Williamson huronoa2014

OntarioArchaeology

Journal of The Ontario Archaeological Society

2014O

ntarioA

rchaeologyN

o.94

Number 94, 2014

Articles

The Archaeological History of the Wendat to A.D. 1651: An OverviewRonald F. Williamson

The Bioarchaeology of Cannibalism at the Charity SiteMichael W. Spence and Lawrence Jackson

The Gosling Site (AiHb-189):A Small, Parkhill Phase, Paleo-Indian Site in Guelph, Ontario

Christopher Ellis and Dana R. Poulton

From Grey to Print

IntroductionRon Williamson

Preliminary Excavations at Sainte Marie IIPeter J. Carruthers

Williamson Archaeological History of the Wendat 3

Introduction

This paper is intended to provide an up-to-datesummary of archaeological research on Wendatsites in Ontario to A.D. 1651. It relies onarchaeological evidence for the period prior tocontact with Europeans and on both thearchaeological and documentary records for thesubsequent years. The Wendat are Iroquoian, aterm that refers to both a cultural pattern and alinguistic family, the latter of which includes thelanguages spoken by the Northern Iroquoians ofthe Great Lakes region as well as Cherokee, spokenin the southern Appalachians, and Tuscarora,spoken near the mid-Atlantic coast. The termIroquoian, therefore, should not be confused with“Iroquois,” a word adopted by Europeans to referto the Haudenosaunee, or Five NationsConfederacy (see also Williamson andMacDonald 2015:103-104).

While the exact timing and catalyst for theintroduction of Iroquoian speakers into the GreatLakes region are unknown, the region had clearly

The Archaeological History of the Wendat to A.D. 1651:An Overview

Ronald F. Williamson

been occupied for thousands of years by proto-Algonquian speakers and their ancestors (seeIroquoian Origins below). Once Iroquoian-speaking peoples appeared, some local populationsadopted their language and aspects of their ways oflife. There is now agreement that the fullexpression of Iroquoian culture—the essentialelements of which were a primary reliance onhorticulture for subsistence; habitation in often-fortified villages containing bark-coveredlonghouses shared usually by matrilineally relatedextended families; clan membership extendingbeyond each village to other communities, therebyintegrating villages within tribes andconfederacies; a set of shared governance structuresand religious beliefs and practices; andparticipation in ritualized warfare, trophy taking,and prisoner sacrifice (Trigger 1976:91-104)—isnot recognizable archaeologically until the turn ofthe fourteenth century (e.g., Engelbrecht 2003;Warrick 2000, 2008).

The foundations for modern scholarship concerning Wendat history and archaeology were laid in the latenineteenth and early twentieth centuries by researchers, such as Andrew Hunter and Arthur Jones, investigatinghundreds of sites and ossuaries that had been reported to provincial authorities. The focus of their work andof the work of many of those who followed was the search for places that could be related to villages and missionsmentioned in early documentary accounts. Avocational, academic, and government agency archaeologistsworking in the mid-twentieth century had only these early archaeological studies to inform their investigationsofWendat sites. During the past 30 years, however, a revolution in archaeological data collection has occurred.Some of these data are published and thus accessible to current researchers, but much of it remains unpublishedand some of it has not even been reported on. This paper is an overview of most of this work, especially of thosesites where substantial excavations have occurred. It is intended to provide a guide for those who wish to usethese studies to delve deeper into various aspects of the history of historic-period or ancestralWendat communities.

Ontario Archaeology No. 94, 20144

The Huron, or Wendat, were thenorthernmost of the Iroquoians, who, in theseventeenth century, inhabited the area betweenLake Simcoe and Georgian Bay known historicallyas Wendake (Figure 1). Their confederacyconsisted of four allied nations: the Attignawantan(Bear), Attigneenongnahac (Cord), Arendarhonon(Rock), and Tahontaenrat (Deer). Anotherpopulation, known as the Ataronchronon (Bog),does not appear to have been an independentmember of the confederacy and was instead adivision of the Attignawantan (Trigger 1976:30).Their name for themselves, Wendat, has beeninterpreted as meaning “islanders” or “dwellers ona peninsula” (Heidenreich 1971:300-301; Trigger1969:9) and may only have come into commonuse to refer to the Wendat confederacy in theseventeenth century (Steckley 2007:25; Thwaites1896-1901, 5:278).

The Tionontaté lived immediately southwestof the Wendat. Their confederacy included twoseparate groups, the Wolf and Deer (Thwaites1896-1901, 33:143, 20:43). At the time theJesuits arrived in Huronia, theWendat-Tionontatéwere allied against common Iroquois enemies,although this had not always been the case. Theircombined population prior to the spread ofEuropean epidemics in the 1630s has beenestimated to have been 30,000 (Warrick2008:204).

Their more distant Iroquoian-speakingneighbours included the Neutral Confederacy(Attiwandaron), who lived farther south, on thepeninsula separating Lakes Erie and Ontario andextending west and, for a brief period, east of theNiagara River; the Erie, who inhabited theterritory south of Lake Erie; the Wenro(Oneronon), another group living south of theGreat Lakes and associated with the Neutral; andthe Iroquois Confederacy (Haudenosaunee), wholived in clustered tribal groupings across what isnow central New York State. The Haudenosauneeincluded (from west to east) the Seneca, Cayuga,Onondaga, Oneida, and Mohawk, all of whomhad unique cultural traits and histories owing totheir geographic separation and development indistinct tribal territories, which they continued tooccupy into the contact period. These differences

are reflected in their language and material culture,as well as their clan organization, kinship terms,and mortuary practices. The Susquehannock (alsoAndastoerhonon) were another Iroquoianpopulation, situated southeast of the Iroquois incentral and eastern Pennsylvania and northernMaryland.

There were also Iroquoian-speakingcommunities living in the St. Lawrence valley westof Quebec City in the sixteenth century.Encountered by Jacques Cartier in his 1534 and1535 visits to eastern Canada, they had movedelsewhere by the time of Samuel de Champlain’svisit of 1603. Although their absence 70 years laterwas at one time considered a mystery, we nowknow that relocations of that nature were a long-standing option for Iroquoian decision makerswhen faced with newly emerging social andpolitical challenges.

The Algonquian-speaking neighbours of theWendat included the Odawa, who lived in theBruce Peninsula area, next to the Tionontaté, andbeyond; the Nipissing, who lived near the lake ofthe same name; and a number of small bands onthe eastern and northern shores of Georgian Bayand along the Ottawa River.

These groups defined the geopoliticallandscape of the lower Great Lakes at the time ofsustained European contact. From A.D. 1300 to1600, however, many of the ancestralcommunities of theWendat were situated not onlyin their historic territory but also along the riversthat drain into the north shore of Lake Ontariobetween the Credit River and Prince EdwardCounty (Figure 1). These communities eventuallymerged with others in historic Wendake andTionontaté country, after which it was only a fewdecades until the consequences of Europeanpresence altered Indigenous lives forever. Epidemicdiseases and famine reduced their populations bymore than 50 percent between 1634 and 1640(Warrick 2008:222-236). Eventually, by the mid-seventeenth century, traditional conflicts betweenthe Wendat-Tionontaté, Attiwandaron, andHaudenosaunee, exacerbated by Europeanagendas, resulted in the dispersal of the threeOntario confederacies and some of theirAlgonquian-speaking allies.


Scholars of this period are fortunate to haveavailable to them the rich seventeenth-centurydocumentary record of the lives of NorthernIroquoians. The three principal sources areChamplain, Sagard, and the Jesuits. The works ofSamuel de Champlain, an experienced soldier andexplorer, recorded his observations of Wendat (andTionontaté) life (in particular, on clothing,settlements, military aspects, and hunting tactics)and their economy and interpersonal relationsduring a winter spent among them in 1615–16(Biggar 1922-1936). The detailed account ofGabriel Sagard, a Récollet friar who spent thewinter of 1623–24 with the Wendat (Sagard1939), can be considered one of the world’s firstsubstantial ethnographies (Trigger 1969:4). Sagardalso compiled a phrasebook and comprehensivedictionary of the Wendat language (Sagard 2010).The annual accounts of the Jesuit priests who livedamong the Wendat from 1634 until 1650 and

among the Iroquois from 1654 to 1667 (Thwaites1896–1901) are filled with descriptions of Wendatlife and society. All three sources must beemployed with caution, however, as they werewritten by outsiders with their own agendas(Trigger 1976).

These primary historical sources, as well asother informative accounts, were synthesized byElizabeth Tooker (1964) to provide a thoroughsource for ethnographic references to most aspectsof Wendat life between 1615 and 1649. A majorsecondary summary of the lives of Wendat peoplescan be found in Trigger’s The Children ofAataentsic (1976), which masterfully combineshistory, ethnography, and archaeology to giveWendat peoples their own voices in theirinteractions with their neighbours and theEuropean colonial enterprise.

Conrad Heidenreich (1971) had earlierprovided a detailed geographic analysis of historic

Figure 1. Locations of Northern Iroquoian groups.


Wendake and Wendat life, with an attempt toidentify the locations of historic village locationsin Wendake as recorded in documentary accounts(see also, for example, Fox 1941; Heidenreich1966, 1968, 2014; Jones 1908; Jury 1976; Latta1985a, 1988). Stephen Monckton (1992)examined the plant remains from four historicWendat settlements as well as those from Sainte-Marie I, providing insight into both dependenceon local plant food resources and Wendat foodproduction (for an interesting article ondocumented corn hills near Creemore, seeHeidenreich 1974). Georges Sioui (1999) added acontemporary Wendat voice to the history of hispeople. More recently, Gary Warrick (2008)produced an insightful demographic history of theWendat-Tionontaté; John Steckley (2007, 2010)provided major ethno-linguistic analyses of theWendat language; and Jennifer Birch and RonWilliamson (2013a) offered a contextual analysisof the archaeological history of a singlecommunity, moving through time in ancestralWendat territory along the north shore of LakeOntario and living at the site called Mantle (Jean-Baptiste Laíné) in the period 1500–30. CharlesGarrad (2014) has summarized previous work andhis own long research into the history andarchaeology of the Tionontaté in a comprehensivevolume, and Kathryn Labelle (2013) has producedan analysis of post-dispersal Wendat-Wyandothistory.

Late nineteenth- and early twentieth-centurywork that laid the foundations for modernresearch includes, most notably, that by AndrewHunter (e.g., 1889, 1899, 1900-1904, 1907) andArthur Jones (1908). Their work included effortsto track the locations of historic Wendat villagesmentioned in ethnographic accounts, while alsoinvestigating sites and ossuaries reported toprovincial authorities. The search for sites andossuaries was often based on archaeologicalfeatures reported by farmers to provincialauthorities, or on investigations carried out eitherby physicians of the period looking for anatomicalcollections or by archaeological enthusiastslooking for relics as part of their leisure activities.These reports allowed A.F. Hunter, for example,to document 400 Wendat sites and ossuaries,

many of which were summarized by township inthe Annual Archaeological Reports of Ontarioduring the period (see also Fleming n.d.). GeorgeLaidlaw (1912) undertook the first archaeologicalsurvey of Victoria County, by horse and buggy,documenting the Hardrock and Benson sites,from which he collected artifacts (Noble 2006:73-75). Robert Popham (1950), Richard McNeish(1952), Norman Emerson (1954), J.V. Wright(1966), Frank Ridley (1966-1975), Marti Latta(1973, 1976), Roberta O’Brien (1974, 1975), andJamie Hunter (1976, 1977) all used these earlystudies in their mid- to late twentieth-centuryinvestigations of Wendat sites. Frank Ridley, inparticular, employed A. Hunter’s survey data tocarry out his extensive survey and his testexcavations at Hunter’s sites, thereby evaluatingtheir chronological placement in Wendat history.Wilf and Elsie Jury contributed substantially tothe history and archaeology of Huronia from the1940s through the 1960s. For a summary of theirlives and accomplishments, see Pearce (2003).

The following sections summarize how someof these and other early researchers began to frameWendat history in light of emerging archaeologicaldata.

Iroquoian Origins

Perhaps one of the most interesting features ofNorthern Iroquoians is that they are entirelysurrounded by Algonquian speakers. Their originsand development in the lower Great Lakes region,therefore, have always been of interest toanthropologists, but they are also of criticalconcern for Northern Iroquoian descendantcommunities in regard to still-contested lands andrights in eastern Canada and the northeasternUnited States. The ability of anthropologists torecognize ethnicity in the archaeological recordand to outline their histories and those of theirneighbours is now evaluated regularly in thecourts, as was evidenced recently when theWendat defended their right to speak for ancestralcommunities on the Seaton lands east of Toronto(Hiawatha et al. v. R. 2007).

Early anthropological accounts of Iroquoianorigins focused on migration (Parker 1916; Griffin1944), therefore precluding examination of


significant economic and socio-political evolutionin Iroquoian society. Later researchers supportedan in situ theory of Iroquoian culturaldevelopment and described the transition fromthe previous hunting and gathering pattern to theIroquoian horticultural one as rapid andessentially complete by the end of the firstmillennium A.D. (MacNeish 1952; Ritchie1944). William Ritchie (1969) and J.V. Wright(1966) later traced Iroquoian culturaldevelopment through several phases, recognizingtwo discrete centres for Iroquoian development,one in upper New York State and the other inOntario.

Dean Snow (1995, 1996) subsequentlyreintroduced a migrationist hypothesis, suggestingthat Iroquoians entered the lower Great Lakesregion in the first millennium A.D. bringing withthemmaize agriculture, palisaded settlements withlonghouses, matrilineal descent, matrilocalresidence patterns, and technologically moresophisticated ceramic vessel manufacturingtraditions. This hypothesis was rejected by mostGreat Lakes archaeologists (e.g., Crawford et al.1997; Engelbrecht 2003; Ferris 1999; Hart 2001;Warrick 2000, 2008). Not only is the fullexpression of the Iroquoian cultural pattern notapparent until around the turn of the fourteenthcentury, but it is now clear that maize wasintroduced centuries before that hypothesizedmigration. In New York State, for example, JohnHart and his colleagues have employedmicroscopic phytolith analysis and AMS dating ofcarbonized food remains to demonstrate thatmaize was being cooked in central New York byabout 2,000 years ago (Hart et al. 2003), wellbefore the Iroquoian cultural pattern crystallized,and perhaps even prior to introduction of a proto-Iroquoian language to the region.

There is, however, linguistic evidence for themigration of an Iroquoian-speaking populationinto the lower Great Lakes region. Stuart Fiedel(1999), for example, has argued that a proto-Algonquian language emerged in the Great Lakesregion by 1200 B.C. (following Siebert 1967),after which there was an expansion and divergenceof proto-Algonquian languages during the periodbetween 500 B.C. and A.D. 900. Because the

Iroquoian language family is dissimilar toAlgonquian languages in vocabulary, phonology,and grammar, Fiedel suggested that the twolanguage families were relatively recent neighboursin the region, the Iroquoian presence havingresulted from a more recent migration, c. A.D.500–1000. He suggested that the divergence ofthe individual Iroquoian languages occurredduring this period as well.

This general outline for the antiquity ofAlgonquian populations in the region has beenunderscored by recent genetic research in whichmtDNA from the skeletal remains of a number ofnortheastern pre-contact sites was compared withthat of several contemporary, potentiallydescendant Native Americans, includingAlgonquian and Iroquoian speakers (Pfeiffer et al.2014; Shook and Smith 2008). These studies havedemonstrated that there was genetic homogeneityacross language barriers as well as close similaritybetween ancient populations in the Mississippidrainage and southern Ontario. This suggeststhere was sufficient gene flow amonggeographically distant populations to maintainregional continuities in populations for at least3,000 years. The researchers suggest thatpopulations were expanding between 2,000 and4,000 years ago, perhaps associated withexpansion of proto-Algonquian languages orintroduction of maize horticulture into the region.Derived mutations in several samples assigned tocertain haplogroups in the latter study potentiallylink some individuals in ancestral Iroquoianpopulations with much earlier Algonquianpopulations (Pfeiffer et al. 2014:339-340).Although studies with much larger samples arenecessary to fully explore these relationships, thesedata suggest that the Iroquoian cultural patternwas adopted by local populations without theirhaving been replaced or dispersed.

It is likely, therefore, that a small number ofIroquoian speakers introduced the language toresident Algonquian-speaking Great Lakespopulations, after which the language, perhaps inassociation with maize subsistence technology,gradually gained widespread acceptance.Engelbrecht (2003:112-114) argued for an“ethnogenetic” perspective on Iroquoian origins


because it can accommodate populationmovements, acculturation, diffusion of ideas, andcontinuity, resulting in a more realistic andcomplex view of Iroquoian development than ispossible using simplistic arguments set in amigrationist or diffusionist framework. PeterRamsden (2006) has proposed that easternIroquoians, consisting of St. Lawrence Iroquoians,the Mohawk, the Onondaga, and those Wendatwho originate in the eastern part of their territory,have in situ origins that differ from westernIroquoian groups, who were influenced by morerecent arrivals, perhaps from the Mississippi valley.Ramsden argues that the western groups broughtthe Iroquoian language to their easternneighbours. These notions are consistent with themost recent genetic research described above.

The Transition toAgriculture and Village Life

Regardless of the chronology and manner bywhich the Iroquoian language came to the region,the introduction of maize ultimately played theleading role in initiating the transition to foodproduction and reducing traditional reliance onnaturally occurring resources. Hart and Lovis(2013) argue that the adoption of an agriculturalway of life was a gradual transition occurring overgenerations (see also Williamson 1985, 1990). Itwas multi-lineal and involved early farmersparticipating in broad networks sharing plantseeds and knowledge about agriculturaltechnologies, and doing so in different natural andsocial environments. The breadth of thosenetworks is reflected in the agricultural complexof Iroquoians, especially in the role of bloodshedin promoting agricultural fertility, and specificallyin similarities to the ritual systems of Mesoamericaand the Mississippi valley. Specific sharedceremonies include the Arrow Sacrifice ceremony,dog sacrifice, platform torture and sacrifice ofvictims to the sun, decapitation, and scalping ofprisoners (Engelbrecht 2003:37-46; Trigger1976:73-75).

While there is phytolith evidence of maizebeing used more than 2000 years ago in New York(Thompson et al. 2004), the earliest evidence formaize in Ontario (in the form of carbonized plant

macroremains) comes from 1400-year-old sites inthe Grand River valley (Crawford et al. 1997).Recent AMS dating of maize residues on ceramicvessels from Middle Woodland period (c. 200B.C. to A.D. 500) sites in the westernmost St.Lawrence valley (Hart et al. 2003) suggests maizemay have been used by contemporaneouspopulations in southeastern Ontario.

The introduction of corn into the subsistencesystems of local populations initiallysupplemented rather than dramatically alteredtraditional Middle Woodland hunting, fishing,and gathering patterns. Indeed, isotopic analysesof bone collagen and carbonate from sites insouthern Ontario suggest that maize did notbecome a nutritional staple until at least A.D.1000 (Harrison and Katzenberg 2003:241). Overtime, it would have been increasingly favoured,because it was less prone to variability inproductivity and could be grown and harvestedclose to the village and then stored (Trigger1985:85), thereby reducing the need for seasonalmacroband dispersal and initiating thedevelopment of semi-sedentary settlements(Trigger 1978:59-61; 1985:87) in southernOntario. It is clear there was not a simple cause-and-effect relationship between the incorporationof maize into early pre-contact economies and theshift to a more sedentary lifestyle; instead, theseprocesses unfolded at different rates and times indifferent parts of the Lower Great Lakes region(Hart and Brumbach 2003; Pihl et al. 2008).

In southern Ontario, settlements withevidence for maize and semi-sedentary habitation(c. A.D. 500–1000) have been characterized astransitional between the preceding MiddleWoodland and subsequent Late Woodlandcommunities of the region (Fox 1990; Ferris andSpence 1995; Crawford et al. 1997). The bestknown examples of these sites, which occurprimarily in floodplain environments, include theAuda (Kapches 1987), Holmedale (Pihl et al.2008), and Porteous sites (Stothers 1977). These“base camps” featured small, poorly definedcircular or elliptical house structures containingclusters of hearths and pits. The latter two siteswere encircled by one or two rows of palisade orfencing, perhaps serving as windbreaks. The


discovery of large, deep pits, probably used forstoring crops, and the ubiquitous presence ofmaize on these sites suggest that maize contributedconsiderably to the diet.

A constantly evolving and remarkablycomplete record of village life between 1000 and700 years ago has survived in southern Ontario.That record consists of geographically discrete,regional clusters of semi-permanent settlements,together with smaller camps and special purposesites (Williamson 1990), each representing two ormore contemporary communities that may haveshared a hunting territory and a common resourcebase (Timmins 1997:228). There is enoughinternal differentiation among these site clustersthat Early Iroquoian development should beviewed as a multi-linear process, with differentialadoption of settlement and subsistence strategiesand with social, political, and economicdevelopments occurring at slightly different times(Williamson 1990). This pattern has also beensuggested for contemporary ancestral Iroquoispopulations in New York State (Hart andBrumbach 2003).

