Wikipedia's Featured Article - 2015-09-06 - Gilbert Du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette

Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette

Marie-Joseph Paul Yves Roch Gilbert du Motier deLafayette, Marquis de Lafayette (French pronunciation: [maki d la fajt]; 6 September 1757 20 May 1834),in the U.S. often known simply as Lafayette, was aFrench aristocrat and military ocer who fought for theUnited States in the American Revolutionary War. Aclose friend of George Washington, Alexander Hamilton,and Thomas Jeerson, Lafayette was a key gure in theFrench Revolution of 1789 and the July Revolution of1830.Born in Chavaniac, in the province of Auvergne in southcentral France, Lafayette came from a wealthy landown-ing family. He followed its martial tradition, and wascommissioned an ocer at age 13. He became convincedthat the American cause in its revolutionary war was no-ble, and travelled to the New World seeking glory in it.There, he was made a major general, though initially the19-year-old was not given troops to command. Woundedduring the Battle of Brandywine, he still managed to or-ganize an orderly retreat. He served with distinction inthe Battle of Rhode Island. In the middle of the war, hereturned home to lobby for an increase in French sup-port. He again sailed to America in 1780, and was givensenior positions in the Continental Army. In 1781, troopsin Virginia under his command blocked forces led byCornwallis until other American and French forces couldposition themselves for the decisive Siege of Yorktown.Lafayette returned to France and, in 1787, was appointedto the Assembly of Notables convened in response to thescal crisis. He was elected a member of the Estates-General of 1789, where representatives met from thethree traditional orders of French societythe clergy,the nobility, and the commoners. He helped write theDeclaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, withthe assistance of Thomas Jeerson. After the stormingof the Bastille, Lafayette was appointed commander-in-chief of the National Guard, and tried to steer a middlecourse through the French Revolution. In August 1792,the radical factions ordered his arrest. Fleeing throughthe Austrian Netherlands, he was captured by Austriantroops and spent more than ve years in prison.Lafayette returned to France after Napoleon Bonapartesecured his release in 1797, though he refused to par-ticipate in Napoleons government. After the BourbonRestoration of 1814, he became a liberal member of theChamber of Deputies, a position he held for most of theremainder of his life. In 1824, President James Mon-roe invited Lafayette to the United States as the nationsguest; during the trip, he visited all twenty-four states

in the union at the time, meeting a rapturous reception.During Frances July Revolution of 1830, Lafayette de-clined an oer to become the French dictator. Instead, hesupported Louis-Philippe as king, but turned against himwhen the monarch became autocratic. Lafayette died on20 May 1834, and is buried in Picpus Cemetery in Paris,under soil from Bunker Hill. For his accomplishments inthe service of both France and the United States, he issometimes known as The Hero of the Two Worlds.

1 Early lifeFurther information: La Fayette familyLafayette was born on 6 September 1757 to Michel Louis

The birthplace of Lafayette in Chavaniac, Auvergne

Christophe Roch Gilbert Paulette du Motier, Marquis deLa Fayette, colonel of grenadiers, and Marie Louise Joliede La Rivire, at the chteau de Chavaniac, in Chavaniac,near Le Puy-en-Velay, in the province of Auvergne (nowHaute-Loire).[2][lower-alpha 1]

Lafayettes lineage appears to be one of the oldest in Au-vergne. Members of the family were noted for their con-tempt for danger.[3] His ancestor Gilbert de Lafayette III,a Marshal of France, was a companion-at-arms who in1429 led Joan of Arc's army in Orlans. Lafayettes great-grandfather (his mothers paternal grandfather) was theComte de La Rivire, until his death in 1770 commanderof the Mousquetaires du Roi, or Black Musketeers, KingLouis XV's personal horse guard.[4] According to legend,another ancestor acquired the crown of thorns during theSixth Crusade.[5] Lafayettes uncle Jacques-Roch died onJanuary 18, 1734 while ghting the Austrians at Milanin the War of the Polish Succession and the marquis titlepassed to his brother Michel.[6]

1

2 2 DEPARTURE FROM FRANCE

Lafayettes father died on 1 August 1759. Michelde Lafayette was struck by a cannonball while ght-ing a British-led coalition at the Battle of Minden inWestphalia.[7] Lafayette became marquis and Lord ofChavaniac, but the estate went to his mother.[7] Devas-tated by the loss of her husband, she went to live in Pariswith her father and grandfather.[4] Lafayette was raised byhis paternal grandmother, Mme de Chavaniac, who hadbrought the chteau into the family with her dowry.[6]

In 1768, when Lafayette was 11, he was summoned toParis to live with his mother and great-grandfather at thecomtes apartments in the Luxembourg Palace. The boywas sent to school at the Collge du Plessis, part of theUniversity of Paris, and it was decided that he would carryon the family martial tradition.[8] The comte, the boysgreat-grandfather, enrolled the boy in a program to trainfuture Musketeers.[9] Lafayettes mother and her grand-father died, on 3 and 24 April 1770 respectively, leavingLafayette an income of 25,000 livres. Upon the death ofan uncle, the 12-year-old Lafayette inherited a handsomeyearly income of 120,000 livres.[7]

In May 1771, Lafayette was commissioned a sous-lieutenant in the Musketeers. His duties were mostly cer-emonial (he continued his studies as usual), and includedmarching in military parades, and presenting himself toKing Louis.[10]

Lafayettes wife, Marie Adrienne Francoise de Noailles, FrenchSchool 18th century

The next year, Jean-Paul-Franois de Noailles, Ducd'Ayen, was looking to marry o some of his ve daugh-ters. The young Lafayette, aged 14, seemed a good matchfor his 12-year-old daughter, Marie Adrienne Franoise,and the duc spoke to the boys guardian (Lafayettes uncle,

the new comte) to negotiate a deal.[11] However, the ar-ranged marriage was opposed by the ducs wife, who feltthe couple, and especially her daughter, were too young.The matter was settled by agreeing not to mention themarriage plans for two years, during which time the twospouses-to-be would meet from time to time, seeminglyaccidentally.[12] The scheme worked; the two fell in love,and were happy together from the time of their marriagein 1774 until her death in 1807.[13]

2 Departure from France

2.1 Finding a cause

Statue of Lafayette in front of the Governor Palace in Metz,where he decided to join the American cause

After the marriage contract was signed in 1773, Lafayettelived with his young wife in his father-in-laws house inVersailles. He continued his education, both at the ridingschool at Versailles (his fellow students included the fu-ture Charles X) and at the prestigious Acadmie de Ver-sailles. He was given a commission as a lieutenant in theNoailles Dragoons in April 1773,[14] the transfer from theroyal regiment being done at the request of Lafayettesfather-in-law.[15]

In 1775, Lafayette took part in his units annual train-ing in Metz, where he met Charles-Franois de Broglie,Marquis de Ruec, the Army of the Easts commander.At dinner, both men discussed the ongoing revolt againstBritish rule by Britains North American colonies. Onehistoriographical perspective suggests that the marquiswas disposed to hate the British for killing his father,and felt that a British defeat would diminish that nationsstature internationally.[16] Another notes that the mar-quis had recently become a Mason, and talk of the rebel-lion red his chivalricand now Masonicimaginationwith descriptions of Americans as 'people ghting forliberty'".[17]

In September 1775, when Lafayette turned 18, he re-turned to Paris and received the captaincy in the Dra-

2.2 Departure for America 3

1879 Alonzo Chappel print of Lafayette (center) being introducedby Baron Johann de Kalb (left) to Silas Deane

goons he had been promised as a wedding present. In De-cember, his rst child, Henriette, was born. During thesemonths, Lafayette became convinced that the AmericanRevolution reected his own beliefs,[18] saying My heartwas dedicated.[19]

The year 1776 saw delicate negotiations between Ameri-can agents, including Silas Deane, and Louis XVI and hisforeign minister, Charles, comte de Vergennes. The kingand his minister hoped that by supplying the Americanswith arms and ocers, they might restore French inu-ence in North America, and exact revenge against Britainfor the loss in the Seven Years War. When Lafayetteheard that French ocers were being sent to America, hedemanded to be among them. He met Deane, and gainedinclusion despite his youth. On 7 December 1776, Deaneenlisted Lafayette as a major general.[20]

The plan to send French ocers (as well as other aid) toAmerica came to nothing when the British heard of it andthreatened war. Lafayettes father-in-law, de Noailles,scolded the young man and told him to go to London andvisit the Marquis de Noailles, the ambassador to Britainand Lafayettes uncle by marriage, which he did in Febru-ary 1777. In the interim, he did not abandon his plans togo to America. Lafayette was presented to George III,and spent three weeks in London society. On his returnto France, he went into hiding from his father-in-law (andsuperior ocer), writing to him that he was planning to

go to America. De Noailles was furious, and convincedLouis to issue a decree forbidding French ocers fromserving in America, specically naming Lafayette. Ver-gennes may have persuaded the king to order Lafayettesarrest, though this is uncertain.[21]

2.2 Departure for America

Lafayette learned that the Continental Congress did nothave the money for his voyage; hence, he acquired thesailing ship La Victoire with his own funds.[22] He jour-neyed to Bordeaux, where La Victoire was being preparedfor her trip, and sent word asking for information on hisfamilys reaction. The response, including letters from hiswife and other relatives, threw Lafayette into emotionalturmoil. Soon after departure, he ordered the ship turnedaround and returned to Bordeaux, to the frustration of theocers traveling with him. The army commander thereordered Lafayette to report to his father-in-laws regimentin Marseilles. De Broglie, who hoped to become a mili-tary and political leader in America, met with Lafayette inBordeaux and convinced him that the government actu-ally wanted him to go. This was not true, though there wasconsiderable public support for Lafayette in Paris, wherethe American cause was popular. Lafayette wanted to be-lieve it, and pretended to comply with the order to reportto Marseilles, going only a few miles east before turningaround and returning to his ship. La Victoire set sail forthe United States on 20 April 1777.[23]

The two-month journey to the New World was marked byseasickness and boredom.[24] The ships captain intendedto stop in the West Indies to sell cargo, but Lafayette,fearful of arrest, bought the cargo to avoid docking at theislands.[25] He landed on North Island near Georgetown,South Carolina, on 13 June 1777.[26][27]

3 American RevolutionMain articles: Franco-American alliance and France inthe American Revolutionary War

On arrival, Lafayette met Major Benjamin Huger, awealthy landowner, with whom he stayed for two weeksbefore going to Philadelphia. The Continental Congresshad been overwhelmed by French ocers recruited byDeane, many of whom could not speak English or lackedmilitary experience. Lafayette had learned some En-glish en route (he became uent within a year of his ar-rival), and his Masonic membership opened many doorsin Philadelphia. After Lafayette oered to serve with-out pay, Congress commissioned him a major general on31 July 1777.[28][29] Lafayettes advocates included therecently arrived American envoy to France, BenjaminFranklin, who by letter urged Congress to accommodatethe young Frenchman.[30]

