, 689long-term predictor, 688loop filter, 452loosely synchronized (LS) code, 258LOS, 26lossless compression, 562, 718lossy compression, 719lost call clearing (LCC), 115

1002 Index

lost call hold (LCH), 115LOT, 543, 732loudness, 675low-IF scheme, 5lowpass filter prototype, 406lowpass sampling, 472LPC, 669, 693LS-SCORE, 788LSB, 481LT (Luby transform) code, 923LTCC, 380LU-factorization, 342luminance, 722lumped capacitor, 460lumped inductor, 460lumped-element technique, 458LZ77, 570LZ78, 571LZSS, 570LZW coding, 571, 719

MAC, 27MAC layer design, 121MAC protocol, 967MAC sublayer, 36, 966macroblock, 746, 751macrodiversity, 134magic-T, 401magnitude difference function (MDF)

method, 697MAHO, 101majority-logic decoding, 624man-in-the-middle attack, 959MANET, 32, 953MAP algorithm, 639MAP detector, 188MAP sequence detection, 163mapping by set partitioning, 630MASK, 194masking phenomenon, 676matched filter, 226, 263, 901matched filtering criterion, 226max-log-MAP, 644maximally constrained autocorrelation

(MCA), 789

maximally flat filter, 403maximum fairness algorithm, 124maximum-likelihood path, 624maximum-phase system, 510Maxwell’s equations, 341Maxwell–Ampere law, 341MB-OFDM, 28MB-OFDM UWB, 909MC-CDMA, 279, 329McClellan–Parks method, 515MD algorithm, 961

MDCT, 548MDHO, 102MDS, 415mean opinion score (MOS), 678medium-earth-orbit (MEO), 21MELP, 669MEMS, 363MEMS phase shifter, 414MEMS switch, 428MESFET, 423mesosphere, 80message-passing, 653metal-insulator-metal (MIM) capacitor, 460method of moments (MoM), 343Mexican hat wavelet, 537MFSK, 212MIC, 457microcell, 96microscrip antenna, 361microwave network analysis, 390microwave resonator, 395middleware, 968midrise quantizer, 477midtread quantizer, 477MIME (Multipurpose Internet Mail

Extensions) format, 38MIMO, 15, 305, 770MIMO beamforming, 851MIMO channel decomposition, 806MIMO relay network, 979MIMO system model, 803MIMO-CDMA, 854MIMO-OFDM, 26, 854MIMO-SC, 852MIMO-SS, 854MIMO-UWB, 854minimum distance, 601minimum free distance, 626minimum frequency-shift keying, 214minimum-norm method, 774minimum-phase system, 510MISO, 770misrouting attack, 959mixed boundary condition, 342mixed-multiband excitation (MMBE), 696

mixed-phase system, 510mixer, 430ML, 160ML detection, 189ML detector, 188ML estimation, 231ML receiver, 840MLSE, 163, 622MLSE equalizer, 170MLSR, 252MLSR or m-sequence, 252

Index 1003

MMDS, 30MMIC, 380, 457MMSE, 161MMSE beamformer, 779, 784MMSE equalizer, 166MMSE receiver, 272, 839MMSE-DFE, 169mobile broadband wireless access, 18mobile IP, 103mobile switching center (MSC), 22mobile TV, 34mobile WiMAX, 17mobile-based location, 127Mobile-Fi, 18MobileMan, 122mobility management, 102mobility management plane, 967model-based coding, 669modified Bessel function of the first kind and

zero order, 58modified DFT, 544modulated lapped transform (MLT), 706modulation index, 186modulation recognition, 921moment-generating function, 238monopole, 360Morlet or modified Gaussian wavelet, 537MOSFET or MOS FET, 425mother wavelet, 537motion compensation, 746motion estimation, 746motion estimation with fractional pixel

accuracy, 750motion JPEG, 745motion vector, 747MP-MLQ, 687MP3 file format, 709MPAM, 188MPE model, 698MPEG Audio, 709MPEG-1, 760MPEG-2/H.262, 760MPEG-21, 764MPEG-4, 762MPEG-4 general audio coding, 712