While limited quantities of material culturerelated to societies to the south and west have beenrecovered from Early Iroquoian sites (Fox2008:13), it seems likely that inter-groupcommunication and interaction was morefrequent within these regional clusters than withgroups farther afield (Williamson and Robertson1994).

Villages of this period are generally small insize, covering approximately one acre, or 0.4 ha(Williamson 1990), and encompass multiplestructures, averaging 10 to 20 m in length and 7m in width (Dodd 1984; Warrick 1996). They aresometimes surrounded by a single row of posts,which have been interpreted as fences orenclosures as opposed to defensive palisades,owing to their relatively insubstantialconstruction. Populations based on site size andhearth counts indicate that the earliest Iroquoiancommunities comprised approximately 75–150people (Timmins 1997:199), suggesting that theywere derived from late Middle and TransitionalWoodland yearly territorial band aggregations of50–150 people (Trigger 1976:134, 1985:86).

Occupied over a longer period of time thanlater villages, these earlier villages first appeared toarchaeologists as somewhat disordered. We nowknow that they reflect multiple episodes ofrebuilding involving multiple re-occupations overmany decades, sometimes for a 100 years or more.Peter Timmins (1997) has reconstructed theoccupational history of the Calvert site, a village insouthwestern Ontario, showing how it developedfrom a seasonal hunting camp into a semi-permanently occupied village between A.D. 1150and 1250.

There is no evidence that the appearance ofthese villages marked the incorporation ofmatrilineal descent and residence patterns or offormal village political organization (Hart 2001;Williamson 1990). Their patterning and small sizesuggests that households were autonomous andthat leadership remained informal, perhapslimited to an individual who acted as anintermediary in dealings with neighbouringgroups (Trigger 1981:24).

An increasing reliance on maize as a dietarystaple is suggested by isotopic data, though it likelycomprised less than 20 percent of the diet untilthe end of the thirteenth century (Harrison andKatzenberg 2003:241; Katzenberg et al. 1995;Schwartz et al. 1985; but see van der Merwe et al.2003). During most of the period, corn clearlyaugmented a diverse and regionally differentiatedsubsistence economy in which populations choseto reduce the risk of crop failure through thecontinued exploitation of naturally occurringresources (Williamson 1990).

The Transformationto an Iroquoian Cultural Pattern

The turn of the fourteenth century marked atransformational point in Iroquoian culturalevolution. Large, year-round occupied agriculturalvillages with new socially integrative mechanismssuch as semi-subterranean sweat lodges, alongwith a distinct material culture, are all for the firsttime recognizably “Iroquoian”—that is, theymatch the descriptions in early Europeanaccounts. While previous interpretations ofIroquoian life during the fourteenth century


concluded that this was a period of widespreadcultural homogenization, with similar settlementpatterns, subsistence strategies, material culture,and socio-economic networks being adoptedthroughout southern Ontario (Dodd et al. 1990;Wright 1966), data resulting from multiplecomplete ancestral Wendat village excavations overthe past few decades suggest that life in Iroquoiancommunities was in fact much more variable thanwas previously thought. Individual communitiesunderwent a series of transitions in different waysand at different times, depending on localcontingencies and the structure of the social andeconomic networks of which they were a part(Williamson and Robertson 1994).

There was also a northward expansion ofWendat settlement at this time. There is as yet noevidence for Wendat villages in the SimcoeUplands immediately south of Georgian Bay priorto the late thirteenth century. But soon after thereis evidence for multiple agricultural communitiesmigrating into the region (MacDonald 2002;Sutton 1999). While a number of hypotheses havebeen advanced for the reasons behind thecolonization of the Simcoe Uplands (MacDonald2002; Sutton 1999; Warrick 2008:177-180),population pressure and increased opportunitiesto trade with Algonquians, along with ecologicalconsiderations, provide the most likelyexplanations for these early thirteenth-centurymigrations. The establishment of new villages nodoubt involved significant communication andnegotiations between the Iroquoians on the northshore of Lake Ontario and Algonquians from thesurrounding area, broadening the base for futuresocio-political interaction (see below; Fox andGarrard 2004).

The other major development at the turn ofthe fourteenth century was the amalgamation ofsmall communities to form larger communities(e.g., Williamson 1998; Wright 1986), apparentlyresulting in changes in socio-political andeconomic organization and interaction, bothwithin communities and throughout the region inwhich they were located.

Intensified horticultural production toaccommodate larger populations was onesignificant change. For example, isotopic analyses

of human remains from the ancestral WendatMoatfield ossuary, located approximately 5 kmnorth of Lake Ontario in the city of Toronto anddating to the turn of the fourteenth century,indicate that maize comprised at least half if notmore of the diet (van der Merwe et al. 2003). Suchhorticultural intensification may have been anecessary response to the subsistence needs of alarger, aggregated population.

This coalescence of populations occurredacross much of southern Ontario, with ancestralWendat settlements occurring primarily east of theCredit River and ancestral Neutral sites to the westof the Niagara Escarpment—the area betweenperhaps functioning as a transitional boundaryzone.

The balance of this paper will focus only onsubsequent developments among ancestralWendat communities.

These now larger villages averaged 1.5 ha inextent, or twice the size of the earlier basesettlements, and they appear to have beenoccupied for approximately 20 to 30 years. Theycontained longer houses, some reaching lengthsover 100 m, and featured less rebuilding andstructural change than did communities of theprevious period (Dodd et al. 1990; Warrick2008:135; Williamson and Ramsden 1998:201).Villages were not palisaded, although someincluded internal fences that seem to haverepresented visual barriers separating houseclusters or segments of a community, perhaps bothsymbolically and physically, such as those at theAlexandra site (ASI 2008a).

There was also considerable variability in thesize and structure of fourteenth- and earlyfifteenth-century settlements, perhaps resultingfrom village lineage–based segments choosing todepart subsequent to a period of initialaggregation. Some sites are comprised of singleclusters of three or four aligned longhouses or ofless structured groups of houses, with estimatedpopulations of approximately 250–350 persons.Other sites contained two or more clusters ofaligned houses and would have supported largerpopulations of up to 500–600 persons. GaryWarrick (2008:141-142, 182) has suggested that a“population explosion” occurred between A.D.


1330 and A.D. 1420, when the population ofsouth-central Ontario increased from 10,000 to24,000 ancestral Wendat persons, reinforcingsettlement in larger villages and movement intopreviously occupied territories. These levels exceedthe social and political capabilities of band-levelsocial institutions (Trigger 1985:93) and wouldhave necessitated the development of moreelaborate means for social integration, conflictresolution, and decision making, as well as forfacilitating ties among communities in the lowerGreat Lakes and beyond.

One of the most visible archaeologicalintegrative mechanisms that appear on bothWendat and Neutral villages for the first time inthe late thirteenth century are semi-subterraneansweat lodges. They are shallow, keyhole-shapedpits within or attached to longhouses that werelikely used for ritual, curative, and/or socio-political purposes, especially for solidifyingrelationships among men both within and beyondthe community (MacDonald and Williamson2001:66-67). They virtually disappear from thearchaeological record on sites dating to after A.D.1450, suggesting the practice of using semi-subterranean sweat lodges fell out of use and wasreplaced by one of using above-ground sweatlodges that accommodated far fewer people.

The most visible integrative mechanism ofthe period is ossuary burial, adopted in particularby the ancestral Wendat (Williamson and Steiss2003; see Seeman 2011 for an exploration ofossuary burial from a Wendat ideologicalperspective; also Forrest 2012). Ossuaries are largepit features containing the disarticulated butcommingled remains of hundreds of individualswho were buried in a ceremony called the “Feast ofthe Dead,” one of which was witnessed in 1636by Jean de Brébeuf in historic Wendake (Thwaites1896-1901, 10:279-303). At the time of villagerelocation, the remains of those who had diedduring the tenure of the village and had been givenprimary burials in the ground, on scaffolds, or inbark huts, were disinterred and re-deposited in oneor two mass graves. More than 100 ossuaries ofthe fifteenth through seventeenth centuries areknown in Simcoe County alone (Hunter 1889:44;Fleming n.d.:8), most based on late nineteenth

and early twentieth-century accounts of theirrather frequent looting for anatomical collectionsand race-based research. While few of these havebeen investigated in detail, at least 50 are thoughtto date to the contact period based on the presenceof European trade goods (Hunter 1889:44). Thereare almost two dozen well-documented ancestralWendat ossuaries both in historic Wendake andalong the north shore of Lake Ontario (Table 1).Given the number of known ancestral and contactperiod villages, it seems many ossuaries are yet tobe found.

The appearance of semi-subterranean sweatlodges and ossuary burial on early fourteenth-century ancestral Wendat sites suggests that therewas an increasing commitment to communitybuilding, both within individual settlements andbeyond, to nearby, closely related communitiesand to far-distant communities.

Fifteenth-CenturyCoalescence and Conflict

Beginning in the mid-fifteenth century, rapid andcomprehensive change occurred within andbeyond south-central Ontario. It includedwidespread violent conflict and the coalescence ofmultiple small communities into villages ofunprecedented size, the latter perhaps representingthe initial development of “tribal nations” (Birchand Williamson 2013a:21-23).

By the mid-fifteenth century, the populationhad stabilized at about 30,000 persons (Warrick2008:185). It is possible that population pressurestrained previous territorial agreements concerningresource harvesting thereby contributing to anincreasing pattern of violent conflict. Aggregationwas a strategy adopted by later Wendat groupswhen threatened. When five villages of thenorthern Bear nation faced a potential Iroquoisattack in 1635, for example, their leaders discussedcoalescing into a single, well-defended village, aplan that was later abandoned when the threat ofattack diminished (Trigger 1969:17).

Dramatic evidence for conflict on coalescentsites dating to the mid- to late fifteenth centuryincludes the recovery of hundreds of cut, charred,and carnivore-chewed human skeletal elements inmiddens (e.g., Draper, Parsons, Keffer, Damiani—


Site

A.D. 900–1300

Serpent Pits

Staines

Fairty

Moatfield

A.D. 1300 –1400Tabor Hill

Garland

Weston

A.D. 1400–1550

Syers

Keffer

Uxbridge

Turnbull

Little Lake Park

Teston Road

Poole-Rose

A.D. 1550–1650

Sopher

Kleinburg

Houghton

Warminster/Cahiagué

Maurice

Tequenonquiaye/Ossossané

Christian Island

Time Period

11th–13th centuries

A.D. 1250–1300

A.D. 1365-1385

A.D. 1280–1330

A.D. 1300–1350

A.D. 1300–1500

A.D. 1300–1450

A.D. 1400–1500

A.D. 1450–1500

A.D. 1450–1500

A.D. 1400–1500

A.D. 1400–1500

c. A.D. 1450

c. A.D. 1500

c. A.D. 1550

A.D. 1580–1610

A.D. 1620–1650

c. A.D. 1620

A.D. 1620–1640

A.D. 1636

A.D. 1650

Region or City

Rice Lake

York

Markham

Toronto

York

York

Toronto

Durham

York

Durham

Simcoe

Simcoe

York

Cobourg

Simcoe

York

Simcoe

Simcoe

Simcoe

Simcoe

Simcoe

Size of Burial Feature(s)

3 features averaged 1.2–1.5m × 0.6 m deep

n.a.

3.4 m × 1.8 m deep

2.4 × 2.0 × 1.95 m

4 × 3 × 1 m; 2.7 × 1.8 × 1.2 m

3 m × 1.5 m deep

approx. 0.6 m deep

5.5 m × 1.8 m deep

approx. 4.6 m × 1.8 m deep

4.9 × 4.0 × 2.1 m

2 m

3.2 m × > 1 m deep

2.8 m long × 1.9 m deep

2.5 m × 1.5 m deep

5 m × 1.8 m deep

4.2 m × 1 m deep

6.1 m ; 3 m

approx. 5.5 m × 1.8 m deep

6.5 m × 1.2 m deep

7.3 m × 1.8 m deep

5 m × 2 m deep; 3 m × 2 mdeep; others much smaller

MNI

69

308

512

87

523

198

at least 30 crania

300

unknown; 50+crania

457

300+

300+

300+

300+

96–105

561

1000

250+

132

419

113 in total

Table 1. Ontario Wendat ossuaries.


Comments

3 features with 15, 29, and 25 individuals, respectively;not contemporaneous; no articulations; some bundledremains

disturbed secondary deposit of an ossuary

commingled remains; now destroyed

commingled and bundled remains

two burial pits; some articulated bundled remains

n/a

commingled remains; 1 ossuary feature

perhaps 1 pit; commingled remains and bundled remainsof limb bones

no artifacts

commingled remains; underlying layer of burned bone

minimally disturbed by construction activities; notexcavated

commingled remains; minimally disturbed byconstruction activities; not excavated

commingled remains; minimally disturbed byconstruction activities; not excavated;

commingled remains; primary burials present as well

1 main ossuary pit with 2 other pits; mainlycommingled remains; cremations and bundledremains in main pit

commingled and bundled remains; circular, layered pitwith relatively vertical sides

2 pits; crania arrayed in rows in larger of the pits

commingled; some primary burials and bundled remains

5 sub-types of burials; bone groupings in ossuary

commingled and bundled remains

5 pits; largest pit had 74 primary burials; next largest pithad 32; remaining three pits had 1, 3, and 4 individuals,respectively

Major Reference(s)

Johnston 1968,1979; Anderson 1968

ASI 2001

Anderson 1963; Jackes 1986; Gruspier 1999

Williamson and Pfeiffer 2003

Churcher and Kenyon 1960

Webb 1969

ASI 1991

Boyle 1896:41-42; Ramsden 1977; Webb 1972

Boyle 1889-90:20, 1908:16; Webb 1972; Finlaysonet al. 1985

Cook 1977; Pfeiffer 1983, 1986, 1991

ASI 2013

ARA 2003

MPP 1989; ASI 2005

McKillop and Jackson 1991

Noble 1968; Warrick 2008:116-117

Pfeiffer 1980a,b, 1985; Saunders and Melby 1990

ASI 1990

McIlwraith 1946, 1947; Harris 1949; Mullen 1990Jerkic 1969, 1975; Molto 1983

Kidd 1953; Jackes 1986; Heidenreich 2014

Hartney 1978


see below); the recovery of buried individuals whohad been subject to personal violence; as well as anotable increase in the recovery of human boneartifacts, in particular skull rattles (or gorgets)(Jenkins 2015; Williamson 2007). Thesephenomena are clearly related to prisoner sacrifice,trophy taking, the manufacture of objects made ofhuman bone for use in ritual performances, andthe siting of these and later villages in easilydefended locations on top of slopes and away fromnavigable water. The construction of palisade andearthwork complexes at this time also indicates anongoing concern for communal defence. Thesedata should serve to caution those whohypothesize that scattered bone is predominantlya result of secondary burial preparation (e.g.,Fontaine 2004). If that were true, altered bonewould be scattered about sites in the samefrequencies before and after the mid- to latefifteenth century. But it is, in fact, absent on pre-coalescent villages.

There was, however, variation amongcommunities in how they interacted with others.At the beginning of this period of hostility andalso after it had ended, some ancestral Wendatcommunities seem to have acquired variousmaterials through exchange along the north shoreof Lake Ontario, some of which may haveoriginated in the Gulf of St. Lawrence region (andChesapeake Bay), including European metalartifacts, marine shell, and walrus ivory. Thevarying frequencies of these commodities as well asof steatite among contemporaneous communitiesunderscore the importance of considering eachcommunity to be unique in its interactions.Indeed, this uniqueness is also reflected in thedifferent southern, western, and eastern influencesin their ceramic assemblages (Birch et al. 2015).

Evidence from the Parsons site suggests thatthe violence occurred not only between far-distantcommunities but also between neighbouringcommunities (Dupras and Pratte 1998; Robertsonand Williamson 1998), consistent with thelikelihood that alliance formation and conflictbetween individual or groups of communities wasboth dynamic and occurring at a broad range ofscales. The inevitability of such conflict wasprobably underscored by the fact that prowess in

warfare was the most important way in whichyoung warriors gained status (Trigger 1969:50-52). The formation of coalescent communitieswas also concomitant with the apparent initialmid-fifteenth century confederation of Wendatpopulations living in Simcoe County to the north.

This coalescence of multiple households andcommunities no doubt occasioned far morecomplex domestic settings than before and wouldhave required more formal structures for decisionmaking, especially at a time when the socialsegments that contributed to these newcommunities appeared to maintain theircohesiveness in their new social settings (see Birch2012; Birch and Williamson 2013a:79-80; andBirch and Williamson 2013b for a discussion ofthis phenomenon). Within a few decades,however, the stresses caused by warfare andrequirements for resources led to far moreintegrated communities.

Sixteenth-Century Consolidation and theFormation of the Wendat Confederacy

By the early sixteenth century, it would seem thatpopulations had consolidated into large, well-planned and integrated villages (Birch 2012; BirchandWilliamson 2013a). There were now far fewersettlements across the north shore of LakeOntario, the Trent River valley, and historicWendake. Village planning and especially theorganization of production would no longer havebeen undertaken by the various social segmentsalone, but by village-wide planning councils, onefor domestic work and one for foreign affairs (seeBirch and Williamson 2013b). Structuring socialrelations through village councils and the clansystem rather than households would no doubthave helped with social integration withincoalescent communities, and identities based onclan membership may have become as significantas those based on lineages (Birch 2008). At thesame time, there appear to have been increasingdifferences between communities and theirinteraction with or incorporation of ideas orpeople from other far-distant groups, suggestingthat the formation of locally based identities,interaction among communities, the movementof people, and the reorganization of interregional


networks was all happening concomitantly. Itseems, however, that by the early sixteenthcentury, the violence of the previous half-centuryhad declined. The Mantle site, for example, whileheavily palisaded and earthworked, yielded only asmall amount of modified human bone in non-burial contexts, and not a single artifact made ofhuman bone was recovered.

The presence of two European-derivedcopper beads at both the Seed-Barker and Mantlevillages and a single iron object in a secure contextat Mantle (see Birch and Williamson 2013a:149-152) suggest that some early sixteenth-centurypopulations were also obtaining European goodsthrough indirect contact, as suggested by Ramsdenalmost 40 years ago (Ramsden 1978). After c.A.D. 1550, European metals become relativelycommon on Iroquoian sites, and copper, brass,and iron objects predominate. Nearly all latesixteenth- and seventeenth-century Wendat sitescontain European materials (Fitzgerald 1990; Foxet al. 1995; Warrick 2008:116-117).

There is also evidence of the formation oflarge, amalgamated villages in the mid-sixteenthcentury on the lower St. Lawrence River. By thelate sixteenth century, the lower St. Lawrencevalley was abandoned entirely, and the populationswho had been living there were apparentlyincorporated into communities and site clusters inthe Trent valley and perhaps elsewhere among theOnondaga and Oneida (Timothy Abel, personalcommunication 2015; Birch 2015; Jamieson1990:403; Ramsden 1990a:383, 1990b; Warrick2000:454-457); some of these populations werecertainly incorporated into Wendat communitiesbeyond the Trent valley along the north shore ofLake Ontario a century earlier.

The final political alliances that led to theformation of the confederacy occurred in the latesixteenth and early seventeenth centuries. Forancestral Wendat populations, the northwardmigration that had begun in the thirteenthcentury was completed by around the turn of theseventeenth century, as groups coalesced in thenorthern uplands of Simcoe County—historicWendake. The Tionnontaté nation similarlyconfederated in the Nottawasaga Highlands, tothe west of Wendake.

At least two of the allied nations of theWendat confederacy were derived frompopulations living on the north shore of LakeOntario and in the Trent valley, while the balancedeveloped in historic Wendake subsequent to theirlate thirteenth-century migration there. Thebalance of this paper will present a review of thehistory and archaeology of these localcommunities as well as a summary ofcommunities that developed in Wendake aftertheir establishment there. This allows for therecognition of distinct local traditions andcontingencies at the level of individualcommunities, as situated in broader historicalpatterns of social and cultural variability at theregional level, and it reinforces our awareness thatthe Wendat actually consisted of not only anumber of nations, but also of a number ofcommunities that contributed to the formation ofthose nations. This is why there were subtlelinguistic and cultural differences (e.g., dialects,burial patterns, and trade routes) among thevarious nations of the Wendat—differences thatwere introduced into the confederacy with theinbound communities.