4 3 AMERICAN REVOLUTION

General George Washington, commander in chief ofthe Continental Army, came to Philadelphia to briefCongress on military aairs. Lafayette met him at a din-ner on 5 August 1777; according to Leepson, the twomen bonded almost immediately.[31] Washington wasimpressed by the young mans enthusiasm and was in-clined to think well of a fellow Mason; Lafayette was sim-ply in awe of the commanding general.[31] General Wash-ington took the Frenchman to view his military camp;when Washington expressed embarrassment at its stateand that of the troops, Lafayette responded, I am here tolearn, not to teach.[32] He became a member of Wash-ingtons sta, although confusion existed regarding hisstatus. Congress regarded his commission as honorary,while he considered himself a full-edged commanderwho would be given control of a division when Wash-ington deemed him prepared. Washington told Lafayettethat a division would not be possible as he was of foreignbirth, but that he would be happy to hold him in con-dence as friend and father.[33]

3.1 Brandywine, Valley Forge, and Albany

Further information: Battle of BrandywineLafayettes rst battle was at Brandywine on 11 Septem-

Lafayette wounded at the battle of Brandywine

ber 1777.[34] The British commanding general, GeneralSir William Howe, planned to take Philadelphia by mov-ing troops south by ship to Chesapeake Bay (rather thanthe heavily defended Delaware Bay) and bringing themoverland to the rebel capital.[35] After the British out-anked the Americans, Washington sent Lafayette to joinGeneral John Sullivan. Upon his arrival, Lafayette wentwith the Third Pennsylvania Brigade, under BrigadierThomas Conway, and attempted to rally the unit to facethe attack. The British and Hessian forces continued toadvance with their superior forces, and Lafayette was shotin the leg. During the American retreat, Lafayette ralliedthe troops, allowing a more orderly pullback, before be-ing treated for his wound.[36] After the battle, Washingtoncited him for bravery and military ardour and recom-mended him for the command of a division in a letter

to Congress, which was hastily evacuating, as the Britishtook Philadelphia later that month.[26]

Lafayette returned to the eld in November after twomonths of recuperation in the Moravian settlement ofBethlehem, and received command of the division pre-viously led by Major General Adam Stephen.[37] Heassisted General Nathanael Greene in reconnaissanceof British positions in New Jersey; with 300 soldiers,he defeated a numerically superior Hessian force inGloucester, on 24 November 1777.[38]

John Ward Dunsmores depiction of Lafayette (right) and Wash-ington at Valley Forge

Lafayette stayed at Washingtons encampment at ValleyForge in the winter of 177778, and shared the hard-ship of his troops.[39] There, the Board of War, led byHoratio Gates, asked Lafayette to prepare an invasion ofQuebec from Albany, New York. When Lafayette ar-rived in Albany, he found too few men to mount an in-vasion. He wrote to Washington of the situation, andmade plans to return to Valley Forge. Before departing,he recruited the Oneida tribe, who referred to Lafayette asKayewla (fearsome horseman), to the American side.[26]In Valley Forge, he criticized the boards decision to at-tempt an invasion of Quebec in winter. The Continen-tal Congress agreed, and Gates left the board.[40] Mean-while, treaties signed by America and France were madepublic in March 1778, and France formally recognizedAmerican independence.[5]

3.2 Barren Hill, Monmouth and Rhode Is-land

Further information: Battle of Barren Hill and Battle ofMonmouthFaced with the prospect of French intervention, the

British sought to concentrate their land and naval forcesin one location, New York City.[41] In May 1778, theBritish began to evacuate Philadelphia. On 18 May,Washington dispatched Lafayette with a 2,200-man forceto reconnoitre near Barren Hill, Pennsylvania. The next

3.3 Return to France 5

Map of the battle of Barren Hill

day, the British heard that Lafayette had made campnearby and sent 5,000 men to trap and capture him.On 20 May, General Howe led a further 6,000 soldiersand ordered an attack on his left ank. The ank scat-tered, and Lafayette organized a retreat while the Britishremained indecisive. To feign numerical superiority,Lafayette ordered men to appear from the woods on anoutcropping (now Lafayette Hill) and to re upon theBritish periodically.[42] Lafayettes troops simultaneouslyescaped via a sunken road,[43] and he was then able tocross Matsons Ford with the remainder of his force.[44]

Unable to trap Lafayette, the British marched fromPhiladelphia toward New York; the Continental Army,including Lafayette, followed and nally attacked atMonmouth Courthouse,[5] in central New Jersey. AtMonmouth, Washington appointed General Charles Leeto lead the attacking force. On 28 June, Lee movedagainst the British ank; however, soon after ghtingbegan, he gave conicting orders, causing chaos in theAmerican ranks. Lafayette sent a message to Washingtonto urge him to the front; upon his arrival he found Leesmen in retreat. Washington relieved Lee, took command,and rallied the American force. After suering signi-cant casualties at Monmouth, the British withdrew in thenight, and successfully reached New York.[45]

The French eet arrived at Delaware Bay on 8 July 1778,under Admiral d'Estaing, with whom General Washing-ton planned to attack Newport, Rhode Island, the othermajor British base in the north. Lafayette and Gen-eral Greene were sent with a 3,000-man force to partic-ipate in the attack. Lafayette wanted to control a jointFranco-American force but was rebued by the admi-ral. On 9 August, the American land force attacked theBritish without consulting d'Estaing. When the Ameri-cans asked the admiral to place his ships in NarragansettBay, d'Estaing refused and, at sea, sought to defeat theBritish eet.[2] The ghting was inconclusive as a stormscattered and damaged both eets.[26]

D'Estaing moved his ships north to Boston for repairs.When the eet arrived, it faced an angry demonstration

from Bostonians who considered the French departurefrom Newport a desertion. John Hancock and Lafayettewere dispatched to calm the situation. Lafayette thenreturned to Rhode Island to prepare the retreat madenecessary by d'Estaings departure. For these actions,Lafayette was cited by the Continental Congress for gal-lantry, skill, and prudence.[26] Lafayette wanted to ex-pand the war to ght the British elsewhere in North Amer-ica and even, under the French ag, in Europe, but foundlittle interest in his proposals. In October 1778, he re-quested permission of Washington and of Congress togo home on leave. They agreed, with Congress votingto give Lafayette a ceremonial sword, to be presented tohim in France. His departure was delayed by illness, andhe sailed for France in January 1779.[46]

3.3 Return to FranceIn February 1779, Lafayette reached Paris. For disobey-ing the king by going to America, he was placed un-der house arrest for eight days.[26] This was merely face-saving by Louis XVI; Lafayette was given a heros wel-come and was soon invited to hunt with the king.[47] Asthe American envoy was ill, Benjamin Franklins grand-son presented Lafayette with the gold-encrusted swordcommissioned by the Continental Congress.[48]

Lafayette pushed for an invasion of Britain, with himselfto have a major command in the French forces. Spainwas now Frances ally against Britain, and sent ships tothe English Channel in support. The Spanish ships did notarrive until August 1779, to be met by a faster squadron ofBritish ships that the combined French and Spanish eetcould not catch. In September, the idea of an invasion wasabandoned, and Lafayette turned his hopes to a return toAmerica.[49]

In December 1779, Adrienne gave birth to a son theynamed Georges Washington Lafayette.[50] Working withBenjamin Franklin, Lafayette secured the promise of6,000 soldiers to be sent to America, commandedby General Jean-Baptiste de Rochambeau.[26] Lafayettewould resume his position as a major general of Ameri-can forces, serving as liaison between Rochambeau andWashington, who would be in command of both nationssforces. In March 1780, Lafayette departed for Americaaboard the frigate Hermione,[51][52] from Rochefort. Hearrived in Boston on 27 April 1780.[53]

3.4 Second voyage to AmericaOn his return, Lafayette found the American cause at alow ebb, rocked by several military defeats, especially inthe south.[54] Lafayette was greeted in Boston with en-thusiasm, seen as a knight in shining armor from thechivalric past, come to save the nation.[55] He journeyedsouthwest and on 10 May 1780 had a joyous reunionwith Washington at Morristown, New Jersey. The gen-

6 3 AMERICAN REVOLUTION

eral and his ocers were delighted to hear that the largeFrench force promised to Lafayette would be coming totheir aid.[56] Washington, aware of Lafayettes popularity,had him write (with Alexander Hamilton to correct hisspelling) to state ocials to urge them to provide moretroops and provisions to the Continental Army.[57] Thisbore fruit in the coming months, as Lafayette awaited thearrival of the French eet.[58] However, when the eet ar-rived, there were fewer men and supplies than expected,and Rochambeau decided to wait for reinforcements be-fore seeking battle with the British. This was unsatis-factory to Lafayette, who proposed grandiose schemesfor the taking of New York City and other areas, andRochambeau briey refused to receive Lafayette until theyoung man apologized. Washington counseled the mar-quis to be patient.[59]

The young Marquis de Lafayette wears the uniform of a majorgeneral of the Continental Army. Painting by Charles WillsonPeale

That summer Washington placed Lafayette in charge of adivision of troops. The marquis spent lavishly on his com-mand, which patrolled Northern New Jersey and adja-cent New York State. Lafayette saw no signicant action,and in November, Washington disbanded the division,sending the soldiers back to their state regiments. Thewar continued badly for the Americans, with most bat-tles in the south going against them, and General BenedictArnold abandoning them for the British side.[60]

Lafayette spent the rst part of the winter of 178081 inPhiladelphia, where the American Philosophical Societyelected him its rst foreign member. Congress asked himto return to France to lobby for more men and supplies,but Lafayette refused, sending letters instead.[61]

After the Continental victory at the Battle of Cowpensin South Carolina in January 1781, Washington orderedLafayette to re-form his force and go south to Virginia tolink up with troops commanded by Baron von Steuben.The combined force was to try to trap British forces com-manded by Benedict Arnold, with French ships prevent-ing his escape by sea. If Lafayette was successful, Arnoldwas to be summarily hanged. British command of theseas prevented the plan, though Lafayette and a small partof his force (the rest left behind in Annapolis) was able toreach von Steuben in Yorktown, Virginia. Von Steubensent a plan to Washington, proposing to use land forcesand French ships to trap the main British force underLord Cornwallis. When he received no new orders fromWashington, Lafayette began to move his troops north to-ward Philadelphia, only to be ordered to Virginia to as-sume military command there. An outraged Lafayetteassumed he was being abandoned in a backwater whiledecisive battles took place elsewhere, and objected to hisorders in vain. He also sent letters to the Chevalier de laLuzerne, French ambassador in Philadelphia, describinghow ill-supplied his troops were. As Lafayette hoped, laLuzerne sent his letter on to France with a recommenda-tion of massive French aid, which, after being approvedby the king, would play a crucial part in the battles tocome. Washington, fearing a letter might be captured bythe British, could not tell Lafayette that he planned to trapCornwallis in a decisive campaign.[62]

