MIDWIFE TOAD

,,~---------------------------------------------CLASS Amphibia

.... ORDER ~ Anura

FAMILY Discoglossidae Alytes obstetricians

The midwife toad gets its name from the male's behavior. After mating, he carries the eggs wrapped around his body until

the young are ready to hatch.

KEY FACTS --------~~-------- --------------------------------------------------------~

SIZES

Length: Adults, 1-3 in.

Tadpoles, ' /2 in .

BREEDING

Sexual maturity: 12-18 months. Mating: April-November.

No. of eggs: Several clusters of

about 60.

Metamorphosis: From egg to

tadpole to toad, about 8 months, sometimes less.

LIFESTYLE

Habit: Solitary or in small groups;

common midwife toad hibernates in winter.

Diet: Small insects.

Lifespan: At least 5 years.

RELATED SPECIES

The midwife toad's family,

Discoglossidae, has 10 species; most toads belong to the family

Bufonidae, which has about 300

species.

• Range of the the midwife toad.

DISTRIBUTION

The common midwife toad is found in Spain, France, Belgium, and adjoining countries . Three other species are

found in Majorca, Morocco, Portugal, and western Spain.

CONSERVATION

Numbers are declining as habitats and breeding pools are destroyed by man . In some areas, midwife toads are bred in

captivity for release into suitable sites.

THE MALE TOAD AS MIDWIFE

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By carryi ng the eggs on his hind legs, the male toad can keep them out of the pond water, where they

likely to be eaten .

The eggs are joined together by tough threads wrapped around the male's hind legs. The tadpoles are not released into the water until they are large enough to fend for themselves.

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Four separate species of midwife toad are

found across Western Europe, North Africa,

and Majorca. Shy, nocturnal animals,

they give away their presence

by their ringing call.

~HABITAT During the day the midwife toad hides under stones and logs or in underground tun­nels. It often hides in dry, sandy soil, which it finds easier to dig into, using its forelegs and snout.

It emerges at dusk to

[

DID YOU KNOW?

• A midwife toad's poison can kill an adder in a few hours .

• Midwife toads can be found in the snows of the Pyrenees mountains, living at heights of 5,000-6,500 feet.

• The earl iest known amphib­ian lived about 350 million years ago.

forage for food but always returns to the same hiding places before dawn.

During the winter, the common midwife toad hibernates in its hole or in a burrow deserted by a small mammal.

• Unlike the thin tongue of many amphibians, the mid­wife's tongue is round and flattened . Its family name, Discoglossidae, means round tongue.

• In parts of France m idwife toads live in sand dunes next to the sea. They share this habitat with natterjack toads.

~ BREEDING The midwife toad is unique among other frogs and toads of Europe in that the male cares for the eggs until they hatch.

Breeding occurs in May. Once a female responds to the male toad's calls, he stimulates her into laying eggs. He fertilizes the eggs immediately and carries them on his body for several weeks until they are ready to hatch into tadpoles.

Both toads may mate with others, as well. The male carries on his legs all of the batches of eggs that he has

fertilized, attached by strings. The male keeps the eggs

moist as the embryos feed and grow on the yolk. When they are ready to hatch, he places his hind legs in the water at the edge of a pool. The tadpoles burst out of the eggs and into the water.

Many tadpoles do not change into toads until the following summer. The next year they are big enough to

breed.

Right: The toad's back is covered with poisonous "warts" which help to protect the eggs.

~ u:::

Above: A tadpole that is close to completing its development into an adult.

-§ Left: Black .~ tadpoles about ~ to hatch can ~ be seen inside ~ the eggs. OJ C1l E C1l cr: «

~ FOOD &: FEEDING The midwife toad crawls around the area close to its hiding place at night to search for food . It uses the end of its long sticky tongue to pick up its prey, such as beetles, crickets, flies,

~ DEFENSES The back of the midwife toad is covered with small warts. These warts give off a strong­smelling poison when the toad is handled or attacked. The poison is so powerful that the toad has few ene-

caterpillars, centipedes, and

millipedes. Tadpoles feed on vegetable

matter. They chew with tiny, horny teeth. Young toads eat smaller sizes of the same prey that adults feed on.

mies or predators. The poison also helps to

keep the egg strings on the male's back safe from attack.

The tadpole does not possess the poison and falls prey to fish and insects.

SPECIAL ADAPTATIONS

The Majorcan midwife toad has adapted to the harsh, dry conditions of th is Spanish is land. It is found only in deep canyons in the northern mountains . Its body has become flattened th roug h evolution to enable it to

squeeze into narrow crevices in the rocks. The o nly mois­ture available is in small, ra in­fi lled puddles o n ledges. Tad­poles are born and develop in these little pools .

Fossils of th is species have also been fou nd in Europe.

"'" CARD 1 3 COMMON FROG "~ _____________________ G_R_O_U_P_3_:_R_E_PT_I_LE_S_& __ A_M_P_H_IB_I_A_N_S_~~

~ CLASS Amphibia

ORDER Anura

.. FAMILY ~ Ranidae

.. GENUS Est SPECIES ~ Rona temporaria

The common frog, like all amphibians, begins its life in the water. It hatches from an egg as a fishlike tadpole before growing legs

and lungs as an adaptation for its adult life on land.

KEY FACTS SIZES Length: Males, 3 in. Females, 4 in.

Immature frogs up to 11/2 in .