Summaries ofWendat Community Sequences

Before I summarize the community sequences, Ishould note that I have excluded from discussionin the remainder of this paper many of the sites atwhich early researchers such as Andrew Huntertested middens, resulting in the recovery anddescription of ceramic assemblages. Many of thosecollections have been used in various studiesattempting to delineate sequences of Wendatcommunities using ceramic seriation (e.g., Bursey1993; Ramsden 1977; Wright 1966). Indeed,ceramic analysis was the backbone of ancestral andhistoric Wendat archaeology for decades in thetwentieth century as archaeologists employedattribute and typological approaches to place siteschronologically and to assess the networks inwhich communities participated. Recent studies,however, have suggested the need for moresophisticated analyses of ceramic production anduse.


Holly Martelle (2002), for example,examined samples from three historic Wendat sitesusing a multi-component, multi-scalar approachand concluded that the craft was far more complexthan previously considered. Recent research showsthe same was true for north shore communities.Compositional analysis of 62 vessels from the earlysixteenth-century Mantle site, carried out byLinda Howie (2012), identified five ceramic fabrictypes that are geologically compatible with localclay resources, all highly variable and withsignificant differences in paste, forming technique,and firing, and six ceramic fabric types that aregeologically inconsistent with local clay resourcesand that are based on geologically distinct rawmaterial ingredients or paste recipes. (For a similaranalysis of pipes on another ancestral Wendat site,see Braun 2012.) Moreover, comparison of thefrequencies of non-local types of ceramics fromearly sixteenth-century Wendat communitiesalong the north shore indicates that eachcommunity was participating in uniquelyconstituted interaction networks (e.g., Birch andWilliamson 2013a:139-140; Birch et al. 2015).

Other ceramic trends in the historic periodhave been examined. The decrease in ceramicvariation with time has led Holly Martelle (2004)to argue that with the formation of larger villagesand the need to produce large agriculturalsurpluses for both crop failures and trade withAlgonquians, which engaged women in theagricultural economy for ever-increasing amountsof time, specialization in ceramic manufacturemay have resulted. Martelle also noted a declinein the quality of ceramic vessels at the latest site inher analyses and attributed this to the prematuredeaths of experienced potters due to European-introduced diseases, which precluded them frompassing on their craft knowledge to studentpotters.

Recent work by Hart and Engelbrecht (2012)has also challenged the assumption thatarchaeologists can track ethnic traditions orterritories on the basis of ceramic designsequences. Employing social network analysis,they examined decorative attributes on the rims ofceramic vessels from 116 archaeological sites acrossIroquoia and demonstrated convincingly that it is

not possible to discern ethnic or nationalterritories in the distant past, and that the historicperiod ethnic landscape evolved from lessregionally structured landscapes (Hart andEngelbrecht 2012:345), a finding consistent withcommunities participating in uniquely constitutedinteraction networks. Other ceramic analyses havefocused on innovation expressed in the productionof juvenile vessels (Smith 2006) and socialrelationships as reflected in the vessels from twohistoric sites (Curtis and Latta 2000).

Being mindful of the pitfalls of earlierceramic research that have been highlighted bythis more recent research, I have not summarizedthe many multiple-site ceramic analysesundertaken in the twentieth century that resultedin proposed site sequences. I have focused insteadon those site investigations that involvedsubstantial excavations resulting in the recovery ofsettlement pattern data in addition torepresentative samples of material culture.

I also have not summarized all of those sites,especially small camps or special purpose sites, forwhich Stage 2 and/or 3 investigations alone havebeen undertaken. This decision is not intended toundervalue the importance of these works but tofocus in limited space on sites that have yieldedthe most information. I have allotted more space,however, to those major (and some minor)excavation projects for which the results have notyet been published.

In the sections that follow, mid- to latesixteenth- through seventeenth-century sites areoften dated based on how the beads found at thesite fit into the glass trade bead sequence. Glasstrade beads were manufactured in Europe andtraded to Indigenous populations in the GreatLakes area. They are typically divided into threeperiods: Period I, Period II, and Period III. PeriodI dates from 1580–1600 and is characterized by aset of beads quite diverse in shape, size, and colour,including frit core beads. Period II dates to c. 1615and is dominated by oval and tubular beads ofwhite and dark blue glass. Period III is dominatedby turquoise round, red round, and red tubularbeads and dates from 1615–50. Period III isfurther divided into two subperiods: Period IIIa(1620s and 1630s) and Period IIIb (1640s). For


the best detailed discussions of the classificationand chronology, see Kidd and Kidd (1970) andKenyon and Kenyon (1983).

Rouge River, West Duffins Creek,and Highland Creek

Among the best documentedWendat communitysequences are those in the Rouge River, WestDuffins Creek, and Highland Creek watersheds(Figure 2) (for a detailed analysis of the Draper,Spang, and Mantle transition, see Birch 2012 andBirch and Williamson 2013a). There is evidenceof a long, largely unbroken sequence ofoccupation beginning with early agricultural basesettlements on the broad sand plain north of thenow-urbanized lands along Lake Ontario, throughto coalescent villages 30 km north of thelakeshore, a pattern that is repeated along otherdrainages along the north shore of Lake Ontario.One of the first significant analyses of this history,

focusing on fourteenth-century villages, was thatof Mima Kapches (1981).

At least nine twelfth- and thirteenth-centuryvillages, encompassing areas of 0.5 to 1 ha, alongwith a number of ancillary sites, have beendocumented in the lower reaches of the RougeRiver and West Duffins Creek. The best knownof these are the Miller site (Kenyon 1968), apalisaded late twelfth-century village consisting ofsix longhouses, and the twelfth-century Boys site,at which limited excavations revealed portions oftwo longhouses and a single-row palisade, alongwith several adjacent ravine middens (Reid 1975).

Several poorly known fourteenth-centurysites on Duffins Creek (Poulton 1979) weredocumented as a result of the 1970s investigationsassociated with the New Toronto InternationalAirport project. These and the recently testedWonowin (ASI 2011a), Sebastien (ASI 2011b),and Miindamiin (now Ludger Gros-Louis) (URS

Figure 2. Locations of selected ancestral Wendat sites along the north shore of Lake Ontario.


2011) sites, investigated as part of the largeCentral Pickering Development Area (Seaton),form another early fourteenth-century sequentialcluster of sites, 2–3 km to the east. The nearbymid- to late fourteenth-century, 2 ha Carl Murphysite was occupied subsequently by one or two ofthese communities (ASI 2012a). The substantialnumber of roughly contemporaneous sitessuggests that there were at least three separatecommunities occupying the region in thefourteenth century. One fourteenth-centuryagricultural cabin site, called Salgo, whichconsisted of a single house structure, some externalfeatures, and a shallow midden deposit, was alsofound amid these villages (AMA 1998; also ASI2014e). Similar small cabin sites were documentedwithin the Seaton lands. These include the SpruceRidge sites, a number of which yielded evidence ofone or two small sparsely occupied longhouses(e.g., AAL 2009), and several other small campsthat yielded only a few features and posts. TheGarland ossuary, also situated on the north side ofa tributary of West Duffins Creek on a hilltopwithin the Seaton lands, was investigated andreported to have consisted of a burial pitcontaining the skeletal material from 198individuals. It was excavated in 1958 by a group ofscience students from St. Michael’s College,University of Toronto, under the direction ofFather Arnold Megan. The ossuary was 4 feet 8inches (1.4 m) deep at its deepest and 10 feet (3m) in diameter (Webb 1969). Two shell artifactsand one projectile point are the only artifactsreported to have been found with the remains,suggesting a date in the fourteenth or fifteenthcenturies. While Molto (1983:92-93) reports,based on a second-hand account, that a glass beadhad been found with the remains many years later,it is very unlikely that the bead originated with theossuary because no mid-sixteenth century siteshave been found within almost 30 km from thisossuary despite extensive survey throughout thisand adjacent drainages.

Fourteenth- and early fifteenth-century siteswere also located on southern portions of theRouge River and Highland Creek, which, becauseof their proximity, were likely related both to eachother and to the fourteenth-century communities

on Duffins Creek. The descendants of thesegroups relocated northward and eastward,contributing to the populations that eventuallycame together at the Draper site and later formedthe Mantle community (Birch and Williamson2013a).

Several of these sites have been subject tocomplete mitigative excavations, including theearly fourteenth-century New site (ASI 2006a). Itcovered 1.2 ha and consisted of six houses, four ofwhich were arranged in pairs, and not all of whichwere necessarily contemporary. There was nopalisade.

The mid- to late fourteenth-century Robbsite was a roughly 2 ha unpalisaded villageconsisting of nine widely spaced longhouses andan extensive midden on a slope above MillikenCreek, a tributary of the Rouge River (ASI 2010a;Kapches 1981:110-131). Two new AMSradiocarbon dates taken on separate maize samplesyielded dates of 570±30 and 590±30 B.P. Thesecalibrate to A.D. 1305–1365 and A.D. 1385–1420 (2-sigma standard error) for the first dateand A.D. 1295–1370 and A.D. 1380–1415 (2sigma) for the second. A small quantity ofscattered human bone was recovered, including aburned mastoid fragment as well as three modifiedhuman cranial fragments, one of which is afragment of a highly polished human skull rattleand the other two of which had been subjected tocutting and drilling. This suggests the site wasoccupied during a period of low-level hostility inthe fourteenth century.

The nearby Fairty ossuary is thought to havebeen associated with Robb (Wright 1966); it wasexcavated in the 1950s and found to contain theremains of 512 individuals (Gruspier 1999). Thelarge number of deceased suggests it served as anossuary for more than one community, perhapsalso the nearby Faraday site (Kapches 1981). Anew AMS radiocarbon date taken on a sample ofhuman tooth (collagen) yielded a result of 470±30B.P., which calibrates to A.D. 1270–1305 andA.D. 1365–1385 (2 sigma). Because there are nolate-thirteenth century sites within 5 km of Fairtyand the area has been thoroughly surveyed, thelater date is preferred. Moreover, since thefrequency of dental caries increases as people rely


more on maize, the fact that the incidence of cariesfor the turn-of-the-fourteenth-century Moatfieldand Fairty sites show significant differencessupports a later chronological placement for Fairty(Susan Pfeiffer, personal communication 2014).

Located nearby on a tributary of the RougeRiver, the early fourteenth-century Hutchinsonsite (Robertson 2004) featured two housestructures, which may have been occupiedsimultaneously or at different times. The siteappears to have functioned as a place to preparedeceased individuals for ossuary burial, perhaps inthe nearby Staines ossuary (ASI 2001a) andhighlights a little known aspect of ancestralWendat mortuary patterns.

The Alexandra site (ASI 2008a) was locatedadjacent to a minor tributary of West HighlandCreek and consisted of a 2.5 ha unpalisaded villagewith 17 house structures. Of these, 15 representedpermanent or year-round dwellings. The villagehad two overlapping phases of occupation,including eight houses in the southern portion ofthe site and nine in the northern segment. If atsome point they were all occupied simultaneously,this site may be a reflection of an early aggregationof two communities. The 29 semi-subterraneansweat lodges distributed among houses at the sitesuggest a focus on integration of the siteinhabitants. While the site was originallyattributed by means of ceramic seriation to the latefourteenth century, perhaps into the early fifteenthcentury, two new AMS radiocarbon dates takenon separate maize samples from a semi-subterranean sweat lodge in the northernmosthouse at the site yielded dates of 460±30 and480±30 B.P., respectively. These calibrate to A.D.1415–1455 (2 sigma) for the first date and A.D.1410–1450 (2 sigma) for the second and indicatethe site was occupied slightly later, into the firsthalf of the fifteenth century.

The fourteenth-century Burkholder 2 sitewas a 1 ha unpalisaded village consisting of fourparallel, contemporary longhouses situated on ahigh point of land between two tributaries of theRouge River (ASI 2005a). Limited investigationsof the Burkholder 1 site, located less than 1 km tothe north, revealed evidence of a palisaded village,also approximately 1 ha in extent, likely post-

dating Burkholder 2 (ASI 2004a); unfortunately itappears to have been destroyed prior to its properdocumentation. The Milroy site, a roughly 3.5 havillage located on a tributary of the Little RougeRiver, has been subject to Stage 3 test excavations.It dates to the early fifteenth century (Kapches1981:71; 189; ASI 2001b) as does the .8 haCornell site, an early fifteenth-century villagesituated on a tributary of the Rouge River. Thatvillage featured an unusual one-row palisade thatsurrounded three longhouses and associatedmiddens (AAL 2012).

The poorly documented Thompson,Woodland Park, and Elliot sites date to thefourteenth century and are located on tributariesof Highland Creek (Donaldson 1965; Kapches1981; Konrad and Ross 1974). The Thompsonsite was located approximately 2 km from theTabor Hill ossuary, with which it was provisionallyassociated. This ossuary was comprised of twoossuary pits which together contained the remainsof more than 500 burials (Churcher and Kenyon1960), perhaps representing the collective dead oftwo communities (Williamson and Steiss2003:102). Mid-twentieth century subdivisiondevelopment in the immediate area, however,destroyed evidence of any other contemporarysettlements.

Additional, poorly known late fourteenth-century villages in the lower Rouge River includethe Hamlin (MPP 1988), Faraday (Kapches1981), Russell Reesor (Konrad and Ross 1974),Sewell (Berg 1976), and Archie Little 2 sites (ASI2002). There are no sites that post-date the earlyfifteenth century on the southern portions of theRouge River and Highland Creek, thecommunities having likely relocated east, to theDuffins Creek drainage.

A number of fourteenth century villages (e.g.,Pearse, Peter Webb 1, Peter Web 2, and Hoar) aswell as early to mid-fifteenth-centurycommunities (e.g., Gostick, Dent Brown, Pugh,Best, White, and Robin Hood) that have beendocumented in an area of 25 km2 on the Duffinsdrainage system are known primarily from limitedsurface investigations related to the New TorontoInternational Airport (NTIA) survey (Poulton1979). By the late fifteenth century, it is thought


that all of these village sites were abandoned, theirpopulations presumably amalgamating to formthe large, heavily fortified Draper site (Hayden1979; Finlayson 1985; Ramsden 1968). Anumber of small camps were also documented,along with two ossuaries, Pennock 1 and Pearse,the latter of which was documented with thevillage.

Among the largest village sites in this clusterare the Pugh and Best sites which are 2.8 and 1.8ha in area, respectively. The 2 ha Wilson Park sitelies just outside the boundaries of the NTIAsurvey area and has been subject to detailed testexcavations to define its extent (ASI 2012b).

Better known are the unpalisaded 0.5 haRobin Hood and White sites, both of which weresubject to comprehensive excavations. The RobinHood site, comprised of two loci separated by asmall stream, was partially excavated in 1979,revealing four house structures on one of the loci(Williamson 1983). While originally thought tobe a special-purpose site, subsequent excavationsin the region, described above, have revealed thatthe early to mid-fifteenth-century occupation ofthe area included numerous sites that containedfour to five houses. The White site encompassedtwo terraces, each with a cluster of longhouses(Tripp 1978), which were interpreted to representseparate components, possibly concurrentlyoccupied at some point. These and the other siteswere all abandoned during the mid- to latefifteenth century, their populations likely comingtogether at the Draper site.

The Draper site is situated on an open, flatterrace overlooking a steep western bank of WestDuffins Creek. The site covers a total of 4.2 ha,and ceramic seriation and three radiocarbon datesplace its occupation in the mid- to late fifteenthcentury (Finlayson 1985). A definingcharacteristic of the village is the clear evidence ofcoalescence—the main village palisade wasexpanded five times to incorporate new groups ofaligned longhouses, consisting of four to sixlonghouses each, apparently a number of thecommunities described above (see Birch andWilliamson 2013a:33 for an illustration ofsettlement plans from pre-coalescent throughcoalescent to post-coalescent communities). The

three-row palisade; an in-house burial of a malewho had been shot in the leg (projectile tip stillpresent), speared in the chest, and scalped; and thepresence of hundreds of fragments of butcheredand burnt human bone scattered in the villagemiddens indicate that the site inhabitants wereinvolved in significant violent conflict with othercommunities during its occupation (see Cooper1984; Forrest 2010; Williamson 1978, 2007).

The 3.4 ha Spang site is a largely undisturbedvillage. Little is known about its internalsettlement pattern, although preliminaryexcavations revealed the presence of middens andfive rows of palisade posts adjacent to the steepbreak-in-slope along the site’s eastern edge (Carter1981). Based on analyses of the Spang siteceramics (Birch et al. 2015), it seems most likelythat the site immediately predates the earlysixteenth century. Twelve students from theHuron-Wendat community in modernWendake,Quebec, participated in the test excavations of thesite in 1978 and 1979.

The post-coalescent early sixteenth-centuryMantle village was located within the WestDuffins Creek system in the Town ofWhitchurch-Stouffville (ASI 2014a; Birch 2012; Birch andWilliamson 2013a). This large, 3 ha villageyielded more than 18,000 artifacts from the initialcontrolled surface collection alone, and itssubsequent almost complete excavation,undertaken over a three-year period, yieldedevidence of eight rows of palisade and anearthwork representing various re-buildingsequences, as well as 98 longhouses. In additionto these structural features, a rich hillside middenand extensive refuse deposits in the earthworkborrow trench, as well as over 1,500 pit features,together yielded tens of thousands of artifacts. Atits zenith, the site housed more than 1,800 people.While the ossuary for the site has not yet beenfound, a small cemetery adjacent to the sitecontained the mostly individual interments of 34people.

Mantle represents a community comprised ofthe people from several villages that had previouslyjoined together in the late fifteenth century at theDraper site, perhaps for defensive purposes (Birch2012; Birch andWilliamson 2013a). The site does


not appear to have been occupied by ancestralWendat alone, however, as numerous ceramicvessels have been recovered that bear strikingresemblances to pottery found on Oneida andOnondaga sites in New York state. Also discoveredat the site was a piece of European iron, likelyBasque in origin, as well as two European copperbeads. There are at least four likely descendantvillages north of Mantle, one in the upper Rougeand the others north of the Oak Ridges Morainein the East Holland River watershed (Birch andWilliamson 2013a:157-158). One of these isAurora (Old Indian Fort), a 3.4 ha earthworkedvillage subject to a decade of field schoolinvestigations by the University of Toronto,beginning in 1947 with a class of first-yearpremedical students and involving 250 studentsin 1957. Approximately 70 years after theiroccupation of Mantle, this community abandonedtheir ancestral homeland, joining with others toform one of the Huron tribes in historic Wendake.

The two drainages to the west of the Rouge–Duffins watershed are the Don and Humber, bothof which also supported large ancestral Wendatcommunities, all of which have been subject toconsiderable investigation.

Don RiverThe Don River drainage is located immediatelywest of the Rouge–Duffins drainage. Only twovillage sites have been identified in the lower Donvalley (Moatfield and Jackes). Most of the DonRiver sites are situated well away from thelakeshore and date to the fifteenth century. Theabsence of many earlier sites is the result ofdestruction relating to the nineteenth-centurydevelopment of what is now the City of Toronto(Figure 2).

The earliest documented village is the turn-of-the-fourteenth-century Moatfield site. Whilethe almost 1 ha village itself has only been subjectto test excavation, the associated ossuary, locatedon the perimeter of the site, was subject to detailedexcavation (Williamson and Pfeiffer eds. 2003).Containing the commingled remains of 87people, this is the earliest ancestral Wendatcommunity ossuary excavated; the remains havesince been reinterred elsewhere. The mapping and

removal of each bone in the ossuary afforded a rareopportunity to document the structure of an earlyWendat ossuary and to evaluate the health anddiet of a population at that time.

Much less is known about the Jackes site(Noble 1974), as it was largely lost to urbandevelopment. Jackes, as well as the poorly knownDoncaster 1 and East Don sites in the middledrainage, have been provisionally dated to the latefourteenth century (Konrad 1973; MPP 1986),although the presence of St. Lawrence Iroquoian(e.g., Roebuck Corn-eared) and southern(Otstungo Incised, Dutch Hollow Notched, etc.)ceramic vessel types at Jackes suggest it may dateto the early to mid-fifteenth century.

Early to mid-fifteenth-century sites includethe unpalisaded Mill Street (ASI 2006b), Baker(ASI 2006c), andWalkington 2 (ASI 2010b) sites,all of which featured single clusters of three to fourlonghouses, with one longhouse significantlylonger than the others, perhaps representing thesocio-political cores of the villages. The Two-Pinesite, situated several hundred metres southeast ofBaker, consisted of two loci, only one of whichhad a longhouse. This single longhouse hadconsiderable interior house activity, includingsemi-subterranean sweat lodges (M.M. Dillon1996). The nature of the house and the frequentlywide separation of houses at this period suggestthere may have been additional houses presentbetween the loci.