MPEG-4 T/F coder, 712MPEG-4 VTC, 742MPEG-7, 764MPLS (multiprotol label switching), 123MPSK, 187, 200MQAM, 187MQAM constellation, 221MRC, 135, 139MRC beamformer, 778MSK, 190, 214MUD, 268

multi-h CPM, 219multi-rate orthogonal Gold code, 257multi-user equalization, 269multiband UWB, 908multicarrier modulation (MCM), 294multihop relaying, 962multimedia content-based description

standard, 764multiple access channel, 103multiple-symbol MAP detection, 164multiple-symbol ML detection, 164multiplying DAC, 490multipulse LPC, 670multirate CDMA system, 282multiresolution analysis, 539multiresolution analysis equation, 540multiresolution motion estimation, 750multisection matching transformer, 395multistage design, 529multistage VQ, 672, 687multistream interference, 834multiuser diversity, 152MUSIC, 774mutual coupling, 366mutual information, 558, 562MVDR, 774MVDR beamformer, 781

N-AMPS, 11NADC, 12Nakagami distribution, 59Nakagami fading, 59Nash equilibrium, 942natural sampling, 472NCO, 5, 523near field or Fresnel zone, 347near–far effect, 98, 266, 269, 586near-ML decoding, 633nearest-neighbor approximation, 190NEC, 33NEC-2, 343negative acknowledgment (NACK), 658negative-resistance model, 444network layer, 37, 966network-based wireless location, 126

network-controlled multimode coder, 704Neumann boundary condition, 342neural networks, 410NMT, 11noise, 381noise figure, 378, 383noise floor, 415non-real-time polling service (nrtPS), 124nonpersistent CSMA, 113nonresonant antenna, 353nonreturn-to-zero (NRZ), 191

1004 Index

notch filter, 511NTACS, 11NTSC (National Television System

Committee), 723NTT, 11nulling canceling decoder, 836Nyquist criterion, 175Nyquist filtering, 175

O&M (operation and management)signaling, 5

object-based coding, 757OCC, 258octave band decomposition, 539oddly-stacked TDAC (OTDAC), 548OFDM, 15, 108, 294OFDMA, 17, 108, 326off or accumulation mode, 425Okumura–Hata model, 42Olsen–Segal model, 45on or inversion mode, 425on-chip resistor, 460OOK, 195, 897open-loop MIMO system, 808open-loop power control, 100, 266open-loop transmit diversity, 872operating system, 968opportunistic beamforming, 155opportunistic scheduling, 152opportunity-driven multiple access (ODMA),

976optimized link state routing (OLSR), 957optimum combining, 147optimum DBPSK, 199optimum multiuser detector, 270OQPSK, 13, 206orthogonal Gold code, 254orthogonal Hermite pulse, 896orthogonal prolate spheroidal wave function

(PSWF), 896orthogonal pulse modulation, 897orthogonal transmit diversity (OTD), 873oscillator, 443OSI reference model, 24, 35OSIC receiver, 836, 839

OSTBC, 151, 827outage capacity, 584, 586, 816outage probability, 60, 118oversampling, 473OVSF code, 256

PABX, 14packet radio, 24, 110packet switching, 23packet-reservation multiple access (PRMA),

115

PACS, 13PAE, 434paging, 33paging channel, 119pairwise error probability, 825PAL, 722PAM, 194, 897PAPR, 308Parasitic Array Antennas, 365Parseval’s theorem, 501partial CSI at the transmitter, 809partial differential equation (PDE), 342patch antenna, 361patch antenna with switchable slot (PASS),

363PCCC, 633PCM code, 191PCS, 14PDC, 12PDF, 719PDP, 68peak factor, 309peak factor reduction, 310peaking (comb) filter, 511PEAQ, 681percentage of coverage area, 51perceptual noise substitution, 712perceptual noise-shaping filter, 701perfect reconstruction, 543perfectly matched layer (PML), 344PESQ, 681phase adjustments method, 311phase detector, 450phase noise, 444phase of arrival (PoA), 127phase shifter, 413phase–frequency discriminator, 450phoneme, 674PHS, 13physical channel, 119physical layer, 36, 966physical layer design, 119, 120physical optics, 342PIC, 269, 274piconet, 27

pilot channel, 119pilot-assisted method, 305PIN diode, 419PIN switch, 427pitch, 674pitch period estimation, 696pitch picker, 696planar inverted-F antenna, 355planar log-spiral antenna, 369planar UWB antenna, 371plane earth loss model, 41