BREEDING

Sexual maturity: 2-3 years.

Mating: Early spring. No. of eggs: 2,000-4,000. Metamorphosis: 12-14 weeks

from tadpole to immature frog .

LIFESTYLE

Habit: Solitary; sociable during

breeding season. Diet: Small insects, including flies,

beetles, crickets, slugs, snails,

centipedes, and worms.

Range of the common frog .

DISTRIBUTION

Lifespan: Up to 12 years in

captivity.

Range extends across northern Europe and east into the Soviet Union and Asia .

RELATED SPECIES CONSERVATION Close relatives include the edible

frog Rona escu/enta, the North

American bullfrog R. catesbeiana,

and the leopard frog R. pipiens.

Frogs were common earlier this century, but numbers have

declined drastically because of habitat loss and use in

laboratories. Pollution from pesticides and fertilizers also takes its toll.

LlFECYCLE OF THE COMMON FROG

~ lays 2,000 to

• • 4,000 eggs, called spawn . They are protected by a layer of jelly and clustered together.

The speed of the eggs' development depends on water temperature, but within a few days the tadpoles begin to grow. Their black bodies become clearly visible through the jelly.

©MCMXCI IMP BV/IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILETM

I Ten days later the tadpoles have eaten all the jelly and emerge to feed on algae. During the next 12 to 14 weeks, they develop legs and slowly lose their tails. Their gills are replaced by lungs so that they can breathe air when they leave the water in June. Adults return to breed two or three years later.

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As a tadpole, the common frog has gills

like a fish. As it matures, it grows lungs that

work when the frog puffs its throat in and out.

The adult frog can also breathe through

its moist skin, which allows it

to hibernate underwater.

~ HABITS

The common frog lives in grassy meadows and woods, on moors and marshes, along canals and rivers, and beside lakes and ponds.

During summer the com­mon frog is most active at night. It spends the day in damp, hidden places, such as

DID YOU KNOW? • Some frogs have a disease called neotony: they never develop into adults and remain tadpoles their entire lives. • The frog changes its skin color to camouflage itself

under a log or in reeds at the edge of a pond. Sometimes it emerges during the day to bask in the sun.

The frog hibernates from November to March either on land in a secluded spot, or underwater, hidden in the soft mud.

among vegetation . • During breeding season, males may attempt to mate with any moving object, thinking that it is a female. • The adult frog cannot feed underwater like the tadpole.

~ NATUREWATCH Common frogs can be seen in the spring when they return to the water to lay eggs. Males make noisy croaking sounds that make the frogs easy to find.

After hatching, thousands of

~ PREDATORS Hedgehogs, stoats, badgers, otters, grass snakes, and owls all prey on the common frog. The frog's thin skin and lack of defenses make it easy prey. Tadpoles are eaten by fish, ducks, newts, and various types of aquatic insect.

~ FOOD & FEEDING The adult frog eats snails, beetles, spiders, wood lice, centipedes, and worms. In fall the frog eats more to prepare for hibernation.

The frog sits motionless, waiting to ambush insects with its sticky, whiplike tongue. Once it catches its prey, the frog blinks its large eyes, causing them to push down into its mouth, thus forcing the food down its throat.

Right: Tadpoles eat algae until they are large enough to catch insects.

tadpoles can be seen swim­ming along the edge of the water.

Throughout the summer and fall common frogs can be seen in most parts of their habitats on dry land.

Left: Common frogs are now more common in backyard ponds than they are in the countryside. Even a small pond can support a thriving colony.

Man is a predator of the common frog: large numbers are caught every year for use in school and research labor­atories. In France and Bel­gium the frog is eaten in early spring, when the large edible adults are hibernating.

~ BREEDING The frog spends most of the year away from water, return­ing in spring to breed.

Male frogs gather at the water's edge, where they croak continuously to attract females. Once a male finds a female, he seizes her, jumps

on her back, and clasps her firmly. The two frogs remain locked in this position until the eggs have been laid and the male has fertilized them.

Adult frogs remain in or near the water for one to two months after mating.

Above: Frogs mate until the eggs have been laid and fertilized.

Left: The male has special pads to help him grip the female.

"" CARD 14 FIRE SALAMANDER ~ "" GROUP 3: REPTILES &: AMPHIBIANS ~ . \ 7

{ ... GENUS SPECIES ~ ~ Salamandra salamandra

ORDER .. FAMILY ~ Salamandridae Caudata

The fire salamander, widespread throughout Europe and parts of Asia, is distinguished by its brilliant coloration and striking

patterns, which serve as a warning to predators.

KEY FACTS

SIZES

Length: Males up to 6 in., of

which at least 2 in. is tail. Females

can grow to 12 in.

BREEDING

Sexual maturity: 3-4 years.

Mating: Usually in early summer,

but can take place in spring and

fall.

Gestation: Up to 8 months.inside

the females.

No. of eggs: 25-40.

LIFESTYLE

Habit: Usually solitary; sometimes

hibernate together.

Diet: Tadpoles: water fleas, small

worms, and aquatic insects. Adults:

worms, slugs, snails, and insects.

RELATED SPECIES

The alpine salamander is entirely

black and lives in the Alps. It gives birth to 1 or 2 very large, air­

breathing young.

() 1/

• Range of the European fire salamander.