Mid-fifteenth century Don River drainagesites include the Over (DPA 1996) and Watford(Pearce 1997b) sites. Over was comprised of twoaligned clusters of longhouses, one with threehouses and the other with four, both of which hadone longhouse that was significantly longer thanthe others. The Watford site consisted of sixhouses surrounded by a single-row palisade and aseventh house located north-east of the palisadedenclosure. Within the palisade, four housesformed one aligned group in the eastern portionof the site (two of these houses overlap and couldnot have been occupied concurrently) and the twowestern houses form another aligned pair.Palisades are rare on early to mid-fifteenth-centurysites, and the insubstantial nature of this palisadesuggests that it may not have served a defensivefunction.


The McNair site (ASI 2012c) was another1.0 ha village occupied during the middle of thefifteenth century. It was organized into twodiscrete loci separated by a large open area. Thesouth locus consisted of three spatially separatedand lightly constructed houses, perhaps occupiedseasonally or for special purposes, while the otherlocus comprised five houses and two middens. Noevidence of a palisade was detected. The fourmodified human cranial fragments that wererecovered likely represent fragments of a humanskull rattle. The absence of scattered human boneand palisading on the site suggest this modifiedpiece of human bone is distinctive.

The McGaw site (ASI 2003; Pihl 2002) is arelatively undisturbed, early to mid-fifteenth-century village measuring 1 ha. Limited testexcavations have revealed 17 mounded middensand densely occupied longhouses.

Teston is a 1 ha village dating to the fifteenthcentury that has been subject to limited Stage 4excavations, resulting in the discovery of fivewidely spaced houses in the south sector of thesite. No palisade was detected. The associatedossuary was discovered during roadwork andcontained several hundred individuals (ASI2005b). The Huron-Wendat Nation was involvedin the decision to preserve and commemorate theossuary.

The Boyle-Atkinson site was also thought tohave been approximately 1 ha in size. Portions of11 houses with various orientations weredocumented (MPP 1987).

The Macartney and Toad-in-the-Hole sites,although they are situated on a tributary of thewest branch of the Rouge River, are clearlyassociated with the Don River cluster of sites, andare therefore included in this section. Macartneyyielded one longhouse associated with shallowrefuse deposits (Pearce 1998), while excavations atthe Toad-in-the-Hole site revealed at least two welldefined longhouses and two associated middens,also likely dating to the early fifteenth century(Pearce 1997a). Both of these sites may havefunctioned as special purpose agricultural cabinsites, although the houses were well formed andthere was room to the north of the excavated areaat Toad-in-the-Hole for additional houses. The

Somme site, also associated with this cluster ofsites, consisted of a lightly constructed small cabin(ASI 2005c).

The mid- to late fifteenth-century ShurGainand Jarrett-Lahmer sites were both situateddefensively and feature palisades. At the Jarrett-Lahmer site, two extrapolated palisade lineslocated 10 m apart suggest the village may havebeen expanded from its original size. Testexcavations in the midden on the western slope ofthe site yielded 64 human elements, suggestingsignificant engagement in conflict and prisonersacrifice (ASI 2001c; DPA 2003).

The sites that seem to have been occupiedinto the mid-fifteenth century (Over, Watford,McNair, McGaw, ShurGain, and Jarrett-Lahmer)would appear to be early stage amalgamations ofgroups of the size and composition of the Bakerand Walkington 2 sites described above, and mayrepresent the beginning of a settlement trend,which set a cultural precedent for the large-scaleamalgamations that occurred in the nextgeneration.

The early to mid-fifteenth-century Hope site(ASI 2011c) was both distinctive and complex inthat rather than being composed of closely spacedpairs of aligned longhouses, it featured adjacent,likely contemporaneous clusters of longhouses,separated by a 70 m wide tract of land and stream.Each locus was approximately 1.5 ha in extent, thenorthern one contained six paired and similarlyoriented houses, while the southern one containedseven houses, two of which were small andcontained within a semi-circular fence. Of theeasternmost houses in the southern locus, twoseem to have been occupied intensively thoughnot concurrently, as they overlap. Although thereare no artifact mends between the two loci, thesimilarities in the ceramic assemblages suggestthat, although the groups may have retainedpolitical autonomy, they may represent an earlyform of small-scale coalescence prior to the larger-scale amalgamations of the latter part of thecentury—amalgamations such as those seen at theOrion–Murphy Goulding and Keffer sites.

The Orion–Murphy Goulding site wasactually situated on a branch of the upper RougeRiver headwaters, in close proximity to the Don


River drainage and its group of sites. LikeMacartney and Toad-in-the-Hole, it is hereconsidered part of the Don River sites. Itcomprises two clusters of six and four houses,respectively, separated by 200 m of unexcavatedland. The close similarities in settlement patternsand artifact assemblages suggest that they likelyconstitute the northern and southern extremes ofa single village (ASI 1998, 2008b). While it isperhaps an early coalescent village, the site was notpalisaded and lacks the compact village layouts oflater coalescent sites, such as Keffer.

The Keffer site was 2.5 ha in extent and hasyielded the clearest evidence for significant levelsof violence and village expansion among all of thesites in the Don watershed. Dating to the latefifteenth century (Finlayson et al. 1987), the initialvillage was composed of two clusters of alignedhouses. This initial village was then expanded toaccommodate three, possibly four, newlonghouses, arranged more or less parallel to thepalisade. Houses were simultaneously added andlengthened in the original core area, and thepalisade was strengthened from one row to two.Significant amounts of cut and modified humanbone were recovered from midden deposits atKeffer—more than a thousand pieces in total(Rainey 2002; Williamson 2007:200, 205). Manyof these were modified cranial components(Williamson 2007:205).

While the Keffer site is certainly smaller thanother, contemporaneous coalescent sites (e.g.,Draper), the alignment of its structures suggests itwas composed of three or four of the smallerfifteenth-century communities that had previouslyoccupied the drainage. With the abandonment ofKeffer near the turn of the sixteenth century, theDon drainage was abandoned, concurrent withthe main period of occupation at the Mantle site.It is not yet known to where the Keffer populationrelocated.

Another late fifteenth-century site in theupper Don, the Hidden Spring site, featured twooverlapping longhouses, each with a substantialmidden, and several exterior activity areas. Thissite has been interpreted as a special purpose siteperhaps associated with Keffer (ASI 2010c).

Humber RiverCentury-long settlement sequences have beenreconstructed for at least two communities in theHumber River watershed (Ramsden 1977;Williamson et al.1998), one spanning the fifteenthcentury in the middle Humber River–Black Creekarea and the other in the headwaters, spanning themid-fifteenth to late sixteenth centuries (Figure 2).Each appears to have had a discrete ceramicmanufacturing tradition in place for at least 100years (Robertson and Williamson 1998:149).

It appears that a number of smallcommunities came together in the mid-fifteenthcentury to form a large, palisaded village aggregateat the Parsons site, in the middle Humber River–Black Creek area (Williamson and Robertson[eds.] 1998). Our knowledge of the site sequencethat led to the formation of the Parsonscommunity begins with the late fourteenth-century Black Creek site. Limited excavations inthe 1950s revealed an unusual double palisadestraddling two terraces adjacent to Black Creek,the tributary of the Humber River for which thesite was named (Emerson 1954:123, 142). It ispossible that, upon the site’s abandonment, thecommunity relocated 2 km upstream to theDownsview site, occupied during the latefourteenth to early fifteenth centuries (Emerson1954:101-102; Wright 1966:101) and from thereto the Parsons site, occupied in the mid-fifteenthcentury.

The nearby Riseborough site, encompassingan area of approximately 1 ha, is also a possiblecontributor to the Parsons community as is theEmery site, a poorly known village locatedapproximately 4 km west of Parsons (Williamson,Cooper, and Robertson 1998:9).

The mid-fifteenth-century Parsons site is thelargest (3.2. ha) and best-documented of those inthe middle Humber River sequence (Williamsonand Robertson [eds.] 1998). While the site hadbeen subjected to limited test excavations inseveral middens in the late 1950s and 1960s,excavations in late 1988 through early 1990 of an18 m wide service corridor traversing the core ofthe settlement revealed eight house structures. Thefact that three of these had been constructedbetween the original longhouses suggests


population growth and/or an influx of newinhabitants. The site is defensively situated on abroad promontory overlooking Black Creek andwas surrounded by a palisade consisting of onerow on its western margin on a terrace midway upthe slope, similar to that documented at the BlackCreek site. On the eastern edge of the village, thepalisade was comprised of seven rows, indicating ithad been rebuilt at least once. More than 1,200fragments of human bone, as well as human boneartifacts, were found inside and adjacent tomidden areas (Robertson, Williamson, andWelsh1998:52; Williamson 2007:200).

The material culture assemblage, whichincludes a catlinite pendant, suggests either director indirect links to peoples originating fartherafield. Two intact adult crania were excavated froma refuse-filled depression in the area of the easternpalisade (Robertson, Williamson, and Welsh1998:40–41). Craniometric analysis links thesecrania with the Uxbridge ossuary 30 km to thenortheast (Dupras and Pratte 1998), pointing tofeuding between neighbouring rather than far-distant communities. Also of note is the fact that9 percent of the vessels have been identified ashaving attributes originating among St. LawrenceIroquoian populations to the east, a relatively highpercentage compared with contemporaneous sitesalong the north shore. Interestingly, 75 percent ofthese eastern-style vessels originated in House 8and associated refuse deposits along the innereastern palisade (Robertson and Williamson1998:147), perhaps indicating the existence of aSt. Lawrence Iroquoian enclave at Parsons by themid- to late fifteenth century.

The northern Humber River, where itsheadwaters flow south from the Oak RidgesMoraine, features only sites dating to the latefifteenth to early sixteenth centuries, a period ofwidespread warfare and settlement aggregation.This group represents the later occupation of theHumber River drainage.

The completely excavated late fifteenth- toearly sixteenth-century Damiani site encompassedan area of 1.5 ha and included a total of 23 housestructures surrounded by a two- to three-rowpalisade (ASI 2014b). The village was expandedfrom an original core settlement of 16 alignedhouses to incorporate 7 more longhouses. The

midden contained scattered human bone,including burned cranial fragments.

The early sixteenth-century Boyd villageencompasses an area of about 1 ha. Although thissite has been subject to long-term small-scaleexcavations associated with field schools (Burgar1990) and early investigations by the OntarioArchaeological Society (Donaldson 1962a), little isknown about its internal structure. Peter Ramsden(1977:216) suggested that Boyd was ancestral toSeed-Barker and contemporaneous withMackenzie-Woodbridge.

TheMcKenzie-Woodbridge site is thought tobe an early sixteenth-century village locatedslightly south of the Boyd site and encompassingan area of approximately 2 ha. It, too, has onlybeen subject to limited test excavations; portionsof seven houses and a multi-row palisade (andpossible earthwork) have been documented(Johnson 1980:78). A village cemetery, like thatat Mantle, was excavated on a sandy knoll at adistance of 100 m from the palisade (Saunders1986).

The Seed-Barker site is an approximately 2ha village occupied in the early to mid-sixteenthcentury (Burgar 1989; 1993). It is thought to havebeen contemporary with Mantle, and has a similarsite structure, suggestive of an integrated, post-coalescent community (Birch and Williamson2013a). While only about a quarter of thesettlement has been excavated, 20 houses havebeen identified along with a seven row palisadealong the northwest boundary of the site, sectionsof which indicate three separate constructionepisodes. The presence of two European copperbeads (Fox et al. 1995) and exotic ceramic vesselsis also reminiscent of the Mantle site.

Two small sites likely associated with thesevillages have been documented. The Reiss site,situated on the West Humber River, consisted oftwo small loci that yielded both ceramics andlithic debitage, but no settlement patterns (MPP1989). Flak Jacket 2 consisted of two poorlydefined, open-ended cabins with very littleassociated refuse (Pearce 1995). The Toronto andRegion Conservation Authority has alsodocumented a series of small Wendat camps alongthe East Humber River (Margie Kenedy, personal


communication 2014).The latest site in the Humber River sequence

is the late sixteenth-century (GBP 1) Skandatutsite (ASI 2012e). The site is 2.6 ha in extent andwas surrounded by a one- to two-row palisade. Itis thought to represent the last Wendat occupationof the drainage prior to the migration of theHumber River community to historic Wendake.The surface of the site yielded 12 discoidal shellbeads and one tubular bead, all from marine shellalong with brass scrap and glass beads (ASI2012e). Hundreds of discoidal marine shell beads,glass beads, complete iron and brass pots, andother brass and copper artifacts were found in itsassociated ossuary, known as the Kleinburgossuary, located across the stream from the village(ASI 2012e).

Credit RiverThere were also a number of ancestral

Wendat/Tionontaté sites on the lower reaches ofthe Credit River drainage, about 30 km to thewest of the Humber River (Figures 2 and 3). Thatsequence begins with the Early IroquoianLightfoot site, which consisted of a cluster of fourhouses with an associated midden, as well as anadditional isolated house with an associatedhillside midden. The site may also have a MiddleWoodland component (Dana Poulton, personalcommunication 2014). The complete salvageinvestigations of the palisaded, turn-of-the-fourteenth-century Antrex site (ASI 2010d)included the hand excavation of more than 760one-metre square units in areas of artifactconcentrations within undisturbed topsoil,including two middens. The settlement patternconsisted of six longhouses, surrounded by a one-to two-row palisade.

Subsequent sites in the sequence include anumber of fourteenth and fifteenth-century

Figure 3. Locations of selected ancestral Wendat sites in southeastern Ontario.


villages and small, temporary special purpose sites(Konrad 1973; Williamson and Pihl 2002;Robertson 2010). The documented villagesinclude the fifteenth-century Pengilly, River, andSpringbrook sites. Pengilly has been subject topartial mitigative excavations and has yieldedevidence of two longhouses, both of which hadbeen expanded. The houses feature a dense arrayof posts and pits throughout their central corridorsand would seem to have been occupied year-round. The presence of extramural activity areassuggests the site was occupied for some time andthat additional houses are present on the site. Thesite also yielded a human burial, a burnt fragmentof human skull rattle, and scattered human bone(MPP 1986b; Dana Poulton, personalcommunication 2014). The River site has yieldeda cluster of four houses and one other structureseparated by 200 m of surface scatter anddocumented middens (M.M. Dillon 1996).Springbrook was an unpalisaded village with eightwell-spaced houses with two basic orientations(Poulton et al. 2008-2009). While no deepmiddens were detected, refuse areas were present atthe ends of a few of the houses, indicating anoccupation of some length. The clay soils perhapsinhibited the excavation of large, deep culturalfeatures. A partial human cranium was found inone semi-subterranean sweat lodge and an unusualcremation burial was found nearby. No otherscattered human bone was documented.

The Credit River drainage sequence endswith the Emmerson Springs (Hawkins 2004a) andWallace sites (Crawford 2003), both of which havebeen subject to very limited excavations. Both ofthese sites date to the sixteenth century and haveyielded European items.

While a number of small special purpose siteshave been investigated in the lower reaches of theCredit, only one has been subject to extensiveinvestigation. The Chappell Terrace site waslocated on the south bank of the Credit,approximately 6 km north of the Antrex site, andwould appear to represent a small camp occupiedintermittently during Middle to Late Archaictimes; during the Middle Woodland; and again inthe Middle to Late Iroquoian period, betweencirca A.D. 1400–50 (Robertson 2002). During

the latter period it served as a seasonal hunting andgame processing site apparently focused on deer.

Lynde and Harmony CreeksApproximately 20 km to the east of the DuffinsCreek drainage is Lynde Creek, on which at leastthree villages have been documented (Figure 3).The Joseph Picard site was an unpalisaded, 1.5 ha,mid-fifteenth-century village that featured tenwidely spaced longhouses, including two pairs anda cluster of five structures, one of which wasoverlapped by another (ASI 2012d). Three of fourAMS radiocarbon dates taken on maize samplesfrom separate features are identical, at 450±30B.P., which calibrates to A.D. 1420–1465 (2sigma). The fourth date is 410±30 B.P., whichcalibrates to A.D. 1435–1510 and A.D. 1600–1615 (2 sigma), because the radiocarbon datecoincides with wiggles in the calibration curve.The latter intercept date is considered highlyunlikely. The site has yielded several artifacts madeof walrus ivory, as well as a marine shell bead andbeads made from steatite likely originating inJefferson County, all indicating extensive tradingnetworks with St. Lawrence Iroquoian or easternAlgonquin populations (Williamson et al. 2014).

A few kilometres to the west of the JosephPicard site is a 1.5 ha mid- to late-fourteenth-century village discovered in the summer of 2012(ASI 2014c). Atsista features 11 house structurespartially enclosed by discontinuous fencing. Six ofthe houses are clustered together, while the othersare spaced more widely. This site also yielded anumber of steatite beads as well as a pipe bowlfragment. About 8 km south of it is the Walthamsite, a fifteenth-century village for which onlylimited data are available. Both Waltham andJoseph Picard yielded bone artifacts decoratedwith lines painted with bone black. No latefifteenth- or early sixteenth-century successorvillages have yet been documented in this drainagesystem, although there are late fifteenth-centurysites situated about 40 km farther north.

To the east of Lynde Creek by 20 km isHarmony Creek. The unpalisaded Grandview site,a 0.8 ha late fourteenth- to early fifteenth-centuryvillage on Harmony Creek was found to contain12 longhouses and 3 midden deposits


(Williamson et al. 2003). The settlement patternsand ceramic distribution suggest three majorbuilding phases, involving the construction offour, five, and three houses in each phase,respectively. The likely successor to the Grandviewcommunity is the McLeod site, a 1.6 ha fifteenth-century settlement that has had only limitedinvestigation (Reed 1993). The fact that this siteis twice the size of Grandview suggests it likelyresulted from the amalgamation of Grandview andanother community. The antecedents of thesecommunities are unknown. One Early Iroquoiansettlement, the Short site, is situated about 15 kmeast, on Bowmanville Creek (Donaldson 1962b;Williamson et al. 2003:47).

There are no known settlements that post-date the mid-fifteenth century in this region,although the presence of the late fifteenth-centuryUxbridge ossuary in north-west Durham Region(Figure 4) suggests that there must have been

similar-aged settlements in that region. It is alsopossible that portions of the populations thatoccupied the Grandview, McLeod, Joseph Picard,and Waltham sites migrated out of that region,perhaps north to Uxbridge, west to Duffins Creek,or east to the Trent valley. One village (Balthazar)and several unregistered villages have beendocumented within 10 km of the ossuary (MartinCooper, personal communication 2013).Significant research has been undertaken into thelives of the Uxbridge people through biologicalanalyses (Pfeiffer 1983, 1985, 1986, 1991; Pfeifferet al. 1985; Pfeiffer et al. 1986; Pfeiffer andFairgrieve 1994).

Trent RiverThe Trent River drains a large portion ofsouthcentral Ontario, including most of theKawartha Lakes and its supplying watersheds. Bythe early sixteenth century, there was a large

Figure 4. Locations of selected ancestral and contact-periodWendat and Tionontaté sites in central Ontario.


ancestral Wendat presence in the upper Trentvalley that appears to have been a product of in-situ cultural development (from sites lower in thevalley) and also from immigration from the St.Lawrence valley region (see Sutton 1990: Figure3) (Figures 3 and 4). A series of thirteenth centuryand earlier sites along the north shore of LakeOntario in the Bowmanville–Port Hope–Courticearea, as well as near Grafton and Brighton(Kapches 1987; MacDonald and Williamson1995; Richardson 1968; Gordon Dibb, personalcommunication 2013), are likely the ancestralcommunities of the early sixteenth-century villagesin the upper Trent River system. Dibb’s excavationof the Grafton site, a fishing station on the shoreof Cranberry Lake, revealed a complex ofoverlapping features and posts, making it difficultto discern houses. He recovered approximately20,000 fish remains and portions of more than100 ceramic vessels. An impressive suite of 18radiocarbon dates yielded evidence of recurringoccupation between the late ninth through to theearly fourteenth centuries (Gordon Dibb, personalcommunication 2013). Late fourteenth-centuryvillages in the Middle Trent valley (e.g., Wilson)and also the fifteenth-century two-row palisadedand multi-component Bark site and the fifteenth-century Barcroft village on Pigeon Lake (WilliamFox, personal communication 2014) are likely theresult of in-situ development from these and otherearlier Iroquoian populations in the Rice Lakeregion (Jamieson 1998; Sutton 1990:50; see alsoPearce 1977 for a second focus of very earlyIroquoian regional development). At least oneearly fourteenth-century 1 ha village, known asGibson, has been documented on the west side ofChemong Lake (ASI 2008c), and one-turn-of-the-fifteenth-century village was documented on thewest shore of Scugog Island (ASI 2011d). WilliamDonaldson also documented the fifteenth-centuryThomas village in Scugog Township (Donaldson1962c).