3.5 Virginia and Yorktown

Further information: Southern theater of the AmericanRevolutionary War YorktownLafayette evaded Cornwallis attempts to capture him

A map of key sites in the Battle of Yorktown

in Richmond.[63] In June 1781, Cornwallis received or-ders from London to proceed to the Chesapeake Bay andto oversee construction of a port, in preparation for an

7overland attack on Philadelphia.[63] As the British columntravelled, Lafayette sent small squads that would appearunexpectedly, attacking the rear guard or foraging par-ties, and giving the impression that his forces were largerthan they were.[64]

On 4 July, the British left Williamsburg and prepared tocross the James River. Cornwallis sent only an advanceguard to the south side of the river, hiding many of hisother troops in the forest on the north side, hoping toambush Lafayette. On 6 July, Lafayette ordered Gen-eral Mad Anthony Wayne to strike British troops onthe north side with roughly 800 soldiers. Wayne foundhimself vastly outnumbered, and, instead of retreating,led a bayonet charge. The charge bought time for theAmericans, and the British did not pursue. The Battle ofGreen Spring was a victory for Cornwallis, but the Amer-ican army was bolstered by the display of courage by themen.[63][65]

By August, Cornwallis had established the British atYorktown, and Lafayette took up position on MalvernHill, stationing artillery surrounding the British, whowere close to the York River, and who had orders toconstruct fortications to protect the British ships inHampton Roads. Lafayettes containment trapped theBritish when the French eet arrived and won the Battleof the Virginia Capes, depriving Cornwallis of navalprotection.[5][66][67] On 14 September 1781, Washing-tons forces joined Lafayettes. On 28 September, withthe French eet blockading the British, the combinedforces laid siege to Yorktown. On 14 October, Lafayettes400 men on the American right took Redoubt 9 afterAlexander Hamiltons forces had charged Redoubt 10 inhand-to-hand combat. These two redoubts were key tobreaking the British defenses.[65] After a failed Britishcounter-attack, Cornwallis surrendered on 19 October1781.[68]

4 Hero of two worlds

Although Yorktown was to be the last major land battleof the American Revolution, the British still held sev-eral major port cities. Lafayette wanted to lead expe-ditions on them, but Washington felt he would be moreuseful seeking additional naval support from France. InPhiladelphia, Congress appointed him its advisor to thethree American envoys abroadFranklin in Paris, JohnJay in Madrid, and John Adams in The Hague, to com-municate and agree on everything with him. It also sentLouis XVI an ocial letter of commendation on the mar-quiss behalf.[69]

Lafayette left Boston for France on 18 December 1781.On arrival he was welcomed as a hero, and on 22 January1782 he was received at Versailles. He witnessed the birthof his daughter, whom he named Marie-Antoinette Vir-ginie upon Thomas Jeerson's recommendation.[70][71]

He was promoted to marchal de camp, skipping numer-ous ranks.[72] In 1782, with no treaty yet signed end-ing the war, Lafayette helped prepare for a combinedFrench and Spanish expedition against the British WestIndies. The Treaty of Paris signed between Great Britainand the U.S. in 1783 made the expedition unnecessaryLafayette took part in the negotiations.[73][74]

Lafayette worked with Jeerson to establish trade agree-ments between the U.S. and France. These negotiationsaimed to reduce the U.S. debt to France.[75] He joined theFrench abolitionist group Society of the Friends of theBlacks, which advocated the end of the slave trade andequal rights for free blacks. In 1783, in correspondencewith Washington, a slave owner, he urged the emanci-pation of slaves and their establishment as tenant farm-ers.[76] Although Washington declined to free his slaves(though expressing interest in the young mans ideas),Lafayette purchased land in French Guiana for a plan-tation to house the project.[77]

Lafayette and Washington at Mt. Vernon, 1784

In 1784, Lafayette visited America, where he enjoyedan enthusiastic welcome; he visited all the states exceptGeorgia.[78] The trip included a visit to Washingtons farmat Mount Vernon on 17 August. Lafayette addressed theVirginia House of Delegates, where he called for lib-erty of all mankind and urged emancipation of slaves.[79]Lafayette urged the Pennsylvania Legislature to help forma federal union (the states were then bound by the Articlesof Confederation). He visited the Mohawk Valley in NewYork to participate in peace negotiations with the Iro-quois, some of whom he had met in 1778.[80] Lafayettereceived an honorary degree from Harvard, a portrait ofWashington from the city of Boston, and a bust fromthe state of Virginia. Marylands legislature honoredLafayette by making him and his male heirs natural bornCitizens of the state, which made him a natural borncitizen of the United States after the 1789 raticationof the new national Constitution.[81][82][83][lower-alpha 2][84]Lafayette later boasted that he had become an Amer-ican citizen before the concept of French citizenshipexisted.[85] Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Virginia alsogranted him citizenship.[3][83][86][87]

Through the next years, Lafayette made his house, theHtel de La Fayette in Pariss rue de Bourbon, the head-

8 5 FRENCH REVOLUTION

quarters of Americans there. Benjamin Franklin, Johnand Sarah Jay, and John and Abigail Adams met there ev-ery Monday, and dined in company with Lafayettes fam-ily and the liberal nobility, including Clermont-Tonnerreand Madame de Stal.[88] Lafayette continued to work onlowering trade barriers in France to American goods, andon assisting Franklin and his successor as envoy, Jeer-son, in seeking treaties of amity and commerce with Eu-ropean nations. He also sought to eliminate the injusticesthat Protestants in France had endured since the revoca-tion of the Edict of Nantes a century before.[89]

5 French Revolution

5.1 Assembly of Notables and Estates-General

Main articles: Assembly of Notables and Estates-Generalof 1789On 29 December 1786, King Louis XVI called an

"Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen", proposedto the Estates-General by Lafayette

Assembly of Notables, in response to Frances scal cri-sis. The king appointed Lafayette to the body, which con-vened on 22 February 1787.[90] In speeches, Lafayette de-cried those with connections at court who had protedfrom advance knowledge of government land purchases;he advocated reform.[91] He called for a truly nationalassembly, which represented the whole of France.[92]Instead, the king chose to summon an Estates Gen-eral, to convene in 1789. Lafayette was elected as a

representative of the nobility (the Second Estate) fromRiom.[93] The Estates General, traditionally, cast one votefor each of the three Estates: clergy, nobility, and com-mons, meaning the much larger commons was generallyoutvoted.[94]

The Estates General convened on 5 May 1789; debate be-gan on whether the delegates should vote by head or byEstate. If by Estate, then the nobility and clergy wouldbe able to outvote the commons; if by head, then thelarger Third Estate could dominate. Before the meeting,as a member of the Committee of Thirty, Lafayette ag-itated for voting by head, rather than estate.[95] He couldnot get a majority of his own Estate to agree, but theclergy was willing to join with the commons, and on the17th, the group declared itself the National Assembly.[96]The loyalist response was to lock out the group, includingLafayette, while those who had not supported the Assem-bly met inside. This action led to the Tennis Court Oath,where the excluded members swore to not separate untila constitution was established.[97] The Assembly contin-ued to meet, and on 11 July 1789, Lafayette presented adraft of the "Declaration of the Rights of Man and of theCitizen" to the Assembly, written by himself in consulta-tion with Jeerson.[98] The next day, after the dismissal ofFinance Minister Jacques Necker (who was seen as a re-former), lawyer Camille Desmoulins led an armed mob.The king had the royal army under the duc de Brogliesurround Paris.[99] On 14 July, the fortress known as theBastille was stormed by the mob.[100]

5.2 National Guard, Versailles, and Day ofDaggers

On 15 July, Lafayette was acclaimed commander-in-chief of the National Guard of France, an armed forceestablished to maintain order, and under the control ofthe Assembly.[101][102]

Lafayette proposed the name and the symbol of thegroup: a blue, white and red cockade. This combinedthe red and blue colors of the city of Paris with theroyal white, and originated the French tricolor.[98][100]He faced a dicult task as head of the Guardtheking and many loyalists considered Lafayette and thosewho agreed with him little better than revolutionaries,whereas many commoners felt he was helping the kingkeep power. On 26 August, the National Assembly ap-proved the Declaration.[103]

On 2 October, the king rejected the[Declaration.[104]Three days later, a Parisian crowd, led mostly by womenshmongers, marched to Versailles in response to thescarcity of bread. Members of the National Guard fol-lowed the march, with Lafayette reluctantly leading them.At Versailles, the king accepted the Assemblys voteson the Declaration, but refused requests to go to Paris.At dawn, the crowd broke into the palace. Lafayettetook the royal family onto the palace balcony and at-

5.3 Decline: Flight to Varennes and Champs de Mars massacre 9

The oath of Lafayette at the Fte de la Fdration, 14 July 1790.Talleyrand, then Bishop of Autun, can be seen on the right. Thestanding child is the son of Lafayette, the young Georges Wash-ington Lafayette. French School, 18th century. Muse Car-navalet.

Tricolor cockade that Lafayette chose as the symbol of NationalGuard

tempted to restore order.[105][106] The crowd insisted thatthe king and his family move to Paris and the TuileriesPalace.[107][108] The king came onto the balcony, and thecrowd started chanting Vive le Roi!" When the unpopu-lar queen, Marie Antoinette, appeared there with her chil-dren, she was told to send the children back in. When shereturned alone, people shouted to shoot her, but when shestood her ground, no one opened re. Lafayette kissed

her hand, leading to cheers from the crowd.[109][110]

Sabre of an ocer of the volunteers of the National Guard, fea-turing a prole of Lafayette on the guard, c. 1790.