DISTRIBUTION

Europe from Spain and Portugal in the west to the western

Soviet Union, Turkey, and . Israel in the east. Also found in

North Africa and Corsica.

CONSERVATION

Under threat from loss of habitat, the fire salamander has

also been collected for laboratory use and the pet trade. It is

now a protected species in much of Europe.

LlFECYCLE OF THE FIRE SALAMANDER

After an eight­month gestation period, the female deposits the tad­poles in a small pool of water. At this stage they are fully aquatic.

At approxi­mately three months, the tadpoles' feathery gills are replaced by lungs, and their legs develop.

Resembling a miniature replica of the adult, the young salamander leaves the water for life on land.

The typical fire salamander is

black with yel/ow spots, but throughout its

enormous range there is considerable variation.

In Spain and Portugal it has orange spots,

while in Italy, it has thick yel/ow stripes.

~ HABITAT The fire salamander requires a habitat with plenty of shade trees, moisture, and ground leaf cover. It can be found on hills at altitudes as high as 3,200 feet.

While salamanders seldom venture into water, they need to be close to a shallow

~ FOOD & HUNTING The fire salamander hunts mainly at night, and particu­larly after a rain. It moves through the leaves that litter the forest floor in search of slow-moving prey such as worms, slugs, snails, wood lice, earwigs, and centipedes.

source of water in which to deposit their young during the breeding season.

Because increasingly more trees in Europe are being felled for timber, the fire salaman­der's habitat is being threat­ened and, consequently, so is its survival.

After spotting its prey, the salamander seizes it in its jaws, shaking it from side to side before swallowing it.

In their tadpole stage, fire

salamanders feed on small c::

worms and other tiny aquatic I insects. '-'

Most fire salamanders hiber­nate from early winter until spring, sleeping under rocks or in crevices. From spring to early summer, they mate on land or in shallow water.

The male follows the female and nudges her with his head, trying to climb on top of her. She rejects his attempt and he

left: Born as tadpoles, fire ~ salamanders take three months to ~ undergo metamorphosis (develop ~ into adults).

finally crawls underneath her and releases a capsule of sperm. She picks up the sperm and pushes it into her cloaca, or genital cavity.

The eggs are fertilized and remain in the female's body until they are ready to hatch the following spring. Then, at night, she deposits 25 to 40 tadpoles into pools of water.

The tadpoles are an inch long and have brown and black markings. They have

Fire salaman­ders show considerable variation in their skin patterns and colors. But in every case the colors warn predators of the salaman­der's poisonous defense.

four legs and three pairs large, feathery gills behind their heads.

Three months later their lungs develop, they lose their gills, and they leave the water to live on land.

DID YOU KNOW? • The name fire salamander probably originated in Ger­many's Black Forest region . Logs were piled up next to the house for use in the win­ter, which provided ideal hi­bernating places. When the logs were thrown on the fire, the heat would wake the sleeping salamander, which would emerge from the log to escape the fire. • Salamanders are some­times mistaken for lizards. But unlike lizards, their heads are rounded and their skins

I ~ \I' SPECIAL ~ ADAPTATION The fire salamander protects itself from predators by se­creting a white sticky sub­stance called salamandrin from small pores located on its head and back.

The substance is powerful enough to kill small mammals and can cause an animal the size of a large dog a great deal of discomfort. It will even cause vomiting and tempo­rary blindness in a human.

Salamandrin-secreting pores

"" CARD 15 INDIAN PYTHON "~ ______________________ G_R_O_U_P_3_:_R_E_PT_I_lE_S_& __ A_M_P_H_IB_I_A_N_S_~~

GENUS &: SPECIES

A giant among snakes, the Indian python hunts by night, tracking its prey by scent and suffocating it in the powerful

and deadly grip of its coils.

KEY FACTS

SIZES Length: Up to 30 ft., but usually

shorter. Weight: Up to 350 lb.

BREEDING Sexual maturity: 3 years.

No. of eggs: 60-100, increasing

with age. Incubation: 60-80 days.

LIFESTYLE Habit: Solitary and nocturnal.

Diet: Small mammals, deer, pigs,

and monkeys. Lifespan: Estimated at up to 40

years, but 20-30 is more common.

RELATED SPECIES

There are 27 species of pythons,

and 39 species of the closely

related boas, which include the

biggest snake in the world, the 35-ft. green anaconda Eunectes murinus of South America.

SPECIAL FEATURES OF THE INDIAN PYTHON

The python climbs a tree by gripping the trunk with its scales and sliding up. It then wraps itself around a branch and hangs there until it detects an animal passing underneath .

Range of the Indian python.

DISTRIBUTION

The Indian python is found throughout southern Asia from Pakistan through India and Sri Lanka to southern China,

Malaysia, and the Australasian islands.

CONSERVATION

Hunted extensively for its skin, the Indian python has be­

come rare in many areas. It is officially listed as threatened

and is likely to become an endangered species.

Heat sensors:

Spur: The larger spur of the male

----;s used in mating.

Tongue: Used to sample air particles for the scent of prey.

The body heat of a warm-blooded animal can be detected by the python, using these highly sensitive heat receptors on its mouth.

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The Indian python is a deadly

predator: it can kill and eat animals

as large as a leopard. It has also evolved an

efficient system for incubating its eggs,

warming up its blood through repeated

twitching of its muscles.

~HABITS The python hunts at night, spending the day basking in the sun or coiled up in a cave or burrow. Its excellent sense of smell and good

night vision help it to hunt. By day, the pupils of its eyes are vertical slits, but at night they expand to allow in

more light, much like a cat's

eyes. The python identifies its prey by movement, rather than by the animal's shape.

A python prowling for food moves rapidly through the undergrowth with wavelike movements, or it may creep forward like an earthworm, using the scales on its stom­

ach for traction. It also climbs

~ BREEDING The python's ancestors were lizardlike reptiles with legs, and the python still retains a tiny pair of vestigial hind limbs. With these limbs the male lies alongside the female and taps the area around her vent, or genital opening. He continues until she allows him to mate.

trees to watch for its prey. The python is an agile swim­

mer and is often found near

water. It can dive and surface by pumping air in and out of its body, and it can stay sub­merged for up to 30 minutes .

A cold-blooded reptile, the

python must absorb heat from its surroundings to keep its muscles working. In northern India, the python cannot keep

warm enough to stay active throughout the winter, so it usually lies dormant for several

months.

Above: If a python is not able to produce enough of its own body heat, it will lie in the sun to absorb heat.

Inset: The python's sensitive eyes give it excellent night vision.

The female makes a shallow nest four months after mating and lays as many as 100 soft, sticky eggs. These stick to­gether, forming a mass of eggs, which helps to keep the individual eggs warm.

If the air temperature drops below 96.8° F, the mother will

~FOOD &: HUNTING The Indian python preys mainly on warm-blooded mammals, which it locates by using its acute sense of smell and the highly sensitive heat

receptors near its mouth . As it moves through the

forest, the snake tastes the air with its forked tongue and transfers the air particles to a pit in the roof of its mouth,

called the Jacobson's organ. This organ detects the scent of any prey that may be nearby.

As the snake gets closer to its

prey, its heat sensors, located on either side of its mouth, can

detect the warm-blooded animal from over a yard away. Darting forward, the python grabs its prey with its sharp,

~ PYTHON &: MAN The Indian python is a massive snake that can grow to 30 feet in length. Although most

stories about pythons' killing people are exaggerated, there are several authentic accounts. In Hong Kong, a baby was

devoured by an Indian python and, in Indonesia, one killed a fourteen-year-old boy.

While pythons are capable of killing humans, it is usually humans who kill them . Their

raise her body temperature by contracting her muscles­unusual behavior for co ld­blooded reptiles. She then wraps herself around them.

Right: Having been incubated at the correct temperature by its mother, a perfectly formed baby python emerges from the egg.

backward-facing teeth, wraps it in its coils, and squeezes. Every time the prey animal

breathes out, the snake tight­ens its grip until, eventually, the animal suffocates.

Having killed its prey, which may be as large as a small deer, the python releases its

richly patterned skin is greatly prized and, as a result, the Indian python has become quite rare in some areas.

The python is also used in snake charmers' acts, particu­larly in western India. The performers usually take the precaution of cooling the snakes to lower their blood

temperature and, conse­quently, dull their senses before starting a show.

hold and, starting with the head, swallows it whole. This

process can take many hours and the python may not need to eat again for months.

Below: Having suffocated this brown rat, the python slowly but surely begins to swallow it whole.

DID YOU KNOW? • The python suffers from stomach gas . Gases gener­ated in its stomach after eating may cause its body to swell up for several days .

• A 19-foot python was found with a leopard in its

stomach.

• A pyt hon only needs to eat the equivalent of its body weight in food each yea r, so

it m ay eat just once o r twice du ri ng that time.

"'CARD 16 FER-DE-LANCE \( ______________________ G_R_O_U_p_3_:_R~E_PT_I_LE~S~&~A~M~P~H~IB~IA~N~S _~~ ... ORDER ~ Viperidae

FAMILY Squamata

... GENUS &: SPECIES '11IIIIIIII Bothrops atrox

The fer-de-lance is considered the most dangerous snake in all of Central and South America. It causes more human

fatalities than any other American reptile.

KEY FACTS

SIZES Length: Average about 6 ft., but can reach over 8 ft.

BREEDING Mating: Year-round. Gestation: 3-4 months in

equatorial regions. No. of young: Around 60 live young per litter.

LIFESTYLE Habit: Mainly solitary. Diet: Small mammals and birds. Young live on frogs and lizards. Lifespan: Over 20 years has been recorded.

RELATED SPECIES Another fer-de-lance, Bothrops

lanceolatus, is found only on the island of Martinique in the West Indies. The Andean fer-de-lance, Bothrops andianus, lives in the mountains of Peru.

Range of the fer-de-lance.

DISTRIBUTION The fer-de-lance inhabits tropical forests in Venezuela, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, northern Argentina, the Guianas, and possibly Trinidad.

CONSERVATION The fer-de-lance is one of the most numerous of the pit vipers and is not endangered.

HOW THE FER-DE-LANCE KILLS ITS PREY

Weapons of attack: While snakes such as the boa constrictor, anaconda, and python use their muscular coils to crush or suffocate prey, the fer-de-lance relies on its lightning speed, accuracy, and highly toxic venom to first subdue and then kill rodents and other small mammals.

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SENSORY ORGANS

The fer-de-lance sees no better than humans at night, but it has heat-sensing organs in indenta­tions on both sides of its nostrils that act like infrared sensors, allowing the snake to "see" its warm-blooded prey at night.

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The fer-de-lance is frequently found on coffee

and banana plantations in Central and South

America, where unsuspecting workers are bitten and

often die from the snake's extremely toxic venom. Like

all vipers, the fer-de-lance attacks with lightning

speed that makes it almost undetectable.

~HABITS A terrestrial (ground-living) snake, the fer-de-lance lives in forest areas and along stream edges and ditches . It also searches for mice and rats in human-populated areas and on plantations.

When disturbed, the large pit viperwill take flight, but it also strikes at enemies if they come within reach .

Like other pit vipers, this snake has two indentations behind and above the nostrils that can detect a .0fF rise or drop in temperature. It

detects a warm-blooded mammal by the difference between its temperature and the surroundings'. Using the two pits as infrared sensors and its tongue for "taste" at night, the fer-de-lance lines up its head with the prey and strikes accurately in darkness.

Glands on both sides of the head provide venom to the fangs, and large jaw muscles inject it. This structure gives the fer-de-lance the wide, triangular-shaped head common of most vipers.

Above: The fer-de-lance can strike ani­mals too large for prey with­out injecting venom. In this way, it fright­ens off the intruder with­out wasting venom.

Below: The fer­de-lance feeds mainly on small mammals such as rodents. It tracks down prey by using two heat­sensing pits located behind the nostrils.

~BREEDING After mating, the female keeps the young in her body, mov­ing in and out of the sun to keep the developing embryos at a constant temperature. The litter contains 50 to 70 young measuring 12 inches long. Once born, the young snakes fend for themselves, feeding on frogs and lizards. The young climb trees, but they stop when they mature.

Juvenile fer-de-Iances often have brighter colors and patterns than adults. They also have yellow or beige tails.

Right: Milking a fer-de-lance of its venom. Frant-positioned fangs are a trait of all vipers.

DID YOU KNOW? • Two deaths resulted from one fer-de-lance bite when a plantation worker was struck on the foot and his

wife bathed the punctured area . Because she had fine cuts all over her hands, the

venom entered her blood­stream as well . She and her husband both died .

• Like all snakes, the fer-de­lance can climb and swim.

• The venom yield of a fer­de-lance averages about

~ FOOD Est HUNTING Mainly active at night, the fer-de-lance may forage or wait for prey in undergrowth at any time of day. It eats mostly rodents and other small mammals.

When about to strike, the fer-de-lance adopts the stan­dard viper position: its head and upper body form an S­shape. The snake flicks its tongue, tasting the air for

traces of prey. With a lightning strike it

injects a lethal dose of poison. On larger prey, it moves away

0 .004 ounce and can be as much as 0 .011 ounce. The lethal human dose is just 0 .002 ounce.

• A viper can strike so fast it is hard to tell it moved from the defensive S-position.

and waits for the poison to take effect. It then follows the scent trail of the now-dead animal and eats it.

Vipers are unique among snakes because only they have independently hinged fangs that lie flat against the roof of the mouth when the jaws are closed. The fangs move upright when the snake strikes, yawns, or draws prey into its mouth.

Reserve fangs located be­hind the fangs periodically replace a lost front fang.

"" CARD 17 GREAT CRESTED NEWT "~ ______________________ G~RO_U __ P_3_: R_E_P_T_ll_E_S_&_A_M __ PH_I_B_IA_N_S_~~ ... ORDER FAMILy .... GENUS & SPECIES

"1IIIIIIII Caudata Salamandridae "1IIIIIIII Triturus cristatus

The great crested newt is the largest of the European newts, a lizardlike relative of frogs and toads that has to return

to the water each year to breed.

KEY FACTS

SIZES Length: Female up to 61/2 in. (in­cluding 3 in . tail). Male smaller.

BREEDING

Sexual maturity: 3-4 years. Mating: Normally mid-spring . Eggs: 200-300 laid individually. Larvae: Aquatic, legless, with gills when they leave the egg. Even­tually develop into miniature

newts, growing front legs first, then hind legs.

LIFESTYLE Habit: Usually solitary, but sometimes hibernates in groups. Diet: Insects, worms, slugs, snails,

tadpoles, and spawn . Lifespan: Average 10 years.

RELATED SPECIES There are 8 species of newt in Europe, including the common newt and the palmate newt.

Range of the great crested newt.

DISTRIBUTION

Central and northern Europe in lowlands and hills up to 6,500 feet above sea level.

CONSERVATION

Pollution in waterways and loss of breeding sites have caused the great crested newt to decline. In some areas it

is protected by law and its population may be increasing.

lIFECYCLE OF THE GREAT CRESTED NEWT

5 Male: Displays bright colors and a crest grown during the breeding season .

3 Tadpole: Legs start to grow and the gills continue to shrink.

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1 Egg: 200 to 300 laid Individually by the female.

Nest: Female wraps each egg in a water plant.

2 Tadpole: Has no legs at this stage. Large external gills shrink everyday.

0160200281 PACKET 28

The great crested newt belongs to the

primitive amphibian class. Descended from

some of the first creatures to appear on land,

it has to stay moist to survive and never strays

far from water. It gets its name from the

magnificent crest grown by the male

during the breeding season.

~ HABITS The great crested newt is like an elongated frog with a tail. Like the frog, it is an amphib­

ian that lives both on land and in the water. Its soft, porous skin must stay moist, so it cannot live in dry places or bask in the sun like the scaly lizard .

On land, it hides under stones or logs by day and

Above: When oxygen levels in the water are high, the newt can stay submerged for a long time.

hunts in the damp grass or leaf litter at night. In spring, it breeds in water, remaining there until midsummer.

The warm summer weather keeps the newt's body tem­perature warm so it is active . When winter comes, the newt's body processes slow down to conserve energy during hibernation.

Right: As the tadpole develops, its bushy gills shrink until it can absorb oxygen through its skin.

DID YOU KNOW? • If a newt loses or damages a limb it grows a new one. But older newts lose this ability to regenerate.

• A great crested newt exudes a poisonous secre­tion from several glands along its back.

• Crested newts shed their

~ HIBERNATION Like all cold-blooded animals, the newt absorbs its body warmth from its surround­ings, so it cannot function during the cold winter. It hi­bernates until spring.

Some great crested newts hibernate underwater, but most leave the breeding pools by fall. Many hiber­nate in damp crevices in the ground or under stones. Sometimes several newts en­twine themselves in a ball in a safe place to conserve mois­ture and reduce energy loss.

Right: The adult newt regularly sheds its skin and often eats the nutritious remains.

skins periodically, some­times leaving them hanging intact on water plants.

• Great crested newt tad­poles that hatch late in the breeding season often spend the entire winter in the breeding pool, emerg­ing in spring.

~ FOOD & FEEDING The slow-moving great crested newt eats anything it can catch. On land it feeds on worms, insects, slugs, and snails. In water it eats small

shellfish, frogs' eggs, and tadpoles, including its own.

On land it watches for prey, alert for any movement. When searching for prey underwater,

~ BREEDING Every spring the crested newt returns to the same breeding pool. The male develops a long, serrated dorsal crest that gives the species its name. He begins a courtship ritual in which he vibrates his tail and nuzzles his mate to excite her.

Instead of passing sperm directly into the female's body, the male deposits it on the pond bed sealed in a small capsule called a spermato­

phore. The female picks up the

it uses its sense of smell and the complex system of pressure-sensitive cells on its head and flanks to detect vibrations in the water. Once

it is close enough, it flicks out its tongue to snare prey.

Useless for chewing, its tiny peglike teeth can only stop prey from escaping.

capsule through a vent in her belly, fertilizing the eggs. She lays up to 300 eggs, wrapping each one individually in the leaf of a water plant.

Tadpoles hatch in three weeks. They are semitrans­parent with feathery gills to absorb oxygen from the water. They feed on tiny aquatic animals and by the end of summer they grow legs and leave the water.

COMMON ADDER ,,'-------.. ORDER ~ Squamata

.. FAMILY ~ Viperidae

GROUP 3: REPTILES &: AMPHIBIANS .. GENUS &: SPECIES ~ Vipera berus

The common adder is a member of the viper family and is the most familiar venomous snake in Europe. Fortunately, when approached

by humans, it will flee rather than bite.

KEY FACTS

SIZES Length: Female, up to 30 in. Male, up to 25 in. Young, 6 in. at

birth.

BREEDING Sexual maturity: 2-3 years. Breeding season: April to May. No. of young: 8-12.

LIFESTYLE Habit: Solitary except during breeding and hibernating . Diet: Small rodents, lizards, and young birds.

RELATED SPECIES There are 187 species of viper, including 142 species of pit viper, which are sometimes classed in a

separate family, Crotalidae.

Range of the common adder.

DISTRIBUTION Found in Great Britain, except Ireland and the islands off northern Scotland; throughout Europe to the Arctic Circle; and in the Soviet Union.

CONSERVATION The population is declining due to loss of habitat, but the adder is not in danger of extinction. Natural enemies include the hedgehog, which is immune to the adder's venom.

FEATURES OF THE COMMON ADDER

Eyes: Vertical pupils allow the adder to see horizontal movements very well.

Female: Slightly larger than the male. Colored reddish brown with lighter markings.

Male: Vivid black diamond-shaped markings on skin that varies from yellowish to olive to gray.

Young: About 8 to 12 in a brood. May be covered in a thin membrane, from which they Quickly emerge.

Ears: No external ears Of ear­drums. Sound vibrations are felt through the snake's lower jaw.

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The common adder belongs to the viper family

and is found all over Europe. It can adapt easily

and makes its home in many different habitats,

from sand dunes to forests. Unlike most reptiles,

the common adder is capable of living

in cold climates and may be found

as far north as Finland.

~ HABITS The adder's activities depend on the time of the year. In spring and fall it often sun­bathes during the day, but in summer it stays in the shade until early evening.

In winter the adder hiber­nates under a stone, in a crevice, or in the burrow of another animal. As the tem­perature drops, it burrows deeper to escape the cold.

The adder's winter den is

Right: The common adder has the broad arrow-shaped head typical of the viper family.

often shared by 30 or more snakes, although groups of 300 to 400 have been re­ported. Other reptiles may occasionally join the group, including some that would normally fall prey to the ad­der but are tolerated during hibernation.

~ NATUREWATCH The adder can be seen from March to October. In spring and fall it can be found sun­bathing in open ground.

Many places post warn­ings of the adder's presence. Never attempt to touch one. Although bites are rarely fa-

~ FOOD & HUNTING The adder knows its terrain well and can easily locate its prey. Its territory usually in­cludes a body of water, where it preys on frogs, lizards, and water voles. It also eats mice and other small rodents.