The lower Trent River valley and PrinceEdward County feature a number of villages thatdate to the late fifteenth century, including thePayne (Emerson 1967; Pendergast 1963),Waupoos (Pendergast 1964), Hillier (Ramsden

1977), and Lite (Pendergast 1972) sites. Theceramic assemblages from all of these sites aresimilar to other ancestral Wendat assemblages(Sutton 1990: 3), and while little is known aboutthe former three sites, they are all smaller than theLite site, which encompassed an area of 3 ha.While no houses were recorded for the Lite site,Pendergast reported that the remains of a multi-row palisade were found at the brow of the hill onwhich the site is situated, and he argued that thepresence of deep middens indicated a lengthyoccupation. The possibility that intensifiedconflict and concern for defence may haveinfluenced the location and fortification of thisvillage was further underscored by the recovery ofthree human skull gorget (or rattle) fragments anda significant quantity of human bone scattered inthe undisturbed middens (Pendergast 1972:35).Clearly, this community was also involved in thewidespread conflict that characterized the mid- tolate fifteenth century on the north shore of LakeOntario and elsewhere. Other less well-documented sites and ossuaries are present in thearea of Fenlon Falls and Manvers Township (e.g.,Larmer and Spearing ossuary) (Hakas 1967),where ASI recently documented a previouslyunknown large mid-fifteenth-century villagenamed Auhoindio (formerly EP22).

There are also a number of fifteenth-centurysites in the upper Trent valley, including theHardrock site, located on the west side of IndianPoint in Balsam Lake (Emerson 1954:185-203;Ramsden 1977:207,255); the Jameson site(Sutton 1990:45); and the Quackenbush site, a1.5–2 ha village located east of Stoney Lake in theeastern Trent River valley (Ramsden 1977).Limited excavations at Quackenbush revealedportions of three longhouses, several middendeposits, and a mass grave of individuals withinone of the longhouses, the remains of all of whomdisplayed signs of interpersonal violence (PeterCarruthers, personal communication 2014;Helmuth 1993), indicating that this site was alsoembroiled in the widespread conflict of the period.

By the late fifteenth through sixteenthcenturies, the regional populations in the Trentvalley had coalesced in the vicinity of Balsam Lakein the upper Trent valley. These include the


aggregated communities of Kirche (Ramsden1989) and Coulter (Damkjar 1990), which are 2.5and 3.3 ha in size, respectively. Both were welldefended and were expanded, and both arethought to date to the early to mid-sixteenthcentury, as both also yielded European metalartifacts. These data suggest amalgamation wasoccurring in this region well into the sixteenthcentury, a date consistent with the patterns ofconflict and village expansion to the east, in theSt. Lawrence River valley.

Two sites documented in the Trent valley dateto the late sixteenth century, namely, Benson andTrent-Foster. Benson, has been fully excavated andanalyzed (Fogt and Ramsden 1996; Ramsden1978, 1988, 2009), while Trent-Foster was subjectonly to test excavation. Trent-Foster is thought tohave been exceedingly large; during the testexcavation only one house and a multi-rowpalisade have been documented (Burgar and Pratt1973). The Benson village encompassed 1.5 haand contained 23 structures. It was thought tohave also housed a substantial St. LawrenceIroquoian population, based on the presence at thesite of ceramic styles derived from that region. Thesmall size of Benson, however, suggests that thebalance of the combined populations of theCoulter and Kirche sites must have been housed atTrent-Foster. There are additional sites in thisGoose Lake cluster as well (Peter Carruthers,personal communication 2014).

Wendat accounts provided to early Europeanssuggest that the abandonment of the Trent valleymust have occurred around A.D. 1590, implyingthat the area was abandoned after the occupationof the Benson and Trent-Foster sites.

Historic Wendake (Huronia) to A.D. 1620Although the termWendake is sometimes used byWendat people to refer to all of their traditionalterritory in southern Ontario (Williamson 2010),historic Wendake is generally defined as the landsbetween Lake Simcoe and Georgian Bay (modern-day Simcoe County), lands that were alsooccupied by Wendat people by the end of thethirteenth century (Figures 2 and 5).

As a result of extensive surveys of southernSimcoe County, particularly Innisfil Township, by

Gary Warrick, Jamie Hunter, Richard Sutton, andothers, clusters of late thirteenth- and fourteenth-century sites have been found on upland locationsto the west of Kempenfelt Bay. However, earlierTransitional Woodland or Early Iroquoian periodsites are absent, with the exception of a smallfishing or trading presence (Sutton 1999). A 1969survey of the Penetang Peninsula (Latta 1971,1973) also documented numerous sites, based onlimited test excavations, but none were earlier thanthe fourteenth century. There is, however, a poorlyknown but substantial concentration of MiddleWoodland sites in the lower reaches of theNottawasaga River (Conway 1973; O’Brien1974), which includes the multicomponentSchoonertown site as well as the nearby BlueberryField site (Spittal 1981). Other well-knownMiddle Woodland sites include the Stockin site,at Methodist Point (O’Brien 1976); the Johnson 1site, at the southeastern end of Minising Swamp;the Dougall site, on the west side of the narrowsbetween Lakes Simcoe and Couchiching, whichalso yielded evidence of Early Woodland throughhistoric Wendat (including four Early Iroquoianvessels) (Wright 1972); and the Bristow site onThorah Island in Lake Simcoe, which also yieldedevidence of Transitional Woodland or EarlyIroquoian vessels (Sweetman 1967:11-13). Therarity of Early Iroquoian sites, with the exceptionof the Dougall and Bristow sites, combined withthe substantial presence of Middle Woodland sites,suggest that local Algonquian populations hadoccupied Simcoe County and adjacent lands andthat they continued to do so intermittently untilin-migration of southern Iroquoian populationsin the mid- to late thirteenth century, or perhapsa bit earlier given the early vessels at Bristow.

The Barrie site was one of the earliestancestral Wendat sites located north of the OakRidges Moraine (Sutton 1999). The site wasalmost 1 ha in size, and excavations uncovered twolonghouses and five middens. The site is thoughtto date to the late thirteenth through earlyfourteenth centuries based on an extensive vesselsample. It represents a pioneering presence in theregion on the part of migrants from the northshore of Lake Ontario. The early fourteenthcentury Wilcox Lake site in northern Richmond


Hill, which was occupied year-round (Austin1994), and the early to mid-fourteenth centuryBathurst St. site in Aurora (ASI 2014d), bothsituated on the Oak Ridges Moraine, perhapsrepresent roughly contemporary communities thatstepped their migration northward. Limitedexcavations at Wilcox Lake yielded evidence of atleast five longhouses and a single-rowpalisade/fence, while Bathurst St., also onlypartially excavated, yielded one house, twomiddens, and a few small lines of posts, with noevidence of a palisade. It may have only beenseasonally occupied.

The even earlier Wellington site,radiocarbon-dated to the mid- to late thirteenthcentury, also seems to represent an early incursioninto the region (ASI 2005d). It featured twowidely-spaced houses equidistant from the mainsite refuse area. One of the houses did notresemble a long-term Iroquoian dwelling butrather a structure erected and then maintained toshelter a series of recurring activities. Given therecovery of more than 12,000 artifacts, however, itis clear that Wellington was occupied for sometime. There is evidence to suggest that the twohouses were occupied simultaneously by twodifferent groups, the longer house by ancestralWendat and the shorter one by Algonquians.Perhaps the site was occupied for a series ofnegotiations between a party from an ancestralWendat community from the north shore of LakeOntario intent on moving into the south Barrieregion and representatives of the local Algonquianpopulation who either resided there or used theterritory. The best evidence for such a scenarioincludes the presence of American eel, likelyrepresenting a food resource brought by theoccupants from the north shore of Lake Ontario,since it is unavailable locally; significantdifferences in the frequencies of chert typesbetween the two house structures, with the smallerhouse assemblage yielding significant quantities ofCollingwood (Fossil Hill formation) chert,thought to be far more available to localAlgonquians than to ancestral Wendat (Fox andGarrad 2004); and the presence of a probableritual burial of multiple small, fur-bearinganimals, something that was also documented in

four features at the nearby, slightly later, Holly site(ASI 2009). These animal burials, which areunique finds in southern Ontario, are similar tothe interment of disarticulated, generally young orimmature dogs (and other animals) in ceremonialcontexts (Smith 2000; Oberholtzer 2002) amongAlgonquian-speakers of the region (e.g., Brizinskiand Savage 1983; Prevec 1987; Smith 1996:270-272, 2000). (For a summary of the cosmologicalsignificance of dogs in Wendat society, see Wright[2004].)

Holly included at least four major longhousesshowing substantial long-term domestic use andextensive re-building, as well as three, maybe four,small structures that may have served a specialpurpose; several large middens; and multiple,exterior rows of posts and associated features. Thenearby Steven Patrick (AMICK ConsultantsLimited 2003; Hawkins and Caley 2012),Allandale (Carscallen 2001), and Ladywood (DPA1999) sites also represent early fourteenth-centurysites. While Steven Patrick featured five housesrepresenting at least two occupations, possiblyduring different times of the year (Hawkins andCaley 2012:101), Allandale and Ladywood,situated on the shore of Kempenfelt Bay, are small,perhaps repeatedly used fishing locales. A numberof historically documented ossuaries and burialswere situated on the Allandale site (AMICKConsultants Limited 2013). Hawkins and Caley(2012) compared the fish remains recovered fromSteven Patrick with the three fisheries modeladvanced by Needs-Howarth and Thomas (1998)for the Barrie and Dunsmore sites and concludedthat with fine-grained analysis, the model worksfor both the Steven Patrick settlement and theAllandale fishing locale. A dearth of deer at StevenPatrick is entirely consistent with the near absenceof deer remains in the archaeological record offourteenth and fifteenth-century southernWendake (see Robertson et al. 1995 for furtherdiscussion).

The nearby Dykstra site featured only one—probably open-ended—house, several fence rows,a few external structures and a smallmidden/activity area; the site was probablyoccupied intermittently and perhaps seasonally fora special inland purpose (ASI 2006d). It may relate


to either Holly or the nearby Lee village, a latefourteenth-century village excavated in the 1990sby AMICK Consultants Ltd. Lee featured a veryunusual settlement plan with eight clear houses alljoined by short fence lines creating an enclosedinner plaza, as well as a highly unusual rectangularpartitioned structure measuring 24 m long and 16m wide divided width-wise into three equalsections. A number of equally unusual irregularand sizable enclosures were appended to its westend.

The Beswetherick site, test-excavated byRidley (1973), provided one of the firstradiocarbon dates of any of the Wendake sites—calibrating to A.D. 1340±45 (Timmins 1985:96).No settlement patterns are known for the site.Limited test excavations were also undertaken in1967 at the Fournier site by William Russell(1967). His work revealed two componentsapparently separated by 10 m, one of which, heargued, first functioned as a fishing station. Heuncovered a longhouse that had been expandedthree times and that is said by Russell to have beenconstructed to encompass a spring. Traces of thebark covering the house as well as woven mattingwere found within the house. Russell documentedmore than 600 pit features and recovered asubstantial artifact assemblage, including severalcomplete ceramic vessels.

Located in Tiny Township, the Webb site is alate fourteenth-century village first recorded byAndrew Hunter in 1899 and test-excavated byFrank Ridley. Limited excavations on the sitecarried out in 1950 by J. Russell Harper of theRoyal Ontario Museum (Harper 1952) revealedsettlement patterns in the form of 21 “ash heaps,”presumably middens, and an unusual house form.These small, circular structures measuring 3 m indiameter, with central hearth clusters consisting ofposts, ash, and burned rocks, were perhapsAlgonquian residential structures. A sizable artifactassemblage including Middleport Oblique,Lalonde High Collar and Black Necked vesselsseems to indicate a late fourteenth- to earlyfifteenth-century date for the site (see also Bursey1993). The recovery of half of a polished anddrilled human cranium rattle is notable, as thepresence of these types of artifacts peaks across

Iroquoia in the second half of the fifteenth century(Williamson 2007; Jenkins 2015). Harper alsorecorded what he believed to be ancient trails, twoto Georgian Bay, where he documented pre-contact hearths and deposits; one to CranberryLake; and another that traverses the landscape nearto the site.

The unpalisaded, late fourteenth-centuryWiacek site (Lennox et al. 1986; Robertson et al.1995) featured five houses, two of which weresmall unusual structures perhaps used for specialpurposes or by visiting Algonquians (Robertson etal. 1995:50). By the early fifteenth century, therewere numerous ancestral Wendat villages inSimcoe County (Warrick 2008:147), including anumber that have been completely excavated.Dunsmore (Robertson and Williamson 2003),was a 2 ha village that included both seasonaltenancies and year-round occupations. Thesettlement appears to have served as both aseasonal fishing camp and a semi-permanentagricultural village, perhaps involving members ofseveral different communities. Sixteen houses ofvarious sizes were recorded. Both Wiacek andDunsmore featured semi-subterranean sweatlodges. The partially excavated Hubbert site(MacDonald and Williamson 2001), however,contained at least three houses, featuring a total of17 semi-subterranean sweat lodges, indicatingconsiderable effort at social and politicalintegration at the site. While the lack of bothpalisade complexes and scattered human bones onthese and other sites indicates a period of relativepeace, as was the case with contemporaneous sitesalong the north shore of Lake Ontario, the early tomid-fifteenth-century Loughheed site (ARA2003a), also located in the same cluster of sites,featured a multiple-row palisade surrounding atleast six closely spaced and aligned houses, butthere was no additional evidence for conflict. Onan adjacent property, the late fourteenth-centuryGregor site featured four houses surrounded by atwo-row palisade. It may have been inhabitedimmediately prior to Lougheed (ARA 2003b).The different nature of these settlement plans islikely reflective of that particular community’sinteractions with other groups, although the lackof palisading on neighbouring villages suggests the


community may have been concerned withfarther-distant populations. Warrick and Molnar(1986) had suggested prior to the investigation ofmany of these southern sites that that there weretwo community sequences reflected in the record.At least one special purpose site has beenthoroughly investigated. The Birch site(MacDonald and Cooper 1992) yielded evidenceof scattered post moulds and 3 features and 58artifacts that appear to place the site in the earlyfifteenth century. The wind-breaks represented bythe posts and the recovery of plant remains fromthe features suggested that the site was used forgathering and processing plants in the summer orfall.

The Copeland site (Channen and Clark1965) is a 1.5 ha early to mid-fifteenth-centuryvillage featuring a one- to two-row palisadesurrounding four houses, at least one overlapping,while the Baumann site (Stopp 1985, 1986; alsorecent work by Dean Knight) is an early fifteenth-century village at which several houses andmiddens have been defined and tested. The nearbylate fifteenth-century unpalisaded Carson sitefeatured eight houses in three clusters, two withthree houses and one with two (Varley 1993); thevillage seems to have been unconcerned withdefence. Colin Varley analyzed the ceramicassemblage from Carson, comparing it withCopeland and Baumann, as well as withassemblages recovered from limited testexcavations at several other roughlycontemporaneous sites (i.e., Ellesmere-Morrison,Lalonde, and Bosomworth—Ramsden 1977;Emerson 1959). In his analysis, Varleydemonstrates the doubtful utility of the conceptof a Lalonde focus for fifteenth-century Wendatsites (Ridley 1952a, 1952b). While 22 percent ofthe Carson site ceramic assemblage consisted ofLalonde High Collar vessels, high collar vesselshave been found in varying frequencies on nearbyfifteenth-century sites in historic Wendake and onthe north shore of Lake Ontario. They constitute,for example, 8 percent of the assemblage atDunsmore, 4 percent at Hubbert, respectively, 36percent at Fairlain Lake (Latta 1976:337), 22percent at Copeland, 8 percent at Bauman, and 1percent at Parsons. Because archaeologists now

understand that these communities are allautonomous and subject to their own social andpolitical contingencies, involved in differentexchange networks with neighbouring and moredistant communities (Williamson and Robertson1994; Birch andWilliamson 2013a:7-8), Lalondeis best thought of as a widely shared ceramic vesselstyle originating in the southern Barrie region.

The Forget site, situated overlooking theWyevalley and Mud Lake, is another village thatreportedly featured numerous Lalonde vessels.First reported by Andrew Hunter in 1900, it wassubject to extensive investigations by Wilfrid Juryfrom 1954 to 1963, for the field school of theMuseum of Indian Archaeology (see also Ridley1973); it was the first almost completely excavatedWendat village. The site is designated under PartVI of the Ontario Heritage Act, Re.709/710. Thesite had a double palisade wall and at least twohillside middens (W. Jury 1956). A rudimentaryplan of the site published by Heidenreich (1971:Figure 8) shows 12 houses with 8 roughly parallelstructures oriented northwest–southeast in thecentre, with a pair of parallel, perpendicularstructures on both the south and north sides. Thesouth pair seems to be small cabins. More recently,William Finlayson prepared a report on thesettlement patterns of the site based on Jury’s fieldnotes and described the site as a sixteenth-centuryvillage with 11 longhouses and 2 special purposestructures surrounded by 2 rows of palisade(Finlayson 2002:1). According to Jamie Hunterand Peter Carruthers, both of whom worked at thesite, the recovered assemblage included LalondeHigh Collar and Black Necked vessels, somecomplete. Both thought the site dated to the pre-contact period (Jamie Hunter and PeterCarruthers, personal communication 2014). Acache of 13 items of native copper, includingknives and arrow and spear points, was found in afeature in a midden situated between the twopalisade lines (Jury 1958; 1973). More recently,however, Susan Dermarkar of the University ofToronto (Mississauga) and Andreas Vatistas(2011) have examined the assemblage from thesite, provided by the Museum of OntarioArchaeology, and described the ceramic and metalmaterial culture along with glass beads, all of


which they believe are consistent with aseventeenth-century date for the site. They alsocite as evidence of a seventeenth-centuryoccupation a 1962 conventional radiocarbon datefor the site from the University of Saskatchewan of360±40, which calibrates today to A.D. 1464–1628 (1 sigma) and 1450–1636 (2 sigma)(CALEB rev. 7.0). The date, therefore, cannotcontribute to the resolution of the period of siteoccupation. This issue will have to be resolvedthrough careful analysis of Jury’s original fieldnotes, the catalogue system used by him and themuseum for sites starting with the letter F, and thepersonal notes of other researchers who may havevisited the site.

In 1947, Wilfrid Jury, with the sponsorshipof the Martyrs’ Shrine, carried out investigationsof the Flanagan site, originally thought by FelixMartin and Arthur Jones to be Téonostayé, or St.Joseph II, based on rumours of the recovery of thefused base of a French-period candlestick orcrucifix. St. Joseph was a large Wendat towncontaining 2000 people and was the scene of themartyrdom of Father Antoine Daniel (Thwaites1896-1901, 33:259-265, 34:87-93). TheFlanagan site is in a well-defended locationsurrounded by gullies on three sides, with ahillside spring providing the water source for thevillagers. Jury found evidence of a continuouspalisade on all sides, but on the weakest, north sidehe reported the presence of palisade reinforced bytimbers and field boulders, the latter of which hepostulated could have been rolled down the hill asa defensive strategy. He documented the presenceof a 150 foot (45 m), large depression along thesouth palisade wall crossed by 29 foot (9 m) long,eighteen inch (46 cm) diameter logs held inposition by posts, from which, he postulated, thesite inhabitants had discarded their refuse. Hefound eight widely spaced longhouses between 40and 77 feet (12–23 m) long and 18 to 26 feet(5.5–8 m) wide, all featuring 3 foot (1 m) widebunk lines. Ash pits and hearths ringed by stoneswere found along their central longitudinal axes.Ceramic vessels marked with “chevrons”; a largepipe collection dominated by trumpet styles; alarge quantity of faunal remains (large and smallmammal, fish, especially suckers and gar, and

reptiles); and charred maize cobs, nuts, and squashand sunflower seeds were collected. No Europeangoods were recovered, and only one native copperawl was found. There is no report on theexcavation other than two brief summaries (W.Jury 1948; W. Jury and Fox 1948); it wasconcluded it was a pre-contact settlement and notthe site of St. Joseph.

The Cleary site was another early fifteenth-century village that was subject to at least limitedtesting. The 4.6 ha site was originally recorded byAndrew Hunter in the 1890s, and it has sincebeen the subject of further investigations,including two excavations by the OntarioArchaeological Society (OAS), in 1963 and 1964,and then again by Gary Warrick (1988). Warrick’sinvestigations recovered a total of 1,051 artifactsfrom the surface and identified 18 middens. Thelate fifteenth-century Jones site, situated near thesouth shore of Little Lake in Midland, has beensubject to multiple investigations, beginning withthose of Jamie Hunter between 1968 and 1973;Stage 2 and partial Stage 3 investigations by ASI(1989, 1995, 2004b), and further Stage 3investigation by Merritt (2006). The site is 2.2 hain extent and is surrounded, at least on one side,by a discontinuous single-row palisade.