As leader of the National Guard, Lafayette attempted tomaintain order and steer a middle ground, even as the rad-icals gained increasing inuence.[111] On 12 May 1790,he instituted, along with Jean Sylvain Bailly (mayor ofParis), a political club called the Society of 1789. Theclubs intention was to provide balance to the inuenceof the radical Jacobins.[112] On 14 July 1790, Lafayette,before a huge assembly at what came to be known as theFte de la Fdration, took the civic oath on the Champsde Mars, vowing to be ever faithful to the nation, to thelaw, and to the king; to support with our utmost powerthe constitution decreed by the National Assembly, andaccepted by the king.[113] That oath was taken as well byLafayettes troops, and also by the king.[114]

Lafayette continued to work for order in the comingmonths. On 20 February 1791, the Day of Daggers,armed nobles converged around the Tuileries to defendthe king. Lafayette, who had been away dealing with dis-turbances elsewhere, returned to Paris, and succeeded indisarming the nobles. Members of the royal family wereincreasingly prisoners in their palace.[115] On 18 April,the National Guard disobeyed Lafayette and stopped theking from leaving for Saint-Cloud, where he planned toattend Mass.[100][116][117]

5.3 Decline: Flight to Varennes andChamps de Mars massacre

On 20 June 1791, a plot, dubbed the Flight to Varennes,almost allowed the king to escape from France. As leaderof the National Guard, Lafayette had been responsiblefor the royal familys custody. He was thus blamed byextremists like Danton for the near-escape and called atraitor to the people by Robespierre.[118] These accusa-

10 6 PRISONER

tions made Lafayette appear a royalist, damaging his rep-utation in the eyes of the public,[119] and strengthenedthe hands of the Jacobins and other radicals. Lafayettecontinued to urge the constitutional rule of law, but wasdrowned out by the mob and its leaders.[120]

A depiction of the Champ de Mars massacre. Lafayette is at cen-ter, with sword.

Through the latter half of 1791, Lafayettes standing con-tinued to decline. On 17 July, the radical Cordeliers or-ganized an event at the Champ de Mars to gather signa-tures on a petition to the National Assembly that it eitherabolish the monarchy or allow its fate to be decided in areferendum.[121] The assembled crowd, estimated at up to10,000, hanged two men believed to be spies after theywere found under the platform. At the head of his troops,Lafayette rode into the Champ de Mars to restore order;they were met with gunshots and thrown stones. Whena dragoon went down, the soldiers red on the crowd,wounding or killing dozens. Martial law was declared,and the leaders of the mob, such as Danton and Marat,ed or went into hiding. In September, the Assembly -nalized a constitution, and in early October, with a sem-blance of constitutional law restored, Lafayette resignedfrom the National Guard.[122]

5.4 Conict and exileLafayette returned to his home province of Auvergne inOctober 1791.[123] France declared war on Austria on20 April 1792, and preparations to invade the AustrianNetherlands (todays Belgium) began. Lafayette, who hadbeen promoted to Lieutenant General on June 30, 1791,received command of one of the three armies, the Armyof the Center, based at Metz.[124] Lafayette did his best tomold inductees and National Guardsmen into a cohesiveghting force, but found that many of his troops were Ja-cobin sympathizers and hated their superior ocers. Thisemotion was common in the army, as demonstrated af-ter the Battle of Baisieux, when the routed French troopsdragged their leader to Lille, where he was torn to piecesby the mob. One of the army commanders, Rocham-beau, resigned.[125] Lafayette, along with the third com-mander, Nicolas Luckner, asked the Assembly to beginpeace talks, concerned at what might happen if the troops

saw another battle.[126]

In June 1792, Lafayette criticized the growing inuenceof the radicals through a letter to the Assembly from hiseld post,[127] and ended his letter by calling for theirparties to be closed down by force.[126] He misjudgedhis timing, for the radicals were in full control in Paris.Lafayette went there, and on 28 June delivered a eryspeech before the Assembly denouncing the Jacobins andother radical groups. He was instead accused of desert-ing his troops. Lafayette called for volunteers to counter-act the Jacobins; when only a few people showed up, heunderstood the public mood and hastily left Paris. Robe-spierre called him a traitor and the mob burned him inegy.[128]

The 25 July Brunswick Manifesto, which warned thatParis would be destroyed by the Austrians and Prussiansif the king was harmed, led to the downfall of Lafayette,and of the royal family. A mob attacked the Tuileries on10 August, and the king and queen were imprisoned atthe Assembly, then taken to the Temple. The Assemblyabolished the monarchythe king and queen would bebeheaded in the coming months. On 14 August, the min-ister of justice, Danton, put out a warrant for Lafayettesarrest. Hoping to travel to the United States, Lafayetteentered the Austrian Netherlands, the area of presentBelgium.[129]

6 Prisoner

Lafayette was taken prisoner by the Austrians nearRochefort when another former French ocer, Jean-Xavier Bureau de Pusy, asked for rights of transit throughAustrian territory on behalf of a group of French ocers.This was initially granted, as it had been for others eeingFrance, but was revoked when the famous Lafayette wasrecognized.[130] Frederick William II of Prussia, Austriasally against France, had once received Lafayette, but thatwas before the French Revolutionthe king now saw himas a dangerous fomenter of rebellion, to be interned toprevent him from overthrowing other monarchies.[131]

Lafayette was held at Nivelles,[132] then transferred toLuxembourg where a coalition military tribunal declaredhim, de Pusy, and two others to be prisoners of statefor their roles in the Revolution. The tribunal orderedthem held until a restored French king could render -nal judgment on them.[133] On 12 September 1792, pur-suant to the tribunals order, the prisoners were trans-ferred to Prussian custody. The party travelled to thePrussian fortress-city of Wesel, where the Frenchmen re-mained in verminous individual cells in the central citadelfrom 19 September to 22 December 1792. When victo-rious French revolutionary troops began to threaten theRhineland, King Frederick William II transferred theprisoners east to the citadel at Magdeburg, where they re-mained an entire year, from 4 January 1793 to 4 January

11

1794.[134]

Frederick William decided that he could gain little bycontinuing to battle the unexpectedly successful Frenchforces, and that there were easier pickings for his army inthe Kingdom of Poland. Accordingly, he stopped armedhostilities with the Republic and turned the state pris-oners back over to his erstwhile coalition partner, theHabsburg Austrian monarch Francis II, Holy Roman Em-peror. Lafayette and his companions were initially sentto Neisse (today Nysa, Poland) in Silesia. On 17 May1794, they were taken across the Austrian border, wherea military unit was waiting to receive them. The nextday, the Austrians delivered their captives to a barracks-prison, formerly a college of the Jesuits, in the fortress-city of Olmtz, Moravia (today Olomouc in the CzechRepublic).[135]

Lafayette, when captured, had tried to use the Ameri-can citizenship he had been granted to secure his release,and contacted William Short, United States minister inThe Hague.[136] Although Short and other U.S. envoysvery much wanted to succor Lafayette for his services totheir country, they knew that his status as a French ocertook precedence over any claim to American citizenship.Washington, who was by then president, had instructedthe envoys to avoid actions that entangled the country inEuropean aairs,[137] and the U.S. did not have diplo-matic relations with either Prussia or Austria.[138] Theydid send money for the use of Lafayette, and for his wife,whom the French had imprisoned. Secretary of State Jef-ferson found a loophole allowing Lafayette to be paid,with interest, for his services as a major general from1777 to 1783. An act was rushed through Congress andsigned by President Washington. These funds allowedboth Lafayettes privileges in their captivity.[139][140]

A more direct means of aiding the former general wasan escape attempt sponsored by Alexander Hamiltonssister-in-law Angelica Schuyler Church and her husbandJohn Barker Church, a British Member of Parliamentwho had served in the Continental Army. They hired asagent a young Hanoverian physician, Justus Erich Boll-mann, who acquired an assistant, a South Carolinianmedical student named Francis Kinloch Huger. This wasthe son of Benjamin Huger, whom Lafayette had stayedwith upon his rst arrival in America. With their help,Lafayette managed to escape from an escorted carriagedrive in the countryside outside Olmtz, but he lost hisway and was recaptured.[lower-alpha 3][141]

Once Adrienne was released from prison in France,she, with the help of U.S. Minister to France JamesMonroe, obtained passports for her and her daughtersfrom Connecticut, which had granted the entire Lafayettefamily citizenship. Her son Georges Washington hadbeen smuggled out of France and taken to the UnitedStates.[142] Adrienne and her two daughters journeyedto Vienna for an audience with Emperor Francis, whogranted permission for the three women to live with

Early 19th century depiction of Lafayettes prison reunion withhis wife and daughters

Lafayette in captivity. Lafayette, who had endured harshsolitary connement since his escape attempt a year pre-viously, was astounded when soldiers opened his prisondoor to usher in his wife and daughters on 15 October1795. The family spent the next two years in connementtogether.[143][144]

Through diplomacy, the press, and personal appeals,Lafayettes sympathizers on both sides of the Atlanticmade their inuence felt, most importantly on the post-Reign of Terror French government. A young, victoriousgeneral, Napoleon Bonaparte, negotiated the release ofthe state prisoners at Olmtz, as a result of the Treaty ofCampo Formio. Lafayettes captivity of over ve yearsthus came to an end. The Lafayette family and theircomrades in captivity left Olmtz under Austrian escortearly on the morning of 19 September 1797, crossed theBohemian-Saxonian border north of Prague, and were of-cially turned over to the American consul in Hamburgon 4 October.[145][146]

From Hamburg, Lafayette sent a note of thanks to Gen-eral Bonaparte. The French government, the Directorate,was unwilling to have Lafayette return unless he swore al-legiance, which he was not willing to do, as he believedit had come to power by unconstitutional means. As re-venge, it had his remaining properties sold, leaving him a

12 8 BOURBON RESTORATION

pauper. The family, soon joined by Georges Washington,who had returned from America, recuperated on a prop-erty near Hamburg belonging to Adriennes aunt. Due toconict between the United States and France, Lafayettecould not go to America as he had hoped, making him aman without a country.[147]

Adrienne was able to go to Paris, and attempted to se-cure her husbands repatriation, attering Bonaparte, whohad returned to France after more victories. After Bona-partes coup d'tat of 18 Brumaire (9 November 1799),Lafayette used the confusion caused by the change ofregime to slip into France with a passport in the name ofMotier. Bonaparte expressed rage, but Adrienne wasconvinced he was simply posing, and proposed to himthat Lafayette would pledge his support, then would re-tire from public life to a property she had reclaimed, LaGrange. Frances new ruler allowed Lafayette to remain,though originally without citizenship and subject to sum-mary arrest if he engaged in politics, with the promiseof eventual restoration of civil rights. Lafayette remainedquietly at La Grange, and when Bonaparte held a memo-rial service in Paris for Washington, who had died in De-cember 1799, Lafayette was not invited, nor was his namementioned.[148]