The adder detects its prey by picking up vibrations from the ground or by following its scent. When the prey is with­in range, the adder strikes quickly, sinking its fangs into the victim and injecting it

Left: An adder lines up its prey, then coils before making its deadly strike.

tal to humans, they cause vomiting and diarrhea.

The adder usually avoids humans and slides away as soon as it detects them. It is more common to find the dead skin that the adder sheds as it grows (right).

with venom. The victim may run off, but the adder follows, knowing that the venom will take effect within minutes.

The adder devours its meal by swallowing it whole, start-

~ BREEDING During mating season males compete for the females by performing a dance. Two males face each other with the front of their bodies lifted from the ground. Swaying from side to side, they wrap themselves around each other until one forces the other to the ground. The victor mates with the waiting female.

The fertilized eggs are en­cased in a membrane and are

Left: Newborn adders stay close to their mothers even though they can fend for themselves.

Above: After poisoning its prey, the adder inches its victim, head first, into its mouth.

ing with the head. After a good meal it will not need to eat for a week.

DID YOU KNOW? • The adder can flatten its rib cage in order to show more surface area when basking in the sun. • The adder hibernates in the same den every year. The den is called a hibernaculum and may lie three feet underground.

incubated inside the female for about three months. In August or September the young rupture the membrane inside the mother's body and emerge as replicas of their parents. Some may emerge still inside the membrane.

The young are independent from birth but stay close to the mother for a few months. They catch worms and insects to eat. In the colder ranges, where summers are short, the female adder gives birth every two years.

AMERICAN BULLFROG

ORDER Anura

FAMILY Ranidae

GROUP 3: REPTILES & AMPHIBIANS ~ GENUS & SPECIES

"1IIIIIIII Rona catesbeiana

The bullfrog gets its name from its powerful call, which sounds more like the bellow of a bull than the croak of a frog. The bull­

frog's strong hind legs enable it to jump long distances.

KEY FACTS

SIZES Length: 6-61/2 in . Weight: 2 oz.

BREEDING Sexual maturity: 2-4 years after metamorphosis. Mating: Spring to early summer. No. of eggs: 10,000-20,000. Hatching time: 4-20 days. Metamorphosis: 1-3 years.

LIFESTYLE Call: Loud bellow. Habit: Solitary outside breeding season. Diet: Insects, snails, earthworms, small mammals, young birds, small fish and frogs. Lifespan: Up to 15 years in the wild; up to 8 years in captivity.

RELATED SPECIES

Closely related are the tiger frog, Rona tigrina, the edible frog, R. escu/enta, and the European common frog, R. temporaria.

Range of the American bullfrog .

DISTRIBUTION

Orig inally from North America, it was first introduced to

some Caribbean islands and then to Europe, where it is most common in northern Italy.

CONSERVATION

The bullfrog suffers from the effects of habitat destruction, acid rain, and pest icides polluting waterways.

FEATURES OF THE AMERICAN BULLFROG

Skin: Like a snake, a frog sheds its skin every few days. It pulls the skin away from its body with its mouth and then swallows it.

THE BULLFROG'S JUMP With its heavily webbed feet and strong , muscular hind legs, the bullfrog ~ilJII~ jumps long distances.

©MCMXCI IMP BV/IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILETM

Size: Unlike other . frogs, the male

bullfrog is larger than the female.

PRINTED IN U.S.A.

Eyes: The pupils are horizontal and slit-shaped. Special glands under the moveable lids protect the eyes from dust and grit.

0160200331 PACKET 33

Originally found only east of the

Rocky Mountains, this large frog has spread

west and is used in California to supply

the local demand for frog's legs. It has

also been introduced as a source of protein in

Jamaica and Cuba.

~HABITS The bullfrog often stays sub­merged with just its nostrils and bulging eyes showing. This position allows the frog to spot danger easily. Moveable lids protect the eyes from dust and grit, and a special gland keeps them moist.

The bullfrog has a strong sense of hearing. Its ears are located under the skin but the

Right: The bullfrog inhales air to swell its body. This increased size is used to ward off predators.

eardrums can be seen as rings behind the eyes. A male's rings are twice the size of a female's.

The bullfrog has a blind spot in front of its nostrils so it must turn its head slightly to one side to see prey.

With its green coloring, it camouflages itself and can "disappear" into its habitat.

~ BREEDING During the spring breeding season the male bellows loudly at night to attract females. During the day both the males and females hide in pondside vegetation, but at night the male moves farther out into the pond to establish a territory from which to call for females.

The male's call also serves to mark his territory. He warns

Bullfrogs like to eat underwa­ter. They often submerge themselves in the water be­fore eating prey caught on a stream or pond bank.

The bullfrog's larger size allows it to eat more types of prey than most smaller frogs.

Left: The bullfrog IS strong back legs enable it to leap great distances to catch prey.

DID YOU KNOW? • American bullfrogs can catch and eat bats. One African bullfrog found in a snake cage in the Pretoria Zoo ate 16 young cobras. • Most frogs leave hatching eggs and tadpoles to fend for themselves, but the male bullfrog may defend its tad-

intruding males with the call and sometimes grapples with them until they leave.

The female joins the male when she is ready to spawn­but not before. The male mounts her and clasps her behind her forearms, fertiliz­ing the eggs as she produces them. Rough pads on the male's thumbs help him grip the female securely.