Only a few sites that date to the sixteenth-century have been investigated in detail in historicWendake. Their temporal placements as well asthe ages of those sites subjected to limited middentesting in the mid-twentieth century have beenestimated, in part, on the presence of varyingquantities of French trade goods recovered fromthem (Trigger 1976:236-243; also Warrick2008:116-123).

The McCarthy site in Oro Township, forexample, was first documented by Andrew Hunterin 1888 and was subject to further investigationby Frank Ridley (1972) and more systematic Stage2 assessments by Mayer Heritage and AMICKConsultants in 1994 and 2007, respectively(AMICK Consultants Limited 2011). Therecovery of a brass ring and pipe by Hunter and asmall piece of brass by AMICK, as well as thepurported recovery of brass kettles from an ossuary300 m west of the village, suggest the site dates tothe late sixteenth century.


The Sopher site is a mid-sixteenth-centuryvillage associated with the Sopher ossuary. Bothare located north of Bass Lake and west of Orillia.Test excavations at the 1.5 ha site yielded twoparallel houses, spaced 10–15 m apart. Nopalisade was recorded (Norcliffe and Heidenreich1974). The middens from the village reveal “thathabitation primarily spanned the late prehistoric,with rare trade items only appearing in the top 3inches [7.5 cm]” (Noble 1971: 42, 45). Theossuary yielded an iron bar celt, but neither thevillage nor the ossuary yielded glass beads,suggesting a mid-sixteenth-century date, withinthe range of a calibrated radiocarbon date for thesite (Warrick 2008:116-117; see also Ramsden1977:263 for an even later date for the site, basedon ceramic seriation).

The 1.2 ha, unpalisaded, late sixteenth-century Molson site (Lennox 2000), however, wasalmost completely excavated and yielded evidenceof at least 12 houses, with a number of smallcabins on the site periphery, possibly inhabited byAlgonquians (Warrick 2008: 222). The ceramicassemblage, in which Sidey Notched vesselsrepresent 51 percent of the ceramics—similar tofrequencies at the nearby Graham-Rogers, Cooper,and Tionontaté McMurchy sites—as well as thosesites’ locations to the east of the Tionontaté area,led Lennox to speculate that they may have beenfounding populations of that nation (Lennox2000:158-161).

Despite relatively little evidence for hostilityin either the fifteenth or sixteenth centuries, theethnohistoric record of Wendake suggests thatinitial Wendat alliance building and confederacyformation occurred during the mid-fifteenthcentury, some 200 years before the arrival ofEuropeans (Thwaites 1896-1901, 16:227).Attignawantan (Bear) and Attigneenongnahac(Cord) were the original co-founders of theWendat confederacy, since both had been residentinWendake for at least 200 years (Thwaites 1896-1901, 16:227-229). Settled by the mid-fourteenthcentury, Attignwantan villages were located inwestern Wendake and across the PenetangPeninsula, while Attigneenongnahac villages wereclustered to the southeast (Figure 4). Lateradditions to the confederacy were Arendahronon

(Rock), who moved into Wendake c A.D. 1590,and Tahontaenrat (Deer), who joined c. A.D.1610.

The Arendahronon likely originated with theBenson and Trent-Foster communities, becomingthe easternmost tribe of the confederacy.Champlain was told by the Arendahronon thatthey formerly lived in the Trent valley and hadabandoned the area due to fear of enemies (Biggar1922-1936, 3:59). Their initial principal villagein Simcoe County may have been the Ball site,which may have later relocated to Warminster(Warrick 2008:2006). Ball represents a thoroughlyexcavated, 3.5 ha, late-sixteenth- to earlyseventeenth-century Wendat site. It has been thesite of field school excavations by Wilfrid LaurierUniversity over the past three decades (Knight1978, 1987, forthcoming). The site was found tocontain more than 71 houses surrounded by amultiple row palisade, and it featured at least onemajor expansion, perhaps a defensiveamalgamation of two villages (Warrick 2008:206).Based on the glass beads and the Europeanassemblage, Fitzgerald (1986:3-7) believes the sitedates to A.D. 1590–1620. The elaborate palisademay have been an expression of the inhabitants’continued concern about attack by theHaudenosaunee, or perhaps the inhabitants weretheWendat group with whom the Tionontaté hadformerly been at war, as recorded by the Jesuits(Thwaites 1896-1901, 20:43). It is also possiblethat the people inhabiting the Molson cluster ofsites, situated just to the east of the Tionontaté,had joined the Bear Nation and had at firstcontinued a hostile relationship with their formerneighbours.

Warminster consists of two palisaded sectionsapproximately 165 m apart. They are consideredcontemporaneous on account of similarities intheir material culture assemblages. The northvillage was 3.4 ha in size; the south village, 2.6 ha.Portions of approximately 80 distinct houses werereported from the northern village (Sykes1983:81, 85). Bruce Trigger (1976:304) discussedthe possibility that Warminster is the historicallyrecorded principal village of the Arendahronon,Cahiagué, which Champlain visited in 1615before his raid on the Onondaga. William


Fitzgerald argues that the site dates to after 1620(1986:3-7) and therefore is not the Cahiagué thatChamplain visited and that Ball may be Cahiagué(see also Warrick 2008:117-118). Heidenreich(2014), however, has recently defended theassignation of Warminster as Cahiagué based onlinguistic analysis of the word as “place divided intwo” or “cut in two,” as suggested by John Steckley(2014:21-22); its large number of longhouses,consistent with its ethnographic description as achief village with 200 cabins; and its location,matching the distances Champlain travelled to getto the village.

The Tahontaenrat (Deer), who joined around1610, perhaps originated with the Skandatut(Kleinburg) andWright-Van-Nostrand villages onthe Humber and Holland Rivers, respectively(Birch and Williamson 2013a:158). TheTahontaenrat and Attignawantan spoke differentWendat dialects (Thwaites 1896-1901, 10:11)perhaps attesting to their geographic separation,lasting some 200 years prior to the confederacy—although the same should have been true for theTahontaerat and Attigneenongnahac, as well as theAttignawantan/Attigneenongnahac and theArendahronon, given their different origins. JohnSteckley has noted, however, that the northern andsouthern Attignawantan had different dialects,perhaps originating with Neutral or St. LawrenceIroquoian people living among the northernAttignawantan (Steckley 2007:35-45; 2010:4-9).He has also noted differences between southernAttignawantan and Arendahronon dialects basedon Sagard’s dictionary (Steckley 2010) andChamplain’s records, as well as similarities in atleast one innovative feature between bothAttignawantan dialects, the Attigneeongnahac(Cord) and Tionontaté (John Steckley, personalcommunication 2014). The Jesuits recorded thatthe Wendat (Attignawantan) and Tionontatéspoke the same language (Thwaites 1896-190120:43), and Steckley has noted that southernAttignawantan had features in common withWyandot, perhaps originating with theTionontoté dialect or with the dominance of thesouthern Attignawantan dialect in the Wyandotlanguage.

The Tahontaenrat occupied a single large

village, called Scanonaenrat, which must haveappeared about 1610 and, if inhabited for 20years, was succeeded by perhaps the Orr Lake(1620–35) and Ellery (1635–50) sites (Warrick2008:207-208). No candidate site inWendake hasbeen identified for the first Deer village—Ball,Bidmead, and perhaps Molson are the only well-known candidate sites that are remotely possible,although Ball geographically is situated inpresumed Arendahronon territory. Molson wastoo small to constitute the entire Deer nation, andBidmead was situated within Attigneeongnahacterritory. Both Ball and the 1.5 ha Bidmead site,which has a complex palisade around a denselypacked series of houses, were perhaps large enoughto have accommodated the entire nation. Bidmeadis thought to date from 1610 to 1625 based on itsartifact assemblage, especially the glass trade beads(Merritt 2001).

Other sites that may date to the same periodbut that have had very limited excavations includethe 1–1.5 ha Waubaushene Beach Ridge andAlonso sites (Hunter 1976) and the Charleboissite (Latta 1973, 1976), all of which are situatedsome distance from Orr Lake in the territories ofthe Attignawantan and Attigneeongnahac.

Preliminary investigations on the easternportion of the Ellery site produced more than9,000 artifacts, including typical seventeenth-century ceramic types and shell beads and a largeamount of trade goods, including red round andtubular glass beads and sheet metal projectilepoints (ASI 1993). An earlier component of thesite was discovered by Alicia Hawkins during fieldschool excavations in 2008 and 2011, when shefound evidence of a village dating to the latefifteenth to early sixteenth century (Hawkins2013), one of only a few documented times thata village location was occupied twice, in this caseby presumably unrelated communities, one pre-contact and the other Tahontaenrat.

The earliest late sixteenth-century Tionontaté(GBP1) comprised at least two villages and a fewassociated camps, the villages being Sidey-Mackayand McQueen-McConnell (Garrad 2014: 425-452). Although Garrad (2014: 420-421) hasdocumented numerous fourteenth and fifteenthcentury villages and camps, mainly in


Nottawasaga (also Sunnidale) Township (westSimcoe County), he argues that those populationsboth originated in and had returned to historicWendake by the late sixteenth century. Garrad(2014:452-453) sees a primarily ancestral Neutralorigin for the historically documented Tionontaté,while Gary Warrick (2008:208-209) has arguedthat these villages probably represent relocationsfrom sites situated north or northwest of Torontoor Innisfil Township. To those possibilities, Iwould add the suggestion that the EmmersonSprings and Wallace sites in the Credit Riverwatershed to the west are equally crediblecandidates. The Beeton and Logan sites, in theAlbion Pass area of southwestern Simcoe Countyon the Oak Ridges Moraine, also need to beconsidered. While Logan has not beeninvestigated, Beeton is approximately 1 ha in sizeand is surrounded by a two-row palisade (Latta1980). Limited test excavations at Beeton yieldedevidence of three houses, significant quantities ofhuman bone from middens and features, andceramic vessels with neck decoration suggesting alate fifteenth century occupation. Yet, the recoveryof a small amount of brass that dates to the earlycontact period suggests an early to mid-sixteenth-century occupation.

What is known currently is that in the latesixteenth century, the only settlements remainingon the north shore of Lake Ontario were one orboth of the poorly known Emmerson Springs andWallace villages in the upper Credit watershed,Skandatut in the Humber headwaters, and Van-Nostrand-Wright on the East Holland River. Byshortly after the turn of the seventeenth century,the north shore of Lake Ontario was devoid ofpermanent settlement, these populations havingrelocated north to join the Wendat and/orTionontaté confederacies. The ties between theselate sixteenth-century sites and those of historicallyrecorded early seventeenth-century Wendat andTionontaté communities can only be confirmedthrough further detailed archaeological research,at which time we may find that these north shorecommunities also contributed people to theAttignawantan and Attigneenongnahac nations,as did the Wenro immigration of 1638 (Thwaites1896-1901, 17:25-29).

Historic Wendake (Huronia) A.D. 1620–50.By the 1620s, Ossossane, Scanonaenrat,Teanaustaye, and Contarea were the four main,well-fortified villages of the Wendat. Theycontained hundreds of warriors and were preparedfor Haudenosaunee raiders, thereby enabling theWendat-Tionontaté to continue their involvementin the burgeoning fur trade. With the exceptionof the Tahontaenrat, these other nations also hadancillary villages, as well as nearby locales whereAlgonquians came to winter (Figure 4). Accordingto seventeenth-century accounts (Biggar 1922-1936, 3:122; Thwaites 1896-1901, 7:225, 8:115,10:313), the Wendat-Tionontaté populationtotalled 30,000–35,000 before the initial epidemicof 1634.

Substantial numbers of Algonquians winteredwith the Wendat. In the winter of 1615–16, 700–800 Nipissing wintered among the Attignawantanin the lower Wye valley in a separate village. TheOnontchataronon—Ottawa River Algonquinswho likely inhabited lands south of the Rideau-Cataraqui Axis (Pendergast 1999)—possiblynumbering 1,000, wintered among theArendarhonon on the outskirts of Cahiagué,perhaps even in the southern village (Fox andGarrad 2004:129), between 1608 and 1616. Thisgroup may have included descendant St. LawrenceIroquoians (Trigger 1976:227; Pendergast 1999).

Given their annual voyages to Quebec via theFrench River, Lake Nipissing, and the OttawaRiver, as well as the much longer Saguenay route(Wrong 1939:99), the Wendat travelled throughAlgonquian territory regularly. The Wendatmaterial culture that has been discovered onnumerous sites throughout the Canadian Shieldmay have resulted from trade with the Wendat,been left by Wendat travelling through thelandscape, or been manufactured by localAlgonquian groups in the Wendat style.

Excavations at the Frank Bay site, forexample, situated on a level tract of sand on FrankBay in Lake Nipissing, have yielded numerousWendat style ceramic vessels from a rich organiclayer likely resulting from repeated use of the sitefor small, temporary camps (Ridley 1954: 40).Iroquoian style ceramics have also been found onAlgonquian sites, such as the Odawa village on


Providence Bay, on Manitoulin Island (Conway1987); a Matouweskarini hunting camp at theHighland Lake site, southeast of Algonquin Park(von Gernet 1992); and even on Lac St. Jean andthe Saguenay River, in south-central Quebec(Moreau 2014; see also Dawson 1979; Fox andGarrad 2004; Guindon 2009; Mitchell 1975).

Few villages in historic Wendake that date tothis 30 year period have been subject to detailedarchaeological investigations, but the few that haveappear to have been Attignawantan orAttigneeongnahac in affiliation.

One of the earliest sustained research/fieldschool programs in Wendake was carried out byTrent University from 1970 to 1977 at the LeCaron site. This 2 ha site yielded evidence of fivecontiguous longhouses and a large part of theenclosing palisade (Johnston and Jackson 1980).About half of the site’s palisade was excavated,revealing posts that were, on average, 12.4 cm indiameter and were thought to have been about 9m in height, not too different from the heightreported by Champlain for the “triple woodenpalisade, 35 feet high” at the village of Carhagouha(Biggar 1922-1936, 4:239-240). The Le Caronpalisade varied from one to three rows andconsisted of approximately 5,000 posts. The site isthought to date to 1640±10 and is located in TinyTownship in Attignawantan territory. The houseswere oriented perpendicular to the palisade andwere closely spaced with no overlapping,suggesting a well-planned, densely populatedvillage. Trigger (1985:215), following Tyyska andHurley (1969), noted that average house lengths atBall and Le Caron are shorter than those on sitesin the late fifteenth and sixteenth centuries (e.g.,Draper and Benson) and discussed whether thischange might reflect the breakdown of thematrilineal extended family during this time. Healso noted, however, that house lengths had beendecreasing since the fourteenth century. Thisinterpretation should be revisited, given the vastlylarger sample that is now available to assess thisquestion. This need to revisit earlierinterpretations applies as well to the question ofhearth spacing reflecting power and prestigeamong fourteenth-century houses, as raised byVarley and Cannon (1994).

Other excavations include those at the 2.5 haAuger site (Latta 1985b, 1991), a multi-rowedpalisaded and expanded village attributed to theAttigneenongnahac nation. Excavations revealedat least four uneven rows of longhouses with awest–northwest orientation that parallels thedirection of the prevailing winter winds(Heidenreich 1971). Multiple open areas or plazasare located within the settlement.

The Thomson-Walker site (Latta 1995) islocated on a promontory of a terrace bounded bythe valley of the Coldwater River to the east and atributary ravine to the south. The primary siteoccupation dates to c. 1625–35, as indicated bythe predominance of early Period III glass beads,notably red and star varieties. The site has beendisturbed by looting as well as the construction ofa concession road through the entire length of thesite. A three-row palisade was identified on thesouthwest side of the village in 1971, and at leasttwo rows of palisade were observed along thesoutheast edge in 1993.

The Robitaille site (Latta 1971, 1976) wassubject to intensive testing in 1969. Its location inthe Penetang peninsula suggests it wasAttignawantan in affiliation. Six middens and onelonghouse were investigated, and a palisade waslocated along the south edge of the site. Both Lattaand Bruce Trigger (1976:409-411) used thematerial recovered from the site to discuss the paceof technological change evidenced by thereplacement of traditional stone and bone tools byones made of European metals.

William Fox examined the stone toolsrecovered from Robitaille as well as the earlierMaurice site (1971; 1979). The Maurice village(Tyyska 1969; also Trigger 1976:350, 413-415)dates to approximately A.D. 1580, but the glassbead assemblage recovered from the nearbyMaurice ossuary dates to the late historic period,that is, 1630–50 (Jerkic 1969; Motykova 1969).The village and ossuary are, therefore, unrelated.Fox concurred with the hypothesis that metalimplements were replacing stone tools but notedmajor qualitative as well as quantitative differencesbetween the two assemblages. He found morediverse exotic cherts in the larger, later, andperhaps more cosmopolitan Robitaille village,


along with a dearth of formal edge-retouchedartifacts of local Huronia chert in favour of anincrease in imported bifaces and formal edge-retouched artifacts of exotic raw material. Thisdevelopment represents to Fox an erosion ofAttignawantan stone working skills. Among flakedstone artifacts, projectile points would appear tohave been the most important tools. Among thosemade of ground stone, ornamental items, such aslimestone effigy pipes and red siltstone/slate beads,seem to have been popular. He argues that theyoriginated with the Tionontaté and Odawa, thelatter perhaps having been responsible forOnondaga bifaces reaching the Wendat via theirNeutral contacts, as well as for other exotic cherts,such as Collingwood and Kettle Point cherts.

In his later analyses of the Ball andWarminster sites flaked stone tool assemblages,Fox (1981) characterized the historic Wendatstone tool industry as a bipolar core technology, aproduct of using glacial cobbles mainly, althoughcrude bifaces of local Huronia chert wererecovered at Warminster (see also Bursey 1997).

The Cedar Point site (Latta 1973, 1976) islocated on a ridge atop the end of Cedar Point,facing Beckwith Island in Georgian Bay. Four testsquares were excavated, and the recovered materialindicates that the site was occupied between 1615and 1649.

The Peden site (Hunter 1976) is a disturbed,3 ha village dating to approximately 1630–49.The Thompson-Hervieux site (Hunter 1976) is alate historic village (1630–50) also measuringapproximately 3 ha. Several surface collectionshave been taken, including those by Frank Ridleyin 1972, Delmar Kelly in 1975, and Jamie Hunterin 1976. The work in 1976 also included smalltest units to locate middens and to determine theextent of the village. Hunter and others alsoinvestigated the Chew-McInnis site in 1971–73with a high school field school. They excavated a200 to 300 foot (61–91 m) trench across the site,documenting at least four houses and severalmiddens. A Jesuit ring was recovered. Recentanalyses of the recovered assemblage, however,suggest there are two components to the site: thehistoric occupation and a fifteenth century pre-contact occupation (Anderson et al. 2014).

The 1630s and 1640s were disastrous timesfor the Wendat. In 1634, measles spreadthroughout the Attignawantan villages duringwinter. This was followed by an epidemic ofinfluenza in early September 1636, whichpersisted until spring 1637. Warrick (2008:222-227) has estimated that between 1634 and 1637,Wendat and Tionontaté populations experienceda 20 percent decline, leaving just 23,000 peoplealive by the end of 1637. An epidemic of smallpoxravaged theWendat and Tionontaté between earlyfall 1639 and spring 1640, reducing theirpopulation to 10,000–12,000, as documented byJerome Lalemant in the 1639–40 census. Manyvillages were abandoned because they now had aninsufficient number of residents, and Ossossanéwas relocated even though the village was only fiveyears old.

Over the next ten years, the Wendat were at-tacked repeatedly, leaving only 15 villages remain-ing at the beginning of the dispersal period, in1649. The Wendat dispersal involved four maingroups: Ossossané (southern Attignawantan);Scanonaenrat (Tahontaenrat, Wenro, and Aren-darhonon); Christian converts (Attignawantan,Ataronchronon, Attigneenongnahac, and Aren-darhonon); and another mixed group, presumablytraditionalists with close ties to neighbouringGeorgian Bay Algonkians (Warrick 2008:237-238). About 2,000 Ossossané villagers and amixed group of Wendat refugees fled to theTionontaté, but, in December 1649, their mainfortified village of Etharita was destroyed by Iro-quois and about 1,000 people were forced to travelto Iroquois country. Another 500–1,000Wendat-Tionontaté fled Tionontaté country to settle onGahoendoe (Christian Island). With the escala-tion of hostilities with the Iroquois, the Tahon-taerat left in 1649 to reside with the Neutral andthen moved to Seneca country in 1651, wherethey subsequently occupied their own village. In1648 and 1649, three villages near to the missionof Sainte-Marie fell to the Iroquois. These wereTeanaustayé (St. Joseph), Teanaostaiaé (St. Louis),and Taenhatentaron (St. Ignace), the latter beingthe site where Jean de Brébeuf and Gabriel Lale-mant were tortured to death. Some archaeologistsand historians believe that St. Ignace was moved to


a second location (Heidenreich 1971:46-47; for acontrary opinion, see Trigger 1976:743-744; 855,Chapter 11, Notes 4 and 5; and for a more recentdiscussion of the search for St. Ignace II, see Latta1988).