Index 1005

PLL, 5, 449PM, 185PN diode, 419PN sequence, 251POCSAG, 33Poisson’s distribution, 110polarization, 351polarization diversity, 134polarization-agile antenna, 363polyphase Barker sequence, 258polyphase filter, 528polyphase Golay complementary sequence,

311post compression rate distortion (PCRD)

optimization, 739post-beamformer interference canceller, 783post-image filter, 527postfilter, 701potential game, 943power amplifier, 5power combining, 439power control, 99, 266power delay-angular profile, 74power divider, 399power management plane, 967PPM, 190, 897preamble-based channel estimation, 807precoding, 175predicted-picture (P), 746prediction gain, 690predictive coding, 690predictive VQ, 687predistortion linearization, 439presentation layer, 38Pretty Good Privacy (PGP), 961principal component analysis (PCA), 692private key, 961proactive routing, 956probabilistic decoder, 636probabilistic uniform interleaver model, 646product code, 632, 648programmable modular communications

system (PMCS), 917progressive encoding, 728propagation mechanism, 74

proportional fairness scheduling, 124, 152,872

protocol stack, 35, 965prototype pitch period (PPP), 705prototype waveform interpolation (PWI),

696prototyping, 405PSD, 192, 195, 199, 202, 249pseudo-QMF filter bank, 544, 547pseudorandom block interleaver, 635pseudorandom interleaver, 645

pseudospectrum, 773PSI-CELP, 702PSK, 186, 197PSNR, 724PSTN, 14psychoacoustics, 675public key, 961pulse generator, 901pulse shaping, 175pulse time modulation, 193pulse train, 899pulsed multiband UWB, 909pulsed or carrier-free communications, 894pulsed UWB, 889, 894punctured convolutional code, 628pure ALOHA, 110pure delay-line wideband transmitter

beamformer, 797PVQ-MA (predictive VQ with moving

average), 687PWM, 193, 438

Q2PSK, 206QAM, 186, 220QCELP, 705QMF, 539, 544, 545QO-STBC, 829QoS, 19, 123QoS model, 964QoS routing, 957, 964QPSK, 15, 204QS-CDMA, 258quadrature hybrid, 401quadriphase Barker sequence, 258quantization, 476, 670, 729, 741quarter-wave transformer, 394quasi-Barker sequence, 258quasi-optical amplifier, 434quasi-optical power combining, 439

radiation intensity, 347radiation pattern, 346radio access technology (RAT), 19RadioCom, 12radix-4 FFT, 505

rain fading, 81raised-cosine filtering, 176rake receiver, 263, 904random FM, 57random multiple access, 109rank and determinant criteria, 826rank and trace criteria, 827rate control, 758rate-distortion function, 572rate-distortion theorem, 572ray-tracing, 47

1006 Index

Rayleigh criterion, 77Rayleigh distribution, 52Rayleigh fading, 52, 233Rayleigh–Jean approximation, 381RCELP, 701RCPC code, 629RDS, 33reactive routing, 957real-time polling service (rtPS), 124receive beamforming, 771receive correlation, 804receiver cooperation, 981reciprocity principle, 808reconfigurable microstrip antennas, 363rectangular window, 501REEP (Reliable and Energy Efficient

Protocol), 973reference frequency, 451reflection, 74reflection coefficient, 386reflection coefficient (RC), 685reflection-type phase shifter, 414refraction, 74regular LDPC code, 651reinforcement learning, 941relaxation oscillator, 449relay, 974RELP, 670Remez exchange algorithm, 515repeated game, 943resonant antenna, 353resonator-based oscillator, 447resource reservation protocol (RSVP), 123resource-allocation technique, 124return loss (RL), 387return-to-zero (RZ), 191reuse distance, 93reverse channel, 103reverse water-filling, 574reversible color transform, 741reversible variable-length code, 564RF CMOS, 461RF/microwave filter, 401RFID, 29, 34RHCP, 351

Rice distribution, 58Ricean channel, 823Ricean fading, 58, 237Richard’s transformation, 406ring oscillator, 448ringing effect, 669RLC resonant circuit, 395RLE, 562RLS, 161RLS algorithm, 521ROC, 499