7 Retreat from politics

1824 portrait by Scheer in the U.S. House of Representatives

Bonaparte restored Lafayettes citizenship on 1 March1800, and he was able to recover some of his proper-ties. The ruler oered to make Lafayette minister tothe United States, but was met with a rm refusal, asLafayette would not have anything to do with Napoleonsgovernment. In 1802, Lafayette was part of the tiny mi-nority that voted no in the referendum that made Bona-parte consul for life.[149] Bonaparte oered to appointLafayette to the Senate and to bestow the Legion of Honorupon him, but Lafayette declined, though he stated hewould gladly have taken the honors from a democraticgovernment.[150]

In 1804, Bonaparte was crowned the Emperor Napoleonafter a plebiscite in which Lafayette did not participate.The retired general remained relatively quiet, althoughhe made Bastille Day addresses.[151] After the LouisianaPurchase, Jeerson, by then president, asked if he wouldbe interested in the governorship. Lafayette declined, cit-ing personal problems and his desire to work for liberty inFrance.[152] During a trip to Auvergne in 1807, Adriennebecame ill, suering from complications stemming fromher time in prison. She became delirious but recoveredenough on Christmas Eve to gather the family around herbed and to say to Lafayette: "Je suis toute vous" (I amall yours).[153] She died the next day.[154]

In the years after Adriennes death, Lafayette mostly re-mained quietly at La Grange as Napoleons power in Eu-rope waxed, and then waned. Many inuential people andmembers of the public visited him, especially Americans.He wrote many letters, especially to Jeerson, and ex-changed gifts with him, as the Frenchman had once donewith Washington.[155]

8 Bourbon restoration

In 1814, the coalition that opposed Napoleon in-vaded France and restored the monarchy; the comte deProvence (brother of the executed Louis XVI) took thethrone as Louis XVIII. Lafayette was received by the newking, but the staunch republican opposed the new, highlyrestrictive franchise for the Chamber of Deputies thatgranted the vote to only 90,000 men in a nation of 25million. Lafayette did not stand for election in 1814, re-maining at La Grange.[156]

There was discontent in France among demobilized sol-diers and others. Napoleon had been exiled only as far asElba, an island in the Tuscan archipelago; seeing an op-portunity, he landed at Cannes on 1 March 1815 with afew hundred followers. Frenchmen ocked to his banner,and he took Paris later that month, causing Louis to eeto Ghent. Lafayette refused Napoleons call to serve inthe new government,[157] but accepted election to the newChamber of Representatives under the Charter of 1815.There, after Napoleons defeat at the Battle of Waterloo,Lafayette called for his abdication. Responding to the

13

emperors brother Lucien, Lafayette argued:

By what right do you dare accuse the nationof ... want of perseverance in the emperorsinterest? The nation has followed him on theelds of Italy, across the sands of Egypt and theplains of Germany, across the frozen deserts ofRussia. ... The nation has followed him in ftybattles, in his defeats and in his victories, and indoing so we have to mourn the blood of threemillion Frenchmen.[158]

On 22 June 1815, four days after Waterloo, Napoleonabdicated. Lafayette arranged for the former emperorspassage to America, but the British prevented this, andNapoleon ended his days on the island of Saint He-lena.[159] The Chamber of Representatives, before it dis-solved, appointed Lafayette to a peace commission thatwas ignored by the victorious allies who occupied muchof France, with the Prussians taking over La Grangeas a headquarters. Once the Prussians left in late1815, Lafayette returned to his house, a private citizenagain.[160]

Lafayettes homes, both in Paris and at La Grange, wereopen to any Americans who wished to meet the heroof their Revolution, and to many other people besides.Among those whom Irish novelist Sydney, Lady Morganmet at table during her month-long stay at La Grangein 1818 were the Dutch painter Ary Scheer and thehistorian Augustin Thierry, who sat alongside Americantourists. Others who visited included philosopher JeremyBentham, American scholar George Ticknor, and writerFanny Wright.[161]

During the rst decade of the Bourbon Restoration,Lafayette lent his support to a number of conspiracies inFrance and other European countries, all of which cameto nothing. He was involved in the various Charbonnierplots, and agreed to go to the city of Belfort, where therewas a garrison of French troops, and assume a majorrole in the revolutionary government. Warned that theroyal government had found out about the conspiracy, heturned back on the road to Belfort, avoiding overt in-volvement. More successfully, he supported the GreekRevolution beginning in 1821, and by letter attempted topersuade American ocials to ally with the Greeks.[162]Louis government considered arresting both Lafayetteand Georges Washington, who was also involved in theGreek eorts, but were wary of the political ramicationsif they did. Lafayette remained a member of the restoredChamber of Deputies until 1823, when new plural votingrules helped defeat his bid for re-election.[163]

9 Grand tour of the United StatesMain article: Visit of the Marquis de Lafayette to theUnited States

President James Monroe and Congress invited Lafayette

Portrait of General Lafayette (by Matthew Harris Jouett) in 1825

to visit the United States in 1824, in part to celebratethe nations upcoming 50th anniversary.[27] Monroe in-tended to have Lafayette travel on an American warship,but the general felt having such a vessel as transport wasundemocratic, and booked passage on a merchantman.Louis XVIII did not approve of the trip, and his ocershad troops disperse the crowd that gathered at Le Havreto see Lafayette o.[164]

Lafayette arrived at New York on 15 August 1824, ac-companied by his son Georges Washington and his sec-retary Auguste Levasseur. On arrival, Lafayette wasgreeted by a group of Revolutionary War veterans, whohad fought alongside him many years before. New Yorkerupted for four continuous days and nights of celebra-tion. When he departed for what he thought would bea restful trip to Boston, he instead found the route linedby cheering citizens, with welcomes organized in everytown along the way. According to Unger, It was a mys-tical experience they would relate to their heirs throughgenerations to come. Lafayette had materialized from adistant age, the last leader and hero at the nations den-ing moment. They knew they and the world would neversee his kind again.[165]

New York, Boston, and Philadelphia did their best tooutdo each other in the celebrations honoring Lafayette.Needing a place to hold a reception for him, Philadel-phia renovated the Old State House (today IndependenceHall), which might otherwise have been torn down. Un-til that point, it had not been usual in the United States

14 10 REVOLUTION OF 1830

to build monuments, but Lafayettes visit set o a waveof construction, usually with Lafayette, in his capacity asMason, laying the cornerstone. The arts beneted by hisvisits as well, as many cities commissioned portraits fortheir civic buildings, and the likenesses were seen on in-numerable souvenirs. Lafayette had intended to visit onlythe original thirteen states during a four-month visit; thestay stretched to sixteen months as he visited all twenty-four.[166]

The towns and cities he visitedincluding Fayetteville,North Carolina, the rst city named in his honorgavehim enthusiastic welcomes.[167] He visited WashingtonCity, the capital, and was surprised by the simple cloth-ing worn by President Monroe, and the lack of any guardsaround the White House. In Virginia, he went to MountVernon, as he had forty years before, this time view-ing Washingtons grave. On 19 October 1824, he wasat Yorktown for the anniversary of Cornwalliss surren-der, then journeyed to Monticello to meet with his oldfriend Jeersonand Jeersons successor, James Madi-son, who arrived unexpectedly. Lafayette had dinedwith the other living former president, 89-year-old JohnAdams, at his home near Boston.[168]

With the roads becoming impassable, Lafayette stayed inWashington City for the winter of 182425, and thus wasthere for the climax of the hotly contested 1824 elec-tion, in which no presidential candidate was able to se-cure a majority of the Electoral College, throwing thedecision to the House of Representatives. On 9 February1825, that body selected Secretary of State John QuincyAdams as president; that evening, the runner-up, GeneralAndrew Jackson, shook hands with Adams at the WhiteHouse as Lafayette looked on.[169]

In March 1825, Lafayette began to tour the southern andwestern states.[170] The general pattern of the trip wasthat he would be escorted between cities by the state mili-tia, and he would enter each town through specially con-structed arches to be welcomed by local politicians ordignitaries, all anxious to be seen with Lafayette. Therewould be special events, visits to battleelds and historicsites, celebratory dinners, and time set aside for the publicto meet the legendary hero of the Revolution.[171]

Lafayette visited General Jackson at his home, The Her-mitage, in Tennessee. While he was traveling up theOhio River by steamboat, Lafayettes vessel sank beneathhim. He was put in a lifeboat by his son and secre-tary, then taken to the Kentucky shore and rescued byanother steamboat. Although it was going the other di-rection, its captain insisted on turning around and tak-ing Lafayette to Louisville. From there, he went gener-ally northeast, viewing Niagara Falls, and taking the ErieCanalconsidered a modern marvelto Albany. Againin Massachusetts in June 1825, he laid the cornerstoneof the Bunker Hill Monument after hearing an oration byDaniel Webster. From Bunker Hill, Lafayette took homesoil that would, at his death, be sprinkled on his grave.[172]

After Bunker Hill, Lafayette went to Maine and Ver-mont, thus visiting all of the states. He met again withJohn Adams, then went back to New York and then toits rival city, Brooklyn, where he laid the cornerstone forits public library. Lafayette celebrated his 68th birth-day on 6 September at a reception with President JohnQuincy Adams at the White House, and departed thenext day.[173] He took with him, besides the soil to beplaced on his grave, other gifts. Congress, at Monroesrequest, had voted him $200,000 in gratitude for his ser-vices to the country,[174] and a large tract of public landsin Florida.[175] The passage back to France was aboarda ship that was originally called the Susquehanna, butwas renamed the USS Brandywine in honor of the bat-tle where the Marquis de Lafayette shed his blood for theUnited States.[174]

10 Revolution of 1830Main article: July RevolutionWhile Lafayette was returning to France, Louis XVIII

Lafayette and duc d'Orlans, 31 July 1830

died, and Charles X took the throne. As king, Charlesintended to restore the absolute rule of the monarch,and his decrees had already prompted protest by thetime Lafayette arrived.[176] Lafayette was the most promi-nent of those who opposed the king. In the electionsof 1827, the 70-year-old Lafayette was elected to theChamber of Deputies again. Unhappy at the outcome,Charles dissolved the Chamber, and ordered a new elec-tion: Lafayette again won his seat.[177]

Lafayette remained outspoken against Charles restric-

15

tions on civil liberties and the newly introduced censor-ship of the press. He made ery speeches in the Chamber,denouncing the new decrees and advocating American-style representative government. He hosted dinners at LaGrange, for Americans, Frenchmen, and others; all cameto hear his speeches on politics, freedom, rights, and lib-erty. He was popular enough that Charles felt he couldnot be safely arrested, but Charles spies were thorough:one government agent noted his [Lafayettes] seditioustoasts ... in honor of American liberty.[178]