A small site flanked on three sides by thebanks of the Sturgeon River, located south-east ofWaubaushene (formerly the Hamilton Farm—west half of Lot 5, Concession 9, Tay), has beenadvanced as the site of St. Ignace (St. Ignace II bysome) and was subject to excavations by WilliamWintemberg in the 1937 and 1938 and byWilfridJury of the University of Western Ontario in 1946(Fox 1949; E. Jury 1948; W. Jury 1947, 1951; seeLatta 1988 for a detailed discussion of theseexcavations). W. Jury (1947) described a well-planned settlement of 26 longhouses, averaging100 × 30 feet (30.5 × 9 m) in size, radiatingoutward from the centre of the site, andsurrounded by a double palisade wall withplatform-like structures in the north-west andsouth-east corners. In the centre of the site, Jurydocumented what he claimed was a French-designed, several-roomed, heavy-timberedbuilding, thought to be the mission church (seealso Thwaites 1896-1901, 39:247). In a laterpublication (1951), he claimed that an ash bedaround two burned posts in the central buildingwas the site of Brébeuf and Lalemant’s martyrdom.The site, as reported, was largely devoid of eitherIndigenous or European artifacts, with the onlyFrench period material recovered being a steelknife in the central timber structure (and possiblya second knife, Latta 1988:12) and two iron axesreportedly having been taken from the surface ofthe site at some time in the past (Fox 1949:133-134).

The Newton site, located south of VictoriaHarbour on a flat plateau above the Hog Riverand long thought to be St. Louis, was alsoinvestigated by Wilfrid Jury, between 1951 and1953 (formerly Newton Farm, Lot 11,Concession 6, Tay), Andrew Hunter havingprovided an early description of the site (1899:66-67). The plan was described as similar to that ofSt. Ignace (E. Jury 1948:101; Jury and Jury 1955)with straight palisade walls, squared corners, anddwellings parallel to the walls. A smaller but

similar European structure was found in the centreof this settlement. Evidence of a long occupationincluded extensive midden deposits with faunaland floral remains, including corn, beans, andsquash, along with many European metalimplements and glass beads. A crucifix, thoughtto have belonged to a priest, was also recovered.Jury also carried out investigations at the TrainFarm site, and Elsie Jury (1962) reported onexploratory excavations from 1958–62 at theQuesnelle site (also known as Deshambault [Latta1976]), thought by E. Jury to perhaps be the siteof Carhagouha. Jury’s excavations documented alarge village site surrounded by a triple-wallpalisade. He reported on the discovery at the siteof European iron artifacts “of a different type tothat found at late mission sites.” Latta reports, onthe other hand, that the assemblage she recoveredwas pre-contact and perhaps even earlier thanFairlain Lake (1976:309).

The most comprehensive excavation of a siteof this period (and its reconstruction) occurred atthe French mission site of Sainte-Marie,established in 1639–40. By 1648–49, the presenceof the Jesuits and their lay assistants in Wendakehad increased substantially, to around 50Frenchmen in 1648–49, coincident with thegrowth of the Sainte-Marie mission into a well-fortified French settlement and associated farm(Kidd 1949; Trigger 1976:665-668). One of thefirst architectural descriptions of the remains ofthe site, aided by limited test excavations, wasprepared by Jones (1908:10-11). More detailedinformation about the layout and buildings withinthe mission were determined through verydetailed and meticulously reported archaeologicalinvestigations by Kenneth Kidd (1949). Thiswork was followed by the work of Wilfrid Jury(and Jury 1954) and other, less extensive but verydetailed excavations (Tummon and Gray 1992,1995). This latter work also revealed pre-contactcomponents at the site dating to the thirteenthand fourteenth centuries. And it located the multi-component Heron site, on the west bank of theWye River, with occupations dating from thefourteenth and fifteenth centuries.

The principal work on the site revealed awooden palisade and internal ditch complex, as


well as later stone fortifications, in addition tosubdivided European and Aboriginalcompounds—the former with a completelonghouse and the latter with a chapel, tradeshops, a cookhouse, barracks, a barn fordomesticated animals, a hospital, and variousother dwellings. The architectural interpretationof these compounds has been debated due toinconsistencies between Kidd’s detailed recordsand those of Jury (Trigger 1976:673-681), whoseinterpretations were at times fanciful. Jury’s notionof a lock system for the eastern ditch (and Jury1954:61-75), for example, has never receivedsupport from the scholarly community (e.g.,Trigger 1976:679-680).

Many Wendat refugees from Iroquoisaggression who originated from the rest ofWendake, including the widows and orphans fromOssossané, fled to Gahoendoe in the spring of1649. They were subsequently followed by theJesuits and the Wendat who had inhabited theSainte-Marie mission, and later by others. Whilethe exact number is unknown, thousands had fledto the island (Thwaites 1896-1901, 35:23,34:223, 35:87). The Jesuits and lay workmenconstructed a four-cornered fort, with curtainwalls and bastions built of stone, and they alsohelped to strengthen the fortifications of theadjacent Wendat village. Prior to theabandonment of the village in 1650–51,conditions at the settlement were disastrous dueto crop failure brought on by drought, famine(which led to cannibalism), disease, and theconstant threat of and actual harassment by theIroquois (Trigger 1976:770-788).

The first documentation of the sitesubsequent to the French period appears to havebeen by Fr. Pierre Chazelle, who described theremains in 1844 (Trigger 1985:9). Father FelixMartin visited and described the site in 1855 andprepared a plan and watercolour sketch of the sitenear the southeast corner of the island. AndrewHunter visited the site in the late 1880s (Hunter1898), noting the location of the fort and anassociated redoubt, along with a Wendatsettlement with five longhouses and a burial site.David Boyle (1898:35-42) subsequently visitedthe site in 1898, examining the fort and describing

its dimensions and architectural remnants, alongwith a nineteenth-century village and buryingground and the Ahoendoé ossuary, located nearthe lighthouse. The ossuary was reported as being20 feet (6 m) wide and 5 feet (1.5 m) deep in itscentre and having been investigated previously. Atthe time of Boyle’s visit, skeletal remains were stillpresent, some of which were removed. In the early1920s, a plaque was installed on the site by theHistoric Sites and Monuments Board.

The site was not subject to further recordeddocumentation or actual archaeologicalinvestigation until the summer of 1965, whenWilfrid Jury and Peter Carruthers carried outarchaeological excavations supported by theOntario Ministry of Tourism and Information,the Ontario Historic Sites andMonuments Board,and the St. Marie I Restoration Project(Carruthers 1965 and this volume). Excavationswere preceded by consultation with the BeausoleilFirst Nation, who permitted the work, providedthat the excavations, carried out in part by bandmembers, were confined to a single test trenchinside the walls of the compound and that theartifacts remained on the island in the possessionof the people.

Low stone walls outlined a compound about100 ft (30.5 m) square, with diamond shapedbastions at each corner. The 1965 test trench was10 ft (3 m) wide, extending north–south fromfront (south) to north through the near centre ofthe enclosure and encountered very wetconditions. Four major features were uncovered,including the partial, well-preserved but mostlycharred remains of a building against the northwall, among which was found a rich assemblageof Wendat and European items; a well, possibly ofthe box variety, employing planks to surround aspring (see also Boyle 1898:37); a disturbed areaon the south wall filled with construction debris;and another portion of a structure that had alsoburned.

Among the recovered artifact assemblage wasa caramel-coloured gun flint; an early type ofmusket worm; a double tournois coin dating to1640; hand-forged iron nails, spikes, and tacks;various copper, brass, and bronze items; as well asbronze nuggets from objects that had melted in


the fire. Hardware items included sheet and barstrapping, hinges, a pintle, door locks perhapsbrought from Sainte-Marie I, rings, chain (fromnear the well), kettle bales, and fasteners. The finecrystal and blown bottle glass recovered areconsistent with domestic and ecclesiasticalactivities. Indigenous pottery, one piece of shellwampum, and a number of glass beads were alsorecovered. The beads included red spherical (withblack cores), red tubular, red oval faceted, as wellas blue spherical and blue elliptical with flat endsbeads. The recovery of oxen bone providedphysical evidence of the report that two bulls andtwo cows were transported by raft from Sainte-Marie 1 to the new site (Thwaites1896-1901,35:23, 27:99-101). Unfortunately, the recoveredartifact assemblage from these excavations was lostwhen the school in which they were curatedburned several years later.

In 1967 and 1968, the University of Torontoinvestigated three burial pits to the north of thefort and recovered 129 skeletons (Saunders et al.1974). The presumed “Indian compound” areanorth of fort was also investigated; little evidencewas found. The remains were analyzed usingmetric and non-metric and univariate andmultivariate analyses. Based on their results andthe recovered ceramic assemblage, the researchersconcluded that the remains were those of the1649–50 population based on their unique butheterogeneous characteristics compared with otherregional populations. Those remains that had beenremoved from Christian Island at some point inthe past were reburied in the fall of 2013 (seebelow).

Unfortunately, in 1975, Parks Canadaexcavated drainage trenches by backhoe within theenclosure, irreparably damaging the depositsdocumented so carefully by Carruthers (Snow1975).

In 1987, the Museum of Indian Archaeology(London) carried out excavations of 190 one-metre squares in and adjacent to the fort as partof an archaeological management plan of theChristian Island Reserve (Finlayson and Smith1988). As in 1965, evidence of charred woodenplanks in the fort was found. A survey of the islandalso led to the discovery of the 1.5 ha Charity site

on the shore of Douglas Lake, about a kilometrewest of the fort; 91 one-metre squares wereexcavated there. Among the few artifacts recoveredwas an iron nail identical to those found at thefort, suggesting to the researchers that the villageand the fort were contemporaneous. Theresearchers concluded that the size of the Charitysite was not sufficiently large to haveaccommodated the thousands of Wendat that areknown to have fled to the island and that theremust be multiple settlements and cabins yet to bedocumented (also Thwaites 1896-1901, 35:87).

In 1991, Northeastern ArchaeologicalAssociates carried out additional excavations at theCharity site (Jackson et al. 1992; Jackson andMerritt 1998, 2000), which they believe to be thevillage that refugees established on their relocationto the island in 1648; others fled to there fromOssossané in May of 1649 (Thwaites 1896-1901,34:203). Over 400 m of contiguous longhousearea was excavated by hand, resulting in thedefinition of three incompletely exposed andseemingly narrow and short longhouses, althoughthe researchers believed there may have been asmany as 80–100 houses at the site. The recoveryof glass beads that share chemical characteristicswith those recovered from the Tionotaté Plater-Martin, Plater-Fleming, and Kelly-Campbell sitessuggested to Jackson andMerritt that the villagersincluded Tionotaté refugees. The ceramic samplefrom one house also contained numerous GenoaFrilled type vessels, once linked with the Wenro,who are known to have inhabited Ossossané. Itshould be noted, however, that Alicia Hawkins hasoutlined the problems with assuming that thesevessel types are associated with the Wenro, whosehomeland is unknown (see Hawkins 2001,2004b). Charred and fractured human remainsrecovered in several longhouse posts of one of thehouses were examined by Michael Spence. Hisresults suggest evidence of cannibalism (Jackson etal. 1992:7; Spence and Jackson this volume). Therecovered assemblage is typical of a GBP3 historicperiod site, and includes copper, brass, and ironimplements; glass trade beads dominated by redcircular and oval varieties; and ceramic pipes andvessels typical for the period. The absence ofanimal remains other than fish was noted by the


researchers, who thought that this was consistentwith a record of famine.

Discussion

What followed the Gahoendoe disaster was aperiod of population movements and adoptions.Segments of the population that survived famineand Iroquois attacks moved to near Quebec Cityand eventually to Lorette, where their descendantsflourish today. Other Wendat went with theTionontaté to live with Algonquians farther westin the upper Great Lakes, eventually becoming theWyandot and settling in communities at Windsorand Detroit; in Ohio; and, later in the nineteenthcentury, in Kansas and Oklahoma (Tooker 1978).Still others were adopted into Iroquoiscommunities (Trigger 1976:826-831). For moreinformation about post-dispersal Wendat-Wyandot history, see Labelle (2013).

All of these populations, including theIroquois and Algonquians, have survived fourcenturies of colonial domination and attempts atassimilation. Archaeological research continues toplay an important role in efforts to assert theirrights and interests in their ancestral andcontemporary territories. Contemporary researchprojects include those generated by land-use andinfrastructure development throughout theWendat’s former territory.

Yet, it must be said that, despite over acentury of archaeological work in historicWendake, we are no closer to answering some ofthe fundamental questions about Wendat history.There has been an industry, ever since the days ofJones and A. Hunter, of trying to link historicallyrecorded villages with actual sites on the ground,often on the basis of small samples of artifactsdrawn from surface collections or limitedexcavations of middens on select sites, rather thanall the possible candidate sites. As Joyce Wright(2006) correctly pointed out in her review ofWendat ceramics and tribal affiliation, a smallsample drawn from one midden on a complex sitecould lead researchers to form a completelyinaccurate understanding of the site, especially ifthat sample had been drawn from amidst anethnic enclave.

We also have the problem of inadequatereporting for major excavation projects (e.g.,Aurora, Wallace, Warminster, Fournier, Forget,Flanagan, Quesnelle-Deshambault). It is crucialthat we as a community make an effort to publishin more detail what is known about these sites.Marti Latta, for example, is currently attemptingto piece together the settlement pattern results ofthe University of Toronto’s mid-twentieth-centurywork at Warminster.

While policy direction and engagement withIndigenous communities is certainly movingtoward protection of archaeological sites as ashared objective, it is only with more detailed andsubstantive excavations on selected sites that wewill begin to unravel the complex site sequencesin historic Wendake and the individual nationalhistories. To do so, however, we must have acoordinated approach to the documentation ofthis history. What is sorely needed is anarchaeological management plan for SimcoeCounty to guide the conservation ofarchaeological sites.

The new public registry of site reportsmanaged by the Ministry of Tourism, Culture andSport should preclude the previous problem ofconsultants not only failing to publish theirexcavation data, but also refusing to share theirlicense reports, thereby handicapping our effortsat actually understanding the past, which was thevery purpose of the investigations in the first place.This problem is not restricted to sites in Wendake;it also pertains to some of the sites in the greaterToronto area.

One of things that frustrated me while I wascarrying out this review was realizing that muchof the work carried out in the 1950s and 1960s,including almost complete site investigations(such as those at Forget or Warminster) were nevereven completely reported on, let alone published.The records of many of these excavations are stillavailable, and their examination would make forsuperb graduate student projects, making valuablecontributions to our understanding of Wendathistory. Other potential graduate projects thatcould make valuable contributions would be onesfocused on the sites around the Uxbridge Ossuaryarea, the lower and middle Trent River system, and


the enigmatic Beeton site and associated Loganvillage. During my research for this paper, I wasprivileged to view a roll-out map as long as a tableshowing hundreds of sites in historic Wendake,including those first recorded by Hunter andLaidlaw, that was prepared and updated over theyears by Peter Carruthers, as well as mapsmaintained by Jamie Hunter and Bill Fox.Knowing that our understanding of tribalterritories and the ecological parameters of sitelocations could be enhanced through GIS analysis,and having had significant difficulty at trackingdown exact locations of sites, I would suggest thatundertaking GIS-based analysis of all Wendat siteswould be an excellent graduate project for ageographically inclined student.

More generally, a central repository forHuron-Wendat materials, co-managed by theHuron-Wendat, could facilitate access to theirmaterial culture for researchers. Whether modelledafter, and perhaps associated with, SustainableArchaeology or stand-alone, this facility might alsobe a conduit for encouraging research in Huroniaand might allow for the establishment of dynamicpersonal relationships between archaeologists andthe Huron-Wendat Nation. Like any politicaljurisdiction, the true representatives of thejurisdiction will change with differentadministrations, and archaeologists must beprepared to accept instruction and change in thepeople with whom they deal.

Ongoing Research

There are some exciting research prospects, manysupported by the efforts of the Huronia Chapterof the Ontario Archaeological Society. In additionto Alicia Hawkins of Laurentian University’songoing work in Wendake, new research is beingundertaken by Gary Warrick and BonnieGlencross of Wilfrid Laurier University on theAllen Tract site. The screening of back dirt left bylooters resulted in the recovery of variousEuropean metal trade objects and more than 100glass beads that place the site clearly in GBP2—c.A.D. 1600–20. The site’s location, size, and dateleads Warrick and Glencross to believe it is the siteof the Attignawantan village of Carhagouha,

where, in 1615, Recollet priest Joseph Le Caron,accompanied by 12 Frenchmen, overwintered.Their research has included gradiometer and metaldetector survey to try to locate Le Caron’s cabin,which was located outside of the village.

Other ongoing research includes work byArchaeological Services Inc. in association withMegan Burchell of Memorial University on thesourcing of marine shell and walrus ivory objectsrecovered from fifteenth-century sites in the LyndeCreek drainage. Archaeological Services Inc.,Jennifer Birch of the University of Georgia andWilliam Fox are also collaborating with AdrianBurke, Claude Chapdelaine, Anne Baron andtheir colleagues in a steatite sourcing project.

Jennifer Birch and her students carried outgradiometer work on the Spang site to define itslimits and to determine the nature of the palisadeand interior village patterning of houses. Furtherarchaeological definition was also undertaken atthe large Trent-Foster village in the upper TrentRiver valley. Research at Trent-Foster will involveTrent University, Archaeological Services Inc., andJennifer Birch and is being led by William Fox.

John Hart is continuing his work trackingethnic traditions or territories by employing socialnetwork analysis using ceramic attributes. Hismore recent work includes more Ontario datasupplied by Jennifer Birch, Susan Demarkar of theUniversity of Toronto (Mississauga), andArchaeological Services Inc.

Ongoing PhD dissertation research, of whichI am aware, includes that by Greg Braun at theUniversity of Toronto (Mississauga) involvinginnovative analytical techniques for ceramicpetrography and leading to insights concerningrelationships within Iroquoian communities,religious practices, and the “lives” of objects. SusanDemarkar, also, is examining ceramics andexchange networks, of the Keffer site in the DonRiver drainage. Sarah Striker of Arizona StateUniversity is looking at the social dynamics ofcoalescence, focusing on how individual andcollective social relationships changed throughoutthe process and how such relationshipscontributed to coalescence. She is doing so usingfour of the sites in the Duffins-Rouge ancestralWendat sequence, including Burkholder 2,


Draper, Spang, and Mantle. Mariane Gaudreau ofSimon Fraser University is developing acollaborative research program with the Huron-Wendat community in Wendake, focusing onWendat conceptions of ethnicity and culturalaffiliation to explain their ties with the St-Lawrence Iroquoians. Her research will attempt toreconcile oral tradition and archaeologicalinterpretations.

The University of Waterloo, in conjunctionwith Robert MacDonald; Peter Carruthers;Suzanne Needs-Howarth and Chris Junker-Andersen; and staff from Archaeological ServicesInc., is completing a thorough review of theartifact assemblages and data from theQuackenbush site in the Trent River valley in aneffort to define its nature and relationships withother Wendat sites.

In the fall of 2013, the Huron-WendatNation of Wendake, Quebec, repatriated thehuman remains and associated grave goods from12 Wendat ancestral archaeological sites. Theremains of approximately 1,760 people werereburied at the Thonnakona (Kleinburg) Ossuary,on land owned by the Ontario Heritage Trust.The reburial, attended by Wendat, Wyandot, andother Indigenous peoples, followed years ofdiscussion and planning between the Huron-Wendat Nation and the University of Toronto (fora detailed account, see Pfeiffer and Lesage 2014).

The protocol signed by the Wendat and theUniversity specified the retention of small samplesof tissue (one tooth per person and small samplesof disease-altered bone), which will helparchaeologists and biological anthropologists, in acollaborative effort with the Huron-Wendat, toadvance our understanding about the lives of theseWendat ancestors (e.g., diet, health, diseases,origin of populations). The success of this protocolto achieve these goals has been demonstrated in apilot study using remains from other Wendat sitesand one Neutral site (Pfeiffer et al. 2014).