Rollett’s stability factor, 442root raised-cosine filtering, 177round-robin scheduler, 872round-robin scheduling (polling), 114routing, 956, 971routing hole, 963routing protocol, 37routing table poisoning, 959RPE model, 699RPE-LTP, 699RS code, 305, 612RS-Viterbi code, 615RSA (Rivest–Shamir–Adleman) algorithm,

961RSSI, 100RSSI positioning, 125RTMS, 12RTP, 37rumor routing, 973Rumsey’s principle, 369run-length property, 252rural area (RA) (non-hilly), 69rushing attack, 959

S-DMB (Satellite-DMB), 34S/H operation, 470SA-DCT, 742, 756SA-DWT, 742Saleh–Valenzuela model, 890, 892Saleh-Valenzuela model, 47sample rate converter, 531sampling, 470sampling theorem, 472sampling-rate conversion, 526SAR ADC, 486satellite-based positioning, 127satial Tomlinson–Harashima precoding, 844SAW, 4SAW filter, 412SC-FDMA, 17scalability, 753scalable coding, 765scalar quantization, 670scaling function, 539scattered-type pilot arrangement, 306

scattering, 77scattering matrix, 392SCCC, 647scheduling access, 114Schottky diode, 420Schottky junction, 420SCORE, 1scrambling, 249SDMA, 18, 108, 771SDR, 4SECAM, 723

Index 1007

security, 958, 969SEGSNR, 680selection diversity, 136selective-repeat ARQ, 658self-complementary toothed log-periodic

antenna, 369self-mixing phenomenon, 7self-structuring antena, 370semi-blind algorithm, 787semiblind, 162, 856sensitivity, 378Sensor-MAC (S-MAC), 967SEP, 164, 189sequential decoding, 623sequential encoding, 728serial concatenated block code, 632, 648session layer, 37SF-OFDM, 855SFBC, 856SFDR, 418, 484SFIR, 771Shannon bound, 577Shannon-Fano coding, 563shape coding, 756shape function, 342Shared Wireless Access Protocol (SWAP), 27shift-and-add property, 252short code, 250short-term or formant synthesis filter, 689short-term predictor, 688short-time Fourier transform, 673shot noise, 382SIC, 269, 273SIC receiver, 839SICM, 628sigma-delta ADC, 487sigma-delta modulator, 487signal flow graph, 392signal shaping, 175signal space diagram, 187signal-to-interference ratio (SIR), 657signal-to-jitter-noise ratio (SJNR), 483silence descriptor (SID), 693SIMO, 162, 770simple concatenated code, 631

simple parity check code, 602SINAD ratio, 481single-ended diode mixer, 432single-ended FET mixer, 432single-user lower bound (SULB), 866SINR, 147sinusoidal transform coding, 696SISO, 280, 981SISO decoder, 636skin effect, 386sleep deprivation, 959

sleeve antenna, 355slice, 751slotted ALOHA, 110slow fading, 50slow frequency hopping, 285small set of Kasami sequences, 255smart antenna, 97, 771smart radio, 920Smith chart, 389SMV, 706SNDR, 313Snell’s laws, 75SNR scalability, 754soft decision decoding, 606soft handoff, 102, 267software-defined radio, 19, 917SOI, 770solid-state microwave source, 446solid-state power amplifier, 440sound intensity, 675sound pressure level (SPL), 675source input format (SIF), 745source–channel coding theorem, 582source–channel separation theorem, 582source-coding theorem, 563SOVA, 637space–time coding, 824space–time processing, 857space–time processing model, 858space–time receiver, 838spactial diversity, 132spatial and SNR scalability, 740spatial coherence, 73spatial correlation, 366, 803spatial diversity combining, 777spatial filtering, 777spatial multiplexing, 834spatial multiplexing gain, 845spatial power combining, 439spatial scalability, 754spatial–temporal signature, 857spectral cross-correlation (or conjugate

cross-correlation) coefficient, 791spectral growth, 311spectral self-coherence (or conjugate

self-coherence) coefficient, 790spectrogram, 673spectrum awareness, 923spectrum cyclic density (SCD), 790spectrum sensing, 925spectrum shaping, 302spectrum-agile radio, 920speech production, 672speech production modeling, 673speech/audio quality, 677Speex, 702