On 25 July 1830, the king signed the Ordinances ofSaint-Cloud, removing the franchise from the middleclass and dissolving the Chamber of Deputies. The de-crees were published the following day.[179] On 27 July,Parisians erected barricades throughout the city, and ri-ots erupted.[180] In deance, the Chamber continued tomeet. When Lafayette, who was at La Grange, heardwhat was going on, he raced into the city, and was ac-claimed as a leader of the revolution. When his fel-low deputies were indecisive, Lafayette went to the bar-ricades, and soon the royalist troops were routed. Fear-ful that the excesses of the 1789 revolution were aboutto be repeated, deputies made Lafayette head of a re-stored National Guard, and charged him with keeping or-der. The Chamber was willing to proclaim him as ruler,but he refused a grant of power he deemed unconstitu-tional. He also refused to deal with Charles, who abdi-cated on 2 August. Many young revolutionaries sought arepublic, but Lafayette felt this would lead to civil war,and chose to oer the throne to the duc d'Orleans, Louis-Philippe, who had lived in America and had far more ofa common touch than did Charles. Lafayette secured theagreement of Louis-Philippe, who accepted the throne,to various reforms. The general remained as comman-der of the National Guard. This did not last longthebrief concord at the kings accession soon faded, and theconservative majority in the Chamber voted to abolishLafayettes National Guard post on 24 December 1830.Lafayette went back into retirement, expressing his will-ingness to do so.[181]

11 Final years and deathLafayette grew increasingly disillusioned with Louis-Phillippe, who backtracked on reforms and denied hispromises to make them. The retired general angrilybroke with his king, a breach which widened when thegovernment used force to suppress a strike in Lyon.Lafayette used his seat in the Chamber to promote lib-eral proposals, and in 1831 his neighbors elected himmayor of the village of La Grange and to the councilof the dpartement of Seine-et-Marne. The followingyear, Lafayette served as a pallbearer and spoke at thefuneral of General Jean Maximilien Lamarque, anotheropponent of Louis-Phillippe. Despite Lafayettes pleasfor calm, there were riots in the streets and a barricade

Mort du gnral Lafayette Gondelnger 1834

was erected at the Place de la Bastille. The king force-fully crushed this June Rebellion, to Lafayettes outrage.Lafayette returned to La Grange until the Chamber metin November 1832. He condemned Louis-Phillippe forintroducing censorship, as Charles X had.[182]

Lafayette spoke publicly for the last time in the Chamberof Deputies on 3 January 1834. The next month, he col-lapsed at a funeral from pneumonia. Although he recov-ered, the following May was wet and, after being caughtin a thunderstorm, he became bedridden.[183]

The grave of Lafayette in the Picpus Cemetery, Paris

On 20 May 1834, Lafayette died on 6 rue d'Anjou-Saint-Honor in Paris (now 8 rue d'Anjou in the 8th arrondisse-ment of Paris) at the age of 76. He was buried next to hiswife at the Picpus Cemetery[184] under soil from BunkerHill, which his son Georges Washington sprinkled uponhim.[180][185] King Louis-Philippe ordered a military fu-neral in order to keep the public from attending. Crowdsformed to protest their exclusion.[167]

In the United States, President Jackson ordered thatLafayette receive the same memorial honors that hadbeen bestowed on Washingtons death in December 1799.Both Houses of Congress were draped in black buntingfor thirty days, and members wore mourning badges.Congress urged Americans to follow similar mourningpractices. Later in 1834, former president John Quincy

16 12 ASSESSMENT

Adams gave a eulogy of Lafayette that lasted three hours,calling him high on the list of the pure and disinterestedbenefactors of mankind.[186]

12 AssessmentFurther information: Honors and memorials to theMarquis de Lafayette

Throughout his life, Lafayette was an exponent of the ide-als of the Age of Enlightenment, especially on humanrights and civic nationalism. Despite the fact that he spentmost of his political career in opposition, his views weretaken very seriously by intellectuals and others on bothsides of the Atlantic.[187]

In the United States, Lafayettes image, from the timeof the American Revolution, derived from his disinter-estedness in ghting, without pay, for the freedom ofa country not his own.[188] As Samuel Adams praisedLafayette, in foregoing the pleasures of Enjoyment ofdomestick [sic] Life and exposing himself to the Hardshipand Dangers of war, he fought in the glorious cause offreedom.[188] This view was shared by many contempo-raries, establishing an image of Lafayette seeking to ad-vance, not the national interest of one country or another,but the liberty of all mankind.[188] As Lafayette took onhis roles in the French Revolution, he gained a new role inAmerican eyes: that of an advocate for the virtues of theAmerican republic, seeking to transport them from NewWorld to Old. This was reinforced by his position as sur-rogate son and disciple of George Washington, who wasdeemed the Father of His Country and the embodimentof the American experiment.[189]

Lafayette became an American icon in part because hewas not associated with any particular region of the coun-try: he was of foreign birth, did not live in America, andhad fought in New England, the Mid-Atlantic states, andthe South. Thus, he was a unifying gure.[78] His role inthe French Revolution, in which he was seen by Ameri-cans as steering a middle course, enhanced this popular-ity. Americans were naturally sympathetic to a republi-can cause, but also remembered Louis XVI as a friendof the nascent United States. When Lafayette fell frompower in 1792, Americans tended to blame factionalismfor the ouster of a man who was, in their eyes, above suchthings.[190]

In 1824, Lafayette returned to the United States at atime when Americans were questioning the success ofthe republican experiment in view of the disastrous eco-nomic Panic of 1819 and the sectional conict resultingin the Missouri Compromise.[191] Lafayettes hosts con-sidered him a judge of how successful the experiment hadbeen.[192] According to cultural historian Lloyd Kramer,Lafayette (as well as a later visitor to America, Alexisde Tocqueville), provided foreign conrmations of the

self-image that shaped Americas national identity in theearly nineteenth century and that has remained a domi-nant theme in the national ideology ever since: the beliefthat Americas Founding Fathers, institutions, and free-dom created the most democratic, egalitarian, and pros-perous society in the world.[193]

Historian Gilbert Chinard wrote in 1936, Lafayette be-came a legendary gure and a symbol so early in hislife, and successive generations have so willingly acceptedthe myth, that any attempt to deprive the young hero ofhis republican halo will probably be considered as lit-tle short of iconoclastic and sacrilegious.[194] That leg-end has been used politically: the name and image ofLafayette were repeatedly invoked in 1917 in seekingto gain popular support for Americas entry into WorldWar I, culminating in the famous phrase, Lafayette, weare here. This occurred at some cost to Lafayettes im-age in America: veterans returned from the front singingWe've paid our debt to Lafayette, who the hell do weowe now?"[195] A longer-term threat was the increasingsophistication of Americans and the lessened need forsymbols of patriotism; by 1971, according to Anne C.Loveland, Lafayette no longer served as a national hero-symbol.[196] In 2002, Congress voted to grant Lafayettehonorary citizenship.[197]

Lafayettes reputation in France is more problematic.Thomas Gaines, in his book about Lafayette, notedthat the response to Lafayettes death was far moremuted in France than in America, and suggested thatmay have been because Lafayette was the last surviv-ing hero of Americas only revolution, whereas the evo-lution of the French government has been far morechaotic.[198] Lafayettes role, especially in the FrenchRevolution, created a more nuanced picture of him inFrench historiography. To the 19th century historianJules Michelet, Lafayette was a mediocre idol, liftedby the mob far beyond what his talents deserved.[199] Intheir "Histoire et dictionnaire de la Rvolution franaise",Jean Tulard, Jean-Franois Fayard, and Alfred Fierronoted Napoleons deathbed comment about Lafayettethat, if Napoleon had had Lafayettes place during theFrench Revolution, the king would still be sitting on histhrone.[200] They called Napoleons comment not tooexcessive and deemed Lafayette an empty-headed po-litical dwarf [and] one of the people most responsiblefor the destruction of the French monarchy.[201] Gainesdisagreed, and noted that liberal and Marxist historianshave also dissented from that view of Lafayette.[201] AsLloyd Kramer related in a survey of the French public,just before the Revolutions bicentennial in 1989, 57 per-cent deemed Lafayette the gure from the Revolutionthey most admired, with Marat and Saint-Just tying forsecond with 21 percent each: he [Lafayette] clearly hadmore French supporters in the early 1990s than he couldmuster in the early 1790s.[199]

Marc Leepson concluded his study of Lafayettes life:

17

The Marquis de Lafayette was far from per-fect. He was sometimes vain, naive, immature,and egocentric. But he consistently stuck tohis ideals, even when doing so endangered hislife and fortune. Those ideals proved to be thefounding principles of two of the worlds mostenduring nations, the United States and France.That is a legacy that few military leaders, politi-cians, or statesmen can match.[202]

175th anniversary of Lafayettes arrival in Americain 1777, 1952 issue

200th anniversary of the birth of Lafayette, 1957 is-sue

200th anniversary of Lafayettes arrival, part of theBicentennial Series

13 See also Chteau de la Grange-Blneau Lafayette College LaFayette Motors Place des tats-Unis Mount Lafayette

14 Notes[1] His full name is rarely used; instead he is often referred

to as the marquis de La Fayette or Lafayette (in theUnited States, not in France where a two words spellingis ocial). Biographer Louis R. Gottschalk says thatLafayette spelled his name both Lafayette and La Fayette.Other historians dier on the spelling of Lafayettes name:Lafayette, La Fayette, and LaFayette. Contemporaries of-ten used La Fayette, similar to his ancestor, the novelistMadame de La Fayette; however, his immediate familywrote Lafayette. See Gottschalk, pp. 15354.

[2] TheNewYork Times article contained a facsimile and tran-script of the Maryland act: " An Act to naturalize MajorGeneral the Marquiss de la Fayette and his Heirs MaleForever. ... Be it enacted by the General Assembly ofMarylandthat the Marquiss de la Fayette and his Heirsmale forever shall be and they and each of them are herebydeemed adjudged and taken to be natural born Citizens ofthis State and shall henceforth be instilled to all the Im-munities, Rights and Privileges of natural born Citizensthereof, they and every one of them conforming to theConstitution and Laws of this State in the Enjoyment andExercise of such Immunities, Rights and Privileges.

[3] Bollman and Huger were captured and received short sen-tences, after which they were released, becoming interna-tional celebrities for their attempt to free Lafayette. See

Lane, p. 218. They journeyed to America where they metwith Washington and briefed him on conditions at Olmtz.See Unger, loc. 7031.

15 References[1] Carlier Jeannie, Lafayette, Hros des deux Mondes, Payot,

1988.