The Huron-Wendat Nation is also planningto undertake a long-term research project on thefifteenth-century Auhoindio site found recently aspart of the Highway 407 east extension project,along the north shore of Lake Ontario. This

project will not only provide a betterunderstanding of the links between communitiesin the lower Trent River valley and St. LawrenceIroquoian populations in eastern Ontario andQuebec, but it will also allow for a Wendat-runproject at which Wendat students can be trainedin their archaeology and history. With this andsimilar involvement by the Wendat indevelopment projects that affect their interests,archaeologists and historians working with theirrecord in Ontario will find a fully engaged andcollaborative research partner with well-definedgoals and objectives.

Acknowledgements. This paper was prepared at therequest of the Huron-Wendat Nation, whoserepresentatives working on the Ontario file foundthat there was no comprehensive account of pastand present archaeological research of their formeroccupancy of Ontario. I was, in turn, surprisedthat no such document existed for historicWendake. At least summaries of most of the northshore site sequences had been prepared previouslyon a number of occasions. While NormanEmerson, Jim Wright, and Peter Ramsden, inparticular, had outlined early notions of theculture history of north shore sites and drainagesequences, the first such summary that ASIprepared was in 1998, when David Robertson,Martin Cooper, and I (Williamson et al. 1998)detailed our understanding of the culture historyof ancestral Wendat occupation of the HumberRiver valley in order to design a framework forinterpreting new, extensive excavations at theParsons site. This and subsequent summaries wereinformed by an understanding that north shorecommunities were politically autonomous andthat our challenges, among many, were to sort outthe history of the sequences of which they were apart, as well as the social, political, and economicnetworks in which they participated. TheParsons/Humber summary was followed by asimilar piece in 2003 prepared by RobertMacDonald, Stephen Cox Thomas, and me tocontextualize the Moatfield site and ossuarywithin the Don River valley. David Robertson andI followed this up with a 2005 synthesis of the pre-


1690 Indigenous settlement history of the NorthPickering Development Planning Area (Seaton)and adjacent lands, which used data fromPoulton’s 1979 survey of the NTIA lands,Finlayson’s 1985 analysis of the Draper site, andthe research of others. This 2005 synthesisoutlined what was essentially an ancestral Wendathistory of the Duffins–Rouge drainage. JenniferBirch’s subsequent 2010 analysis of the Draper toMantle sequence—undertaken in the context ofsituating villages in the transitional sequence ofpre-coalescence through post-coalescence—advanced significantly our understanding of howto interpret these sites and allowed her and me, inChapter 3 of the Mantle site volume (Birch andWilliamson 2013a), to update and summarizethese and other north shore sequences moremeaningfully. That chapter thus represents themajor source for the north shore sequences here. Ithank Jennifer Birch for her research collaborationon that and many other related matters over thepast several years. I should note that I haveupdated all of these sequences, however, with newsite data that we had both intentionally andunintentionally excluded from the Mantle volumediscussion.

I am very grateful to a number of othercolleagues for informative discussions: PeterCarruthers, Martin Cooper, Neal Ferris, WilliamFox, Charles Garrad, Jamie Hunter, MargieKenedy, Dean Knight, Marti Latta, Louis Lesage,Rob MacDonald, Lisa Merritt, Robert Pearce,Susan Pfeiffer, Rob Pihl, Dana Poulton, PaulRacher, David Robertson, David Smith, JohnSteckley, Debbie Steiss, and Gary Warrick. CarolBella, Andrea Carnevale, Alexis Dunlop, JoanKanigan, Debbie Steiss, Claire van Nierop, andThanos Webb provided much appreciatedresearch assistance. Peter Carruthers, MartinCooper, Jamie Hunter, and Louis Lesage readearlier drafts of the manuscript and providedvaluable comments, while William Fox and GaryWarrick contributed significantly as reviewers forthe article. Suzanne Needs-Howarth alsoidentified numerous areas requiring clarificationduring her expert copyediting of the paper. ShadyAbbas undertook the daunting task of mapping

many of the sites that are mentioned in text, usingdata derived from an exercise that Shadyundertook for the Huron-Wendat Nation ofmapping all Huron-Wendat sites in southernOntario on a GIS platform.

I am also grateful for the opportunities I havehad to work with members of the Huron-WendatNation—in particular, Louis Lesage, MélanieVincent, Simon Picard, and Line Gros-Louis—onthis and other, related projects.

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Ministry of Tourism, Culture and Sport,Toronto.Report on the 2007 Stage 1–2 ArchaeologicalAssessment of the Proposed Diamond ValleySubdivision, Part of Lot 3, Concession 7,Geographic Township of Oro, Township ofOro-Medonte (Coulson), Simcoe County.Report on file, Ontario Ministry of Tourism,Culture and Sport, Toronto.Stage 3 Site-Specific Assessment: AllandaleSite (BcGw-69), Part of Lot 8 & 9,Concession 14, Geographic Township ofInnisfil, City of Barrie. Report on file,Ontario Ministry of Tourism, Culture andSport, Toronto.

The Chew Site: A Case Study in the Value ofArchived Artifact Collections. Paperpresented at the Annual Symposium of theOntario Archaeological Society,Peterborough, Ontario. Ms. on file,Archaeological Services Inc., Toronto.

The People of Fairty: An OsteologicalAnalysis of an Iroquois Ossuary. NationalMuseum of Canada Bulletin 193:28-129.The Serpent Mounds Site, PhysicalAnthropology. Art and ArchaeologyOccasional Paper 11. Royal OntarioMuseum, Toronto.

Stage 3 & 4 Archaeological Assessment,Lougheed Site (BbGw-13), City of Barrie,Simcoe County, Former Township ofInnisfil. Report on file, Ontario Ministry ofTourism, Culture and Sport, Toronto.Stage 4 Archaeological Assessment, GregorSite (BbGw-16), City of Barrie, SimcoeCounty, and Former Township of Innisfil.Report on file, Ontario Ministry of Tourism,Culture and Sport, Toronto.Executive Summary of Osteological RecoveryOperations, Little Lake Park Ossuary, Townof Midland, Ontario. Report on file, OntarioMinistry of Tourism, Culture and Sport,Toronto.

Archaeological Resource Assessment ofSomerset Gables Property, Part of Lots 101and 102, Concession 1 (Former Township ofTay), Town of Midland, Simcoe County,Ontario. Report on file, Ontario Ministry ofTourism, Culture and Sport, Toronto.

1990

1991

1993

1995

1998

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Archaeological Investigation of theHoughton Ossuaries. Report on file, OntarioMinistry of Tourism, Culture and Sport,Toronto.An Archaeological Resource Assessment ofthe TTC Eglinton West Rapid Transit Line,City of Toronto. Report on file, OntarioMinistry of Tourism, Culture and Sport,Toronto.An Archaeological Assessment of ProposedPit Application (Varcoe Pit No. 2), part ofLot 72, Concession 2, WPR, Township ofFlos, Simcoe County, Ontario. Report onfile, Ontario Ministry of Tourism Cultureand Sport, Toronto.An Archaeological Resource Assessment ofDraft Plan of Subdivision (43T-95021), Partof Lots 101 and 102, Concession 1 (FormerTownship of Tay), Town of Midland, SimcoeCounty, Ontario—Stage 3 Assessment of theJones Site (BeGx-8). Report on file, OntarioMinistry of Tourism, Culture and Sport,Toronto.Final Report on Archaeological SalvageExcavation of the Murphy-Goulding Site(AlGu-3), Town of Richmond Hill, RegionalMunicipality of York. Report on file, OntarioMinistry of Tourism, Culture and Sport,Toronto.Final Report on the Human RemainsRecovered During Staines RoadInvestigation, Regional Municipality of York,Ontario. Report on file, Ontario Ministry ofTourism, Culture and Sport, Toronto.Stage 1 and 2 Archaeological ResourceAssessment of Part of Lots 1, 2, and 3,Concession 10, Town of Markham RegionalMunicipality of York, Ontario and Stage 3Archaeological Resource Assessment of theMilroy Site (AlGt-1).Final Report on the Human RemainsRecovered During the 1999 Stage 4 SalvageExcavations at the Jarret-Lahmer Site (AlGv-18), Lot 17, Concession 5 (WYS) FormerTownship of Vaughan, RegionalMunicipality of York, Ontario. Report onfile, Ontario Ministry of Tourism, Cultureand Sport, Toronto.Stage 1 and 2 Archaeological AssessmentVillage Securities Property Proposed Plan ofSubdivision SC-T19990003 Part Lot 12,Concession 4 (Former City of Scarborough)City of Toronto. Revised Interim Report.

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2003

2004a

2004b

2005a

2005b

2005c

2005d

Report on file, Ontario Ministry of Tourism,Culture and Sport, Toronto.McGaw Site (AlGu-88) ArchaeologicalInterpretive Program Results of the 2003Field Season. Report on file, OntarioMinistry of Tourism, Culture and Sport,Toronto.Stage 3 Archaeological Assessment of theBurkholder 1 Site (AlGt-19) on the Cornell-Jennora Lands Parts Lots 9 and 10,Concession 9, Town of Markham, RegionalMunicipality of York, Ontario. Report onfile, Ontario Ministry of Tourism, Cultureand Sport, Toronto.Archaeological Test Excavations on the Eastand South Peripheries of the Jones Site(BeGx-8), Draft Plan of Subdivision (43T-95021), Part of Lots 101 and 102,Concession 1 (Former Township of Tay),Town of Midland, Simcoe County,Ontario—Stage 3 Assessment of the JonesSite (BeGx-8). Report on file, OntarioMinistry of Tourism, Culture and Sport,Toronto.The Stage 3–4 Salvage Excavations of theBurkholder 2 Site (AlGt-35) Lot 8,Concession 9, Geographic Township ofMarkham Box Grove Secondary PlanningArea, Box Grove Hill Development Lands,Town of Markham, Regional Municipality ofYork, Ontario. Report on file, OntarioMinistry of Tourism, Culture and Sport,Toronto.Archaeological Investigation of the TestonSite Ossuary, City of Vaughan, RegionalMunicipality of York, Ontario. Report onfile, Cemeteries Regulation Unit, Ministry ofConsumer Services, and ArchaeologicalServices Inc., Toronto.The Stage 3–4 Archaeological Excavations ofthe Somme Site (AlGu-239), Block 11, OPA400, Draft Plan 19T-95044, Part Lot 18,Concession 2, City of Vaughan, RegionalMunicipality of York, Ontario. Report onfile, Ontario Ministry of Tourism, Cultureand Sport, Toronto.The Archaeology of the Wellington Site(BcGw-55): A Report on the Stage 4 SalvageExcavations of the Wellington Site, HollySecondary Planning Area (43T-92023), Partof the East Half of Lot 3, Concession 12,City of Barrie, Simcoe County, Ontario.Report on file, Ontario Ministry of Tourism,

2006a

2006b

2006c

2006d

2008a

2008b

2008c

Culture and Sport, Toronto.http://www.archaeologicalservices.on.ca/web.nsf/page/Site+Reports!OpenDocument(April 2014)Stage 4 Archaeological Assessment of theNew Site (AlGt-36). Ibrans Box GroveProperty, Draft Plan of Subdivision 19TM-04001, Town of Markham, RegionalMunicipality of York, Ontario. Report onfile, Ontario Ministry of Tourism, Cultureand Sport, Toronto.http://www.archaeologicalservices.on.ca/web.nsf/page/Site+Reports!OpenDocument,(April 2014).Stage 4 Archaeological Excavation of the MillStreet Site (AlGu-77), Block 12 OPA 400,Draft Plan 19T-99V08, Part of Lot 23,Concession 2, City of Vaughan, RegionalMunicipality of York, Ontario. Report onfile, Ontario Ministry of Tourism, Cultureand Sport, Toronto.The Stage 4 Salvage excavation of the Bakersite (AkGu-15) Lot 11 Concession 2 (WYS)Block 10 O.P.A. 400 Former Township ofVaughan, City of Vaughan, RegionalMunicipality of York, Ontario. Report onfile, Ontario Ministry of Tourism, Cultureand Sport, Toronto.The Archaeology of the Dykstra Site (BbGw-5). A Report on the Stage 4 SalvageExcavations of the Holly Secondary PlanningArea (43T-92026), Part of the NorthwestHalf of Lot 2, Concession 12, City of Barrie,Simcoe County, Ontario. Report on file,Ontario Ministry of Tourism, Culture andSport, Toronto.http://www.archaeologicalservices.on.ca/web.nsf/page/Site+Reports!OpenDocument,(April 2014).Report on the Stage 3–4 Salvage Excavationof the Alexandra Site (AkGt-53), Draft Planof Subdivision SC-T20000001 (55T-00601), Geographic Township ofScarborough, now in the City of Toronto,Ontario. Report on file, Ontario Ministry ofTourism, Culture and Sport, Toronto.The Stage 4 Salvage Excavation of the OrionSite (AlGu-45), Lot 56, Concession 1W.Y.S.Town of Richmond Hill, RegionalMunicipality of York, Ontario. Report onfile, Ontario Ministry of Tourism, Cultureand Sport, Toronto.The Stage 3 Archaeological Assessment of the


2009

2010a

2010b

2010c

2010d

2011a

Gibson Site (BeGo-14), Township of Smith-Ennismore-Lakefield, County ofPeterborough, Ontario. Report on file,Ontario Ministry of Tourism, Culture andSport, Toronto.The Archaeology of the Holly Site (BcGw-58): Stage 4 Salvage Excavation of the HollySite, Dykstra Subdivision, Holly SecondaryPlanning Area (43T-92026), Part of theNortheast Half of Lot 2, Concession 12, Cityof Barrie, Simcoe County, Ontario. Reporton file, Ontario Ministry of Tourism,Culture and Sport, Toronto.http://www.archaeologicalservices.on.ca/web.nsf/page/Site+Reports!OpenDocument,(April 2014).The Archaeology of the Robb Site (AlGt-4):A Report on the Stage 4 MitigativeExcavation of the Angus MeadowsSubdivision 19T-95030 (Revised) Part of Lot1, Concession 8 Town of Markham RegionalMunicipality of York, Ontario. Report onfile, Ontario Ministry of Tourism, Cultureand Sport, Toronto.The Archaeology of the Walkington 2 Site(AlGu-341): A Report on the Stage 3 andStage 4 Mitigative Excavations of the Nine-Ten Property, Draft Plan of Subdivision19T-95066 (Revised) Part of Lots 16 and 17,Concession 2, City of Vaughan, RegionalMunicipality of York, Ontario. Report onfile, Ontario Ministry of Tourism, Cultureand Sport, Toronto.The Archaeology of the Hidden Spring Site(AlGu-368): Stage 4 Salvage Excavation ofthe Hidden Spring Site, Oxford WestSubdivision Development, Part of Lots 13–16 and 37–40, Registered Plan 1931, Townof Richmond Hill, Regional Municipality ofYork, Ontario. Report on file, OntarioMinistry of Tourism, Culture and Sport,Toronto.Report on the Salvage Excavation of theAntrex Site (AjGv-38), City of Mississauga,Regional Municipality of Peel, Ontario.Report on file, Ontario Ministry of Tourism,Culture and Sport, Toronto.http://www.archaeologicalservices.on.ca/web.nsf/page/Site+Reports!OpenDocument,(April 2014).Stage 3 Archaeological Assessment (Site-Specific Assessment) of the Wonowin Site(AlGs-329) City of Pickering, Regional

2011b

2011c

2011d

2012a

2012b

2012c

2012d

2012e

Municipality of Durham, Ontario. Reporton file, Ontario Ministry of Tourism,Culture and Sport, Toronto.Stage 3 Archaeological Assessment (Site-Specific Assessment) of the Sebastien Site(AlGs-341), City of Pickering, RegionalMunicipality of Durham, Ontario. Reporton file, Ontario Ministry of Tourism,Culture and Sport, Toronto.The Stage 3–4 Archaeological Excavation ofthe Hope Site (AlGv-199), Draft Plan ofSubdivision 19T-02V07 and 19T-02V08,City of Vaughan, Regional Municipality ofYork, Ontario. Report on file, OntarioMinistry of Tourism, Culture and Sport,Toronto.Archaeological Investigation of HumanRemains on Part of Lot 4, Concession 11,Scugog Island, Township of Scugog,Regional Municipality of Durham, Ontario.Report (Revised) on file, Ontario Ministry ofTourism, Culture and Sport, Toronto.The Stage 3 Archaeological Assessment (Site-Specific Assessment) of the Carl R. MurphySite (AlGs-368), City of Pickering, RegionalMunicipality of Durham, Ontario. Reporton file, Ontario Ministry of Tourism,Culture and Sport, Toronto.Stage 3 Archaeological Assessment (Site-Specific Assessment) of the Wilson Park Site(AlGt-28) City of Pickering, RegionalMunicipality of Durham, Ontario. Reporton file, Ontario Ministry of Tourism,Culture and Sport, Toronto.Report on the Stage 3–4 MitigativeExcavation of the McNair Site (AlGu-8),City of Vaughan, Regional Municipality ofYork, Ontario. Report on file, OntarioMinistry of Tourism, Culture and Sport,Toronto.Stage 3&4 Archaeological Assessment JosephPicard Site (AlGs-376), Highway 407 East,Lot 32, Concession IV Whitby Township,Former Ontario County, RegionalMunicipality of Durham, PreliminaryExcavation Report. Report on file, OntarioMinistry of Tourism, Culture and Sport,Toronto.Stage 3 Archaeological Resource Assessmentto Define the North Limits of the SkandatutSite (AlGv-193), Lot 24, Concession 7,Geographic Township of Vaughan, City ofVaughan, Ontario. Report on file, Ontario


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Ministry of Tourism, Culture and Sport,Toronto.Stage 3 Archaeological Assessment(Cemetery Investigation), Turnbull DriveOssuary (BeGu-30), City of Orillia, SimcoeCounty, Ontario. Report on file, OntarioMinistry of Tourism, Culture and Sport,Toronto.The Archaeology of the Mantle Site (AlGt-334): Report on the Stage 3–4 MitigativeExcavation of Part of Lot 22, Concession 9,Town of Whitchurch-Stouffville, RegionalMunicipality of York, Ontario. Report onfile, Ontario Ministry of Tourism, Cultureand Sport, Toronto.http://www.archaeologicalservices.on.ca/web.nsf/page/Site+Reports!OpenDocument,(April 2014—backdated 2012).Report on the Stage 3–4 MitigativeExcavation of the Damiani Site (AlGv-231),City of Vaughan, Regional Municipality ofYork, Ontario (Draft). Report on file,Archaeological Services Inc.Stage 3 Site-Specific Assessment of Site AlGs-452 Highway 407 East, Lot 1, ConcessionVI, Pickering Township and Lot 35,Concession VI, Whitby Township, FormerOntario County, City of Pickering and Townof Whitby, Regional Municipality ofDurham, Ontario. Report on file, OntarioMinistry of Tourism, Culture and Sport,Toronto.Stage 4 Archaeological Salvage Excavationand Monitoring of Site BaGv-75, Lot 10Concession 2, Township of King and Lots103-104 Concession 1 Town of EastGwillimbury, Bathurst StreetReconstruction, Regional Municipality ofYork, Preliminary Excavation Report. Reporton file, Ministry of Tourism, Culture andSport, Toronto.Stage 4 Archaeological Mitigation Salgo Site(AlGs-27), Highway 407 East, Lots 17 and18, Concession V, Pickering Township,Former Ontario County, RegionalMunicipality of Durham, Pickering,Ontario, Preliminary Excavation Report.Report on file, Ministry of Tourism, Cultureand Sport, Toronto.

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Les fondements de l’érudition moderne concernant l’histoire et l’archéologie Wendats ont été placés à la fin du XIXe siècleet au début du XXe siècle par l’entremise de chercheurs comme Andrew Hunter et Arthur Jones qui ont enquêté des centainesde sites et de sarcophages qui avaient été signalés aux autorités provinciales. L’objectif de leur travail, et de plusieurs quiont suivi, était la recherche de lieux qui pourraient être liés aux villages et aux missions mentionnés dans les premierscomptes rendus. Alors que des archéologues amateurs, universitaires et d’agences gouvernementales ont utilisé ces premièresétudes de sitesWendats dans leurs enquêtes au milieu du XXe siècle, une révolution dans la collecte de données archéologiquesa eu lieu lors des trente dernières années. Une grande partie des données demeure non publiée et d’autres données n’ont mêmepas été signalées. Ce document est un aperçu de la plupart de ce travail (surtout celui associé aux sites où de fouillesimportantes ont eu lieu), et il vise à fournir un guide à ceux qui souhaitent utiliser ces études pour approfondir diversaspects de l’histoire de la période historique ou des communautés ancestrales Wendats.

Ronald WilliamsonArchaeological Services Inc.528 Bathurst StreetToronto, OntarioM5S [email protected]

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