1008 Index

sphere decoding algorithm, 170, 841SPIHT algorithm, 736SPIN, 972spirial antenna, 370split VQ, 687spreading sequence, 250sprectral spreading, 248sprite coding, 757SQNR, 477square-law combining, 135squaring loop, 229SS7, 22, 24SSB AM, 184SSB modulation, 431SSL (Secure Sockets Layer), 38SSMA, 107ST pre-rake, 854ST-MF, 862ST-ML receiver, 854ST-MMSE receiver, 854ST-MUD, 860ST-MUD algorithm I, 863ST-MUD algorithm II, 863ST-MUD algorithm III, 863ST-OFDM, 855ST-rake, 854stability, 441, 508stack algorithm, 623stack-bucket algorithm, 623staircase reconstructor, 480STBC, 26, 305, 825STDO code, 857STDO diversity, 857step-recovery or snap diode, 422stepped-impedance (Hi-Z-low-Z) lowpass

filter, 407STF-OFDM, 855stop-and-go ARQ, 658stratosphere, 79STS, 873STTC, 305, 825, 832STTD, 872stub filter, 406stub tuners, 393subband, 294

subband coding, 544subband decomposition, 733subband-split ADPCM (SB-ADPCM), 706subcarrier, 294suboptimum DBPSK, 199subthreshold or weak inversion region, 425suburban (SU), 83successive approximation, 739SUI channel models, 49sum of absolute differences or errors (SAD or

SAE), 748

sum of squared differences or errors (SSD orSSE), 747

sum-product algorithm, 654Sunde’s FSK, 210super-audio CD, 709super-heterodyne transceiver, 4suvivor path, 622Suzuki model, 60SVD precoding, 842Switch, 427switch diversity, 146switch-and-stay strategy, 146switch-mode amplifier, 437switched-beam antenna array, 779switched-line phase shifter, 414switching diversity with feedback, 146switching or secondary picture (S-picture),

763Sybil attack, 959symbol timing recovery, 230symbol-by-symbol MAP detector, 164symbol-by-symbol ML detection, 164symbol-rate processing, 919symmetric key encryption, 960synchronization, 265, 317syndrome decoding, 603synthesis bank, 542system-on-chip (SOC), 380system-on-package (SOP), 380systematic code, 600, 618systolic architecture, 536

T-DMB, 34TACS, 11tail bit, 623Tanner graph, 652tapped-delay-line fading model, 892tapped-delay-line structure, 796TAS/MRC scheme, 844task management plane, 967TCM, 630TCP, 37, 966TD-LAS (Large-Area-Synchronous) CDMA,

258TD-SCDMA, 16

TDAC, 548TDD, 105TDMA, 4, 12, 106TDoA positioning, 125TDRSS, 254TEM wave, 347temporal coherence, 71temporal diversity, 133temporal masking, 676temporal scalability, 755temporal spreading, 248

Index 1009

terminated trellis, 625TH, 248TH-CDMA, 108TH-UWB, 889TH-UWB signal, 899thermal noise, 381thermosphere, 80third-order intercept point (IP3), 416three-port network (T-junction), 399three-step search (TSS), 748THSS, 889TIFF (Tagged Image File Format), 571tiling, 740time-selective fading, 61time-selective spread, 61timing offset, 321timing synchronization, 323TinyDB, 968TinyOS, 968TinySec, 969TLS (Transport Layer Security), 38ToA positioning, 125Tomlinson–Harashima precoding, 175total electron content (TEC), 81tracking or fine synchronization, 322traffic channel, 119training-based beamforming, 784transform coding, 706transform-domain weighted interleave vector

quantization (TwinVQ), 712transistor, 422transmission line, 385transmission line resonator, 397transmission matrix, 392transmit beamforming, 771transmit correlation, 804transmit diversity, 150, 977transmit diversity combining, 771transmit power control, 921transmit selection diversity, 151transmit/receive switch, 379transmitter cooperation, 981transmitter-and-receiver cooperation, 981transport channel, 119transport layer, 37, 966

traveling wave amplifier, 443traveling wave tube, 439traveling-wave-tube amplifier, 440tree decoder, 621trellis decoder, 621trellis decoding, 625trellis diagram, 620troposphere, 79tropospheric effects, 80trunking efficiency, 116turbo cliff region, 644

turbo code, 633turbo decoder, 636turbo decoding principle, 648turbo encoder, 634turbo trellis coded modulation

(turbo-TCM), 630two-dimensional (2-D) DCT, 536two-dimensional logathmic search, 748type-I (star) QAM constellation, 221type-I Chebyshev filter, 403, 404type-I HARQ, 660type-II Chebyshev filter, 404type-II HARQ, 660type-II QAM constellation, 221type-III (square) QAM constellation, 221typical hilly terrain (HT), 69typical urban (TU), 69, 83

UD factorization, 522UDP, 37, 966UMB, 18UMTS, 14uncorrelated scatters, 67unequal error protecting code, 648uniform circular array, 365uniform linear array, 365uniform PCM, 477uniform planar array, 365uniform quantization, 476uniform theory of diffraction (UTD), 47, 342universal multimedia access, 765unsolicited grant service (UGS), 124UPE, 830UQ-DZ, 727user cooperation, 976, 977user location, 125UTRA, 15UTRA-TDD, 16UWB, 19, 28, 127UWB antenna, 368, 370UWB capacity, 893UWB indoor channel model, 890UWC-136, 16

V-BLAST, 837

varactor, 461variable multi-rate wideband (VMR-WB),

707variable voltage-controlled attenuator, 456variable-bit-rate (VBR) CELP, 705variable-length code, 564VCO, 7, 450vector excitation coding (VXC), 712vector network analyzer, 392vector radix FFT, 505very-low-bit-rate coding, 695

1010 Index

VGA, 456video decoder, 752video encoder, 752video transcoding, 765virtual carrier, 306visitor location register (VLR), 22visually lossless compression, 722Viterbi algorithm, 171, 903Viterbi decoding, 622Viterbi equalizer, 170VO, 757vocoder, 669voice activity detection, 693VoIP, 681voltage-controlled clock (VCC), 231VOP, 756VQ, 477, 670VSELP, 670, 702VSWR, 387

wakeup on demand, 967Walfisch–Bertoni model, 45Walsh or Walsh–Hadamard code, 255WAN, 24water-filling, 328, 578, 935waveform coding, 668waveguide cavity, 398wavelet analysis, 539wavelet filter design, 733wavelet packet analysis, 539wavelet transform, 537, 732wavelet-based motion compensation, 750wavetable synthesis, 526WCDMA, 15, 282Weber’s law, 721weight enumeration analysis, 646weight enumeration function (WEF), 646Welch lower bound, 255Welch-bounded sequence, 278WEP (Wired Equivalent Privacy), 960whip antenna, 355Wi-Fi, 26WiBro, 19wide sense stationary, 67wideband antennas, 368

wideband beamforming, 796wideband CELP, 707wideband speech coding, 706Wiener estimation, 519Wiener filter, 520Wiener–Khinchine theorem, 192Wilkinson power divider, 399Wilkinson power splitter/combiner, 439WiMAX, 29WiMedia, 28window method, 514

windowing, 501wireless ad hoc network, 953wireless BAN, 27, 47, 372wireless LAN, 25wireless local loop (WLL), 13wireless MAN, 17, 29wireless PAN, 25, 27wireless RAN, 25, 30Wireless USB, 28wireless WAN, 25Wold decomposition, 693wormhole attack, 959WPA (Wi-Fi Protected Access), 960writing on dirty paper, 841WSN, 35, 953WSSUS model, 67Wyner–Ziv cooperation, 975

XPD, 351

YCbCr, 722YCbCr sampling, 723Yule–Walker approximation, 518YUV, 722

Zadoff–Chu code, 331ZCR, 64, 138zero correlation zone (ZCZ), 258zero-order Bessel function of the first kind,

62zero-outage capacity, 586zero-padded OFDM, 300ZF beamformer, 778ZF equalizer, 165ZF receiver, 838, 858ZF-DFE, 169zigzag scan, 732, 752zinc-basis function excitation (ZFE)

waveform, 696ZMCSCG variable, 803zone routing protocol (ZRP), 957

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