[2] Clary, pp. 7, 8

[3] Ocer, p. 171

[4] Unger, loc. 383

[5] Gaines, p. 33

[6] Clary, pp. 1113

[7] Gottschlk, pp. 35

[8] Leepson, pp. 89

[9] Unger, loc. 425

[10] Leepson, p. 10

[11] Lane, pp. 78

[12] Unger, loc. 491506

[13] Leepson, pp. 1011

[14] Leepson, p. 12

[15] Lane, p. 10


[17] Unger, loc. 565581

[18] Unger, loc. 581598

[19] Clary, p. 28

[20] Unger, loc. 604682

[21] Unger, pp. 709740

[22] Holbrook, pp. 1920

[23] Unger, loc. 759855

[24] Leepson, p. 26

[25] Holbrook, p. 17


[27] Glathaar, p. 3

[28] Cloquet, p. 37

[29] Unger, loc. 864, 10231053

[30] Unger, loc. 940955

[31] Leepson, p. 33

[32] Gaines, p. 70

18 15 REFERENCES

[33] Clary, p. 100



[36] Gaines, p. 75

[37] Grizzard, p. 175

[38] Cloquet, p. 203

[39] Leepson, p. 43

[40] Palmer, pp. 276, 277

[41] Unger, loc. 1827

[42] Greene, pp. 140, 141

[43] Gaines, p. 112

[44] Holbrook, pp. 28, 29

[45] Fiske, pp. 8992



[48] Clary, p. 243

[49] Leepson, p. 70

[50] Cloquet, p. 155

[51] Unger, loc. 2583

[52] Clary, p. 257

[53] Leepson, p. 72


[55] Unger, loc. 2670

[56] Unger, loc. 2685

[57] Unger, loc. 2730




[61] Unger, loc. 29823011

[62] Unger, loc. 30333134

[63] Gaines, pp. 15355

[64] Unger, loc. 3430



[67] Unger, loc. 35263585

[68] Clary, pp. 33038

[69] Unger, loc. 37143730


[71] Clary, p. 350


[73] Tuckerman, p. 154

[74] Unger, loc. 38243840


[76] Kaminsky, pp. 34, 35

[77] Leepson, pp. 12021

[78] Loveland, p. 16

[79] Hirschfeld, p. 126

[80] Gaines, pp. 201, 202

[81] Speare, Morris Edmund Lafayette, Citizen of Amer-ica, New York Times, 7 September 1919.(subscription re-quired)

[82] Cornell, Douglas B. "Churchill Acceptance 'Honors UsFar More'" Sumter Daily Item, 10 April 1963.

[83] Gottschalk, Louis Reichenthal (1950). Lafayette Betweenthe American and the French Revolution (17831789).University of Chicago Press. pp. 146147.

[84] Folliard, Edward T. "JFK Slipped on Historical Data InChurchill Tribute" Sarasota Journal, 25 May 1973.

[85] Lafayette: Citizen of Two Worlds. Cornell UniversityLibrary. 2006. Retrieved 29 September 2012.


[87] Gaines, pp. 19899, 204, 206

[88] Maurois, Adrienne: The Life of the Marquise de LaFayette, p. 113

[89] Unger, loc. 47104766


[91] Unger, loc. 49634978

[92] Neely, p. 47


[94] Unger, loc. 5026

[95] Doyle, pp. 74, 90


[97] de La Fuye, p. 83.

[98] Gerson, pp. 8183

[99] Crowdy, p. 7

[100] Doyle, pp. 11213


[102] Crowdy, p. 42

[103] Leepson, pp. 13235

19

[104] Leepson, p. 135

[105] Hampson, p. 89

[106] Neely, p. 86

[107] Doyle, p. 122

[108] Clary, p. 392

[109] Leepson, p. 136

[110] Unger, loc. 5729

[111] Leepson, pp. 13640

[112] Thiers, p. vi

[113] Cloquet, p. 305

[114] Leepson, pp. 13839

[115] Doyle, p. 148

[116] Jones, p. 445

[117] Frey, p. 92

[118] Gaines, pp. 345, 346


[120] Unger, loc. 6188

[121] Andress, p. 51

[122] Unger, pp. 620738

[123] Andress, p. 61

[124] Broadwell, p. 28

[125] Leepson, pp. 14648

[126] Andress, pp. 7275

[127] Broadwell, p. 36

[128] Leepson, pp. 15051

[129] Leepson, pp. 151153

[130] Spalding, pp. 13

[131] Spalding, p. 15

[132] Unger, loc. 6458




[136] Unger, loc. 64606475


[138] Unger, loc. 6553


[140] Unger, loc. 6649

[141] Spalding, pp. 6669, 84124

[142] Clary, p. 413

[143] Clary, p. 418



[146] Spalding, pp. 173227

[147] Unger, loc. 71517309

[148] Unger, loc. 73097403

[149] Unger, loc. 74037435

[150] Unger, loc. 7539


[152] Kennedy, p. 210

[153] Crawford, p. 318

[154] Clary, p. 438

[155] Unger, pp. 760333

[156] Unger, loc. 76647695

[157] Unger, loc. 76957720

[158] Gaines, p. 427

[159] Unger, loc. 7737

[160] Unger, loc. 77377753

[161] Kramer, p. 93

[162] Kramer, pp. 100105

[163] Unger, loc. 77917819

[164] Unger, loc. 7839

[165] Unger, loc. 78407868

[166] Unger, loc. 79137937

[167] Clary, pp. 443, 444

[168] Unger, loc. 79047968

[169] Unger, loc. 79617990

[170] Unger, loc. 7990

[171] Kramer, pp. 19091

[172] Unger, loc. 80068038

[173] Unger, loc. 80088069

[174] Leepson, p. 164

[175] Unger, loc. 7982

[176] Unger, loc. 8089

[177] Gleeson, p. 166

[178] Leepson, p. 166

[179] Leepson, pp. 16667

20 16 WORKS CITED

[180] Clary, pp. 443445, 447, 448

[181] Unger, loc. 81178295

[182] Unger, loc. 93019393

[183] Payan, p. 93

[184] Marquis de Lafayette at Find a Grave. Retrieved on De-cember 17, 2014.

[185] Kathleen McKenna (June 10, 2007). On Bunker Hill, aboost in La Fayette prole. Boston Globe. Retrieved May5, 2008.(subscription required)

[186] Leepson, p. 172

[187] Kramer, pp. 1516


[189] Loveland, pp. 1718




[193] Kramer, p. 185

[194] Chinard, Gilbert (June 1936). "Lafayette Comes to Amer-ica by Louis Gottschalk. Journal of Modern History 8(2): 218. JSTOR 1880955.(subscription required)



[197] U.S. honors an old friend. The New York Times. 30 July2002.

[198] Gaines, p. 447

[199] Kramer, p. 5

[200] Gaines, pp. 349, 440

[201] Gaines, p. 440

[202] Leepson, p. 176

16 Works cited Adams, William Howard (1997). The Paris Years

of Thomas Jeerson. Yale University Press. ISBN978-0-300-08261-6.

An Ocer in the Late Army (1858). A CompleteHistory of the Marquis de Lafayette: Major-Generalin the American Army in the War of the Revolution.J. & H. Miller.

Clary, David (2007). Adopted Son: Washington,Lafayette, and the Friendship that Saved the Revo-lution. Bantam Books. ISBN 978-0-553-80435-5.

Cloquet, Jules; Isaiah Townsend (1835).Recollections of the Private Life of General Lafayette.Baldwin and Cradock. OCLC 563092384.

Crawford, Mary MacDermot (1907). Madame deLafayette and Her Family. J. Pot & Co. OCLC648890.

Crowdy, Terry; Patrice Courcelle (2004). FrenchRevolutionary Infantry 17891802. Osprey Pub-lishing. ISBN 978-1-84176-660-7.

Doyle, William (1990). Oxford history of the FrenchRevolution (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press.ISBN 978-0-19-285221-2.

Fiske, John (1902). Essays, Historical, and Literary:Scenes and characters in American History. Macmil-lan. OCLC 1087895.

Gaines, James R. (2007). For Liberty and Glory:Washington, La Fayette, and Their Revolutions.W.W. Norton & Co. ISBN 978-0-393-06138-3.

Gerson, Noel B. (1976). Statue in Search of aPedestal: a Biography of the Marquis de La Fayette.Dodd, Mead & Company. ISBN 978-0-396-07341-3.

Gottschalk, Louis (2007). Lafayette Comes to Amer-ica. Read Books. ISBN 978-1-4067-2793-7.OCLC 1077678.

Gottschalk, Louis (1939). Lady-in-waiting; the Ro-mance of Lafayette and Agla de Hunolstein. JohnsHopkins Press. OCLC 513579.

Gottschalk, Louis (1950). Lafayette: Between theAmerican and the French Revolution (17831789).University of Chicago Press. OCLC 284579.

Greene, Francis Vinton (1911). The RevolutionaryWar and the Military History of the United States.Charles Scribners Sons. OCLC 952029.

Grizzard, Frank (2002). George Washington: Bi-ographical Companion. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-57607-082-6.

Hirschfeld, Fritz (1997). George Washington andSlavery A Documentary Portrayal. University ofMissouri Press. ISBN 978-0-8262-1135-4.

Holbrook, Sabra (1977). Lafayette, Man in the Mid-dle. Atheneum Books. ISBN 978-0-689-30585-6.

Kaminsky, John (2005). A Necessary Evil?: Slav-ery and the Debate of the Constitution. Rowman &Littleeld. ISBN 978-0-945612-33-9.

Kramer, Lloyd (1996). Lafayette in Two Worlds.The University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 0-8078-2258-2.

21

La Fayette Villaume Ducoudray Holstein, Henri(1824). Memoirs of Gilbert Motier La Fayette.Charles Wiley. OCLC 85790544.

de La Fuye, Maurice; mile Albert Babeau (1956).The Apostle of Liberty: A Life of Lafayette. ThomasYoselo, Inc. ISBN 978-0-8010-5555-3.

Lane, Jason (2003). General and Madame deLafayette (Kindle ed.). Da Capo Press. ISBN 978-1-58979-018-6.

Leepson, Marc (2011). Lafayette: Lessons in Lead-ership From the Idealist General. Palgrave Macmil-lan. ISBN 978-0-230-10504-1.

Levasseur, August (2006). Lafayette in America.Alan Homan. Lafayette Press. ISBN 978-0-9787224-0-1.

Loveland, Anne (1971). Emblem of Liberty: TheImage of Lafayette in the American Mind. LSUPress. ISBN 978-0-8071-2462-8.

Martin, David (2003). The Philadelphia Campaign.Da Capo Press. ISBN 978-0-306-81258-3.

Maurois, Andr (1961). Adrienne, the Life of theMarquise de La Fayette. McGraw-Hill. OCLC2302836.