Left: In colder regions a bullfrog tadpole may wait up to two years before transforming into a young frog.

It eats small fish, insects, and even frogs of its own species. It also preys on small mam­mals such as mice, snakes, and young alligators.

The tadpole uses the small, hornlike appendages around its mouth to gather algae and bacteria from the water. It also feeds on dead fish or animals found in the water.

poles from predators . • Each frog species has a distinct call that only the female of the same species responds to. If two species live in the same area, the calls become even more distinct so that the frogs do not become confused.

GREEN IGUANA

ORDER Squamata

FAMILY Iguanidae

GROUP 3: REPTILES & AMPHIBIANS GENUS & SPECIES Iguana iguana

The green iguana is a lizard common to tropical forests in Central and South America. Often it perches on a branch overhanging a

river, plunging into the water for safety if danger threatens.

KEY FACTS

SIZES

Length: Up to 6 ft.

Weight: Up to 9 lb.

BREEDING

Sexual maturity: 3 years. Breeding season: Varies .

No. of eggs: 25-60. Clutch: 1 per year.

Incubation: 90 days.

LIFESTYLE

Habit: Active by day, in groups. Diet: Leaves, berries, fruits, and

other plant material. Juvenile also

feeds on invertebrates.

RELATED SPECIES

Iguana delicatissima, a rare iguana

restricted to certain Caribbean

islands, and a subspecies, Iguana

iguana rhinolopha, which has

hornlike scales on its snout.

Original range of the green iguana.

DISTRIBUTION

Widespread in the tropical Americas from southern Mexico

to Paraguay and southern Brazil. Also occurs on some

Caribbean islands.

CONSERVATION

The green iguana is not endangered as a species, but the

populations in many areas suffer from hunting and trapping

for food and for the exotic pet trade.

Adult female:

Adult male: Gray-green scales. Well-developed throat flap and long , curved dorsal spines.

©MCMXCIIMP BV/ IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILETM

Lighter build than male, with smaller throat flap and dorsal spines.

Claws: Long and curved for gripping branches. Also enable female to burrow.

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The green iguana is one of the biggest and most

impressive of the lizards, with its long, whiplike

tail and large head. Its prominent throat flap

and the tall, comblike crest of spines that runs

along its neck and back give this tree dweller

a menacing appearance.

The green iguana is common over many parts of its range. It inhabits swamps, beaches, and savannahs, but it lives mainly in tropical forests.

Supremely able to climb trees and leap between branches, it forages from the forest floor to the canopy, up to 100 feet from the ground. It is often seen near water, and it regularly penetrates deep into the forest, where it basks in shafts of sunlight on

exposed branches. Though heavy, it can bal­

ance easily on the slenderest branch. If disturbed it drops to the ground and darts for cover. Water is the green iguana's safest habitat, and it will plunge from an over­hanging branch and remain submerged for several minutes until danger has passed. It is an excellent swimmer-it propels itself with its body and tail.

~ FOOD &: FEEDING The green iguana's diet varies with age. The adult is a plant eater, but in some areas it catches and eats small mam­mals and nestling birds. It feeds mainly on leaves, berries, and fruit. It also scavenges, but rarely on the ground. The juvenile, however, often scurries about the forest floor searching for invertebrates, including insects, grubs, worms, and snails.

Left: A green iguana tastes the air for scents.

Right: Like other reptiles, the green iguana warms its co/d­blooded body in the sun.

Far right: Deep in a burrow a green iguana emerges from its egg.

DID YOU KNOW? • The tail of the green iguana is up to three times its body length. • A threatened iguana erects the spines on its back to look more fierce. • If cornered, a green iguana strikes out with its saw-edged teeth and sharp claws and lashes out with its muscular, whiplike tail. • The adult green iguana has few natural enemies apart

The green iguana continues to grow throughout its life­time, but it may lose signifi­cant weight during seasonal food shortages. At such times it survives by using up fat reserves in its body. The fe­male relies on the same store of energy when she digs her nesting tunnel. She does not eat during this period and becomes noticeably thinner by the time she lays her eggs.

from large cats, crocodiles, and boa constrictors. A small juvenile may fall prey to a hawk or even another lizard. • Over 200 female iguanas live in a 500-square-foot communal nesting ground on an islet off Panama. • If a nesting female unearths another iguana's buried eggs while she is digging, she will immediately kick them up to the surface.

~ BREEDING After mating, the female igua­na lays her eggs in a tunnel, usually about a foot deep in soil or sand. This provides protection for her eggs and a stable temperature.

When making her hole the female iguana uses her fore­feet to scratch at the surface and her hind feet to kick away the debris. She hollows out a chamber at the end of the burrow where she lays be-

~GREEN IGUANA &: MAN

The delicate white flesh of the green iguana and its nourish­ing eggs are important sources of food for many people in South America.

Green iguanas are also trapped for the pet trade. They are popular with reptile collectors because of their unusual appearance.

Right: The iguana is intricately scaled and spined.

tween 25 and 60 eggs, the number depending upon her size. Then she refills the hole, kicking and pushing soil in with her feet and tamping down the surface with her snout. Before leaving she carefully scratches the dirt over the entrance to remove any traces of her digging. The bright green young hatch about three months later.

In some favorable areas green iguanas nest commu­nally, each female migrating there from the surrounding forest to lay her eggs.