Memoirs, Correspondence and Manuscripts of Gen-eral Lafayette 3. Saunders and Otley. 1837. OCLC10278752.

Morris (1888). TheDiary and Letters of GouverneurMorris. Volume I. Anne Cary Morris. C. ScribnersSons. OCLC 833557418 rst= Gouverneur.

Neely, Sylvia (2008). A Concise History of theFrench Revolution. Rowman & Littleeld. ISBN978-0-7425-3411-7.

Palmer, Dave Richard (2006). George Washingtonand Benedict Arnold: A Tale of Two Patriots. Reg-nery Publishing. ISBN 978-1-59698-020-4.

Payan, Gregory (2002). Marquis de Lafayette:French Hero of the American Revolution. The RosenPublishing Group. ISBN 978-0-8239-5733-0.

Spalding, Paul S. (2010). Lafayette: Prisoner ofState. University of South Carolina Press. ISBN978-1-57003-911-9.

Thiers, M. A.; Frederic Shoberl (1846). The Historyof the French Revolution 1 (3 ed.). Richard Bentley.OCLC 2949605.

Tower, Charlemagne (1894). The Marquis de LaFayette in the American Revolution. J.B. LippincottCompany. OCLC 527765.

Tuckerman, Bayard (1889). Life of GeneralLafayette: With a Critical Estimate of His Charac-ter and Public Acts. Dodd, Mead. OCLC 1899420.

Unger, Harlow Giles (2002). Lafayette (Kindle ed.).John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-471-39432-7.

Wright, Constance (1959). Madame de Lafayette.Holt, Rhinehart, and Winston. OCLC 373722.

17 Further reading Auricchio, Laura. The Marquis: Lafayette Recon-

sidered (2014)

18 External links Works by Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette

at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de

Lafayette at Internet Archive Socit des Cincinnati de France, site of the French

Society of the Cincinnati French Founding Father at the New-York Historical

Society The Cornell University Library Lafayette Collection The Marquis de Lafayette collection, Cleveland

State University

Lafayette College, The Marquis de Lafayette Col-lections

Marquis de Lafayette Collection, Library ofCongress

Martha Joanna Lamb, Lafayette letters from prison,The Magazine of American History with Notes andQueries, pp. 35376

Booknotes interview with Lloyd Kramer onLafayettein Two Worlds: Public Cultures and Identities in anAge of Revolutions, 15 September 1996.

La Grange, France, Chateau of General Lafayette Lafayette Triumphant: His 18241825 Tour and

Reception in the United States

Thomas Jeerson Letter, 30 November 1813 Fromthe Collections at the Library of Congress

22 19 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

19 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses19.1 Text

Gilbert duMotier, Marquis de Lafayette Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilbert_du_Motier%2C_Marquis_de_Lafayette?oldid=681244416 Contributors: Magnus Manske, General Wesc, The Epopt, Mav, Grouse, Ortolan88, Panairjdde~enwiki, Montrealais, Hep-haestos, Olivier, Leandrod, Kchishol1970, JohnOwens, Michael Hardy, CORNELIUSSEON, Ixfd64, Delirium, Stan Shebs, Muriel Got-trop~enwiki, Black Widow, Ugen64, LouI, Theamer, Tkinias, Jiang, Alex756, John K, JASpencer, Jengod, Popsracer, Charles Matthews,Daniel Quinlan, Tpbradbury, Lord Emsworth, Indefatigable, Renke, Fvw, AnonMoos, Wetman, Proteus, Carbuncle, Jhobson1, Davidtav,Jmabel, Postdlf, ZekeMacNeil, Bkell, UtherSRG, MarsControl, Jrash, Vaoverland, Ancheta Wis, Xyzzyva, DocWatson42, Jhf, Tom har-rison, Wilfried Derksen, Wwoods, Everyking, Avalean, Michael Devore, Zumbo, DO'Neil, Per Honor et Gloria, JillandJack, Ryanaxp,Cyanoacry, R. end, Quadell, Pmanderson, Necrothesp, Neutrality, Ukexpat, Hardouin, Robin klein, Didactohedron, Klemen Kocjan-cic, Liberlogos, Lacrimosus, DmitryKo, Mike Rosoft, D6, Ham II, Discospinster, Vague Rant, Rama, LindsayH, Mjpieters, Carptrash,Ibagli, Bender235, Wolfman, Ylee, CanisRufus, PedanticallySpeaking, Mwanner, Kross, Markussep, Dalf, MPS, Perfecto, Bobo192,Dralwik, Stesmo, Smalljim, Kevin Myers, JW1805, Giraedata, La goutte de pluie, GTMusashi, Cyrillic, Perceval, A2Kar, Alansohn,SlaveToTheWage, Andrewpmk, Hohum, Snowolf, RPellessier, Wiccan Quagga, Velella, BanyanTree, Amorymeltzer, Skyring, Com-puterjoe, BDD, Axeman89, Nightstallion, Johntex, Kitch, Richard Weil, Sk4p, Dr Gangrene, Paradiver, Mel Etitis, Woohookitty, TJaka Teej, FeanorStar7, Nuggetboy, PatGallacher, Tabletop, Dlauri, Bkwillwm, Zzyzx11, Mandarax, Deltabeignet, Cuchullain, Ketiltrout,Sj, Rjwilmsi, Londonbroil, Rogerd, Carl Logan, Lockley, Vary, BlueMoonlet, JHMM13, Ghepeu, Boccobrock, Ttwaring, MWAK, Ni-hiltres, NekoDaemon, RexNL, Ewlyahoocom, Gurch, Intgr, Alphachimp, Gareth E Kegg, Mrschimpf, Scott Mingus, Chobot, DVdm,Gdrbot, Korg, Gplefka, Bgwhite, Cornellrockey, EamonnPKeane, Roboto de Ajvol, YurikBot, Wavelength, Patman2648, Gellersen, Scep-tre, RussBot, Kauner, Yllosubmarine, Gaius Cornelius, Kyorosuke, Rsrikanth05, Den68cube, DarthBinky, Snek01, Joshdboz, Grafen,Rjensen, Howcheng, Awiseman, Haranoh, Bubaloo, Tony1, MSJapan, MaxVeers, Dlyons493, Gadget850, Everyguy, Supalognon, Bob247,Crisco 1492, Light current, StuRat, Bassoon201, Dennishidalgo, David Biddulph, Allens, Katieh5584, Jonathan.s.kt, Ergosteur, Vic-tor falk, Mhardcastle, Attilios, SmackBot, Looper5920, YellowMonkey, Roger Davies, David Kernow, Hydrogen Iodide, Wehwalt, Ki-mon, Vald, Fheo, Patrickneil, Eskimbot, Hydkat, Kintetsubualo, Edgar181, Yopie, Commander Keane bot, Yamaguchi, Marktreut,Gilliam, Hmains, Cs-wolves, OldsVistaCruiser, Rayisthechosenone, TimBentley, Dahn, Jprg1966, B00P, MalafayaBot, Neo-Jay, ColoniesChris, MTBradley, Darth Panda, Huwmanbeing, Brideshead, Mike hayes, Groubani, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Tamfang, Cplakidas,Kaedibyrd, Stephen francis~enwiki, Chlewbot, OrphanBot, Onorem, Nixeagle, Arod14, Addshore, Greenshed, Elendils Heir, Blueboar,Grover cleveland, MrRadioGuy, Bigturtle, C.h.carroll, Noles1984, [email protected], Tomtom9041, Weregerbil, Zero Gravity, GarryDenke, The PIPE, BryanG, Jklin, Jcspurrell, Bobjuch, Sirhanx2, Risssa, Ohconfucius, Will Beback, Esrever, Nishkid64, CFLeon, Robo-maeyhem, Minaker, Gryon, KellanFabjance, Mathiasrex, Tazmaniacs, ToddFrary, Linden Salter, Bjankuloski06en~enwiki, The Manin Question, Omnedon, BillFlis, Konklone, Illythr, Stwalkerster, Beetstra, SimonATL, Optakeover, SandyGeorgia, Doczilla, Andrwsc,Iridescent, TwistOfCain, Clarityend, West coast, Saebhiar, StephenBuxton, Courcelles, Tawkerbot2, Woogie10w, Ioannes Pragensis,JForget, Filiep, Jaxjaggywires, Wafulz, Scohoust, Clindberg, Megaboz, Kowalmistrz~enwiki, Drinibot, Charvex, ThreeBlindMice, Mano-lino, SimpleBeep, Lazulilasher, That Asian Guy, Jjwhalen, Phatom87, Cydebot, Red4tribe, Treybien, Sammy Houston, Grahamec, JackO'Lantern, Zeppelin462, Otto4711, Jayen466, Redsox00002, Synergy, Alphageekpa, DumbBOT, Chrislk02, Biblbroks, Bolesjohnb, Mat-tisse, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Biruitorul, TonyTheTiger, SeNeKa, Mojo Hand, Berria, FlaviaR, John254, Top.Squark, JustAGal, Dr Ben-way, Lovepoke, EdJohnston, Nick Number, Floridasand, Nizamarain, J Clear, Danielfolsom, AntiVandalBot, RobotG, WinBot, Seaphoto,QuiteUnusual, StringRay, Bogolov, Btraven, North Shoreman, Altamel, Res2216restar, JAnDbot, Matthew Fennell, Arch dude, Hno3,Taksen, Debi444, Tatoeba, Ruthfulbarbarity, Connormah, Parsecboy, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Jllm06, Puddhe, Tedickey, Wikiprincess,EdBedden, Jim Douglas, Nyttend, Twsx, KConWiki, Catgut, Mtd2006, Just H, Shield2, Ciaccona, Allstarecho, David Eppstein, Exile-done, DerHexer, MartinBot, Jeconn, STBot, Nandt1, Mcampanaro, NAHID, Major Bloodnok, Wowaconia, Rettetast, Lahaun, R'n'B,CommonsDelinker, AlexiusHoratius, Johnpacklambert, Lilac Soul, LedgendGamer, AlphaEta, J.delanoy, Gotyear, Uncle Dick, Karanacs,Yonidebot, Whitebox, MikeTheActuary, Pyrospirit, Wikiwopbop, John Tierney, M-le-mot-dit, GhostPirate, Clariosophic, DadaNeem,Kansas Bear, Flatterworld, Demokratickid, Stymphal, Wikimandia, Andy Marchbanks, RjCan, Scewing, Thismightbezach, Funandtrvl,Xnuala, Geosultan4, Marquis de Layette, Guthrum, Dacooldude6710, Wv

Wikipedia's Featured Article - 2015-09-06 - Gilbert Du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette

Documents

Transcript of Wikipedia's Featured Article - 2015-09-06 - Gilbert Du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette