Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia [INFRASTRUCTURE]

7/30/2019 Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia [INFRASTRUCTURE]

1/21

InfrastructureFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Infrastructure is basic physical and organizational structures needed for the operation of a society or

enterprise,[1] or the services and facilities necessary for an economy to function.[2] It can be generallydefined as the set of interconnected structural elements that provide framework supporting an entire

structure of development. It is an important term for judging a country or region's development.The term typically refers to the technical structures that support a society, such as roads, bridges, watersupply, sewers, electrical grids, telecommunications, and so forth, and can be defined as "the physicalcomponents of interrelated systems providing commodities and services essential to enable, sustain, or

enhance societal living conditions."[3]

Viewed functionally, infrastructurefacilitates the production of goods and services, and also the distributionof finished products to markets, as well as basic social services such as schools and hospitals; for example,

roads enable the transport of raw materials to a factory.[4] In military parlance, the term refers to thebuildings and permanent installations necessary for the support, redeployment, and operation of military

forces.[5] To make it simple, infrastructure is anything that is needed everyday, an everyday item.

Contents

1 History of the term2 "Hard" versus "soft" infrastructure3 Types of hard infrastructure

3.1 Transport infrastructure

3.2 Energy infrastructure3.3 Water management infrastructure3.4 Communications infrastructure3.5 Solid waste management3.6 Earth monitoring and measurement networks

4 Types of soft infrastructure4.1 Governance infrastructure4.2 Economic infrastructure4.3 Social infrastructure4.4 Cultural, sports and recreational infrastructure

5 Uses of the term5.1 Engineering and construction5.2 Civil defense and economic development5.3 Military5.4 Critical infrastructure5.5 Urban infrastructure5.6 Green infrastructure5.7 Marxism5.8 Other uses

6 Related concepts6.1 Land improvement and land development6.2 Public works and public services

7 Typical attributes

astructure - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure

21 2013-05-02 11:27 AM G
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure


2/21

7.1 Capital assets that provide services7.2 Large networks7.3 Historicity and interdependence7.4 Natural monopoly

8 Economics, management, engineering, and impacts8.1 Ownership and financing

8.1.1 Infrastructure as a new asset class for pension funds and SWFs8.1.2 Infrastructure debt

8.2 Infrastructure asset management8.3 Engineering8.4 Impact on economic development8.5 Use as economic stimulus8.6 Environmental impacts

9 History9.1 Before 17009.2 1700 to 18709.3 1870 to 19209.4 Since 1920

10 Infrastructure in the developing world10.1 Regional differences10.2 Sources of funding

11 See also12 References13 Bibliography14 Further reading15 External links

History of the term

According to the Online Etymology Dictionary,[6] the word infrastructure has been used in English since at

least 1927, originally meaning "The installations that form the basis for any operation or system".[7]

Other sources, such as the Oxford English Dictionary, trace the word's origins to earlier usage, originallyapplied in a military sense. The word was imported from French, where it means subgrade, the nativematerial underneath a constructed pavement or railway. The word is a combination of the Latin prefix

"infra", meaning "below", and "structure". The military use of the term achieved currency in the UnitedStates after the formation of NATO in the 1940s, and was then adopted by urban planners in its modern

civilian sense by 1970.[8]

The term came to prominence in the United States in the 1980s following the publication ofAmerica in

Ruins,[9] which initiated a public-policy discussion of the nations "infrastructure crisis", purported to becaused by decades of inadequate investment and poor maintenance of public works. This crisis discussionhas contributed to the increase in infrastructure asset management and maintenance planning in the US.

That public-policy discussion was hampered by lack of a precise definition for infrastructure. A US National

Research Council panel sought to clarify the situation by adopting the term "public works infrastructure",referring to:

"... both specific functional modes highways, streets, roads, and bridges; mass transit; airportsand airways; water supply and water resources; wastewater management; solid-waste treatment


21 2013-05-02 11:27 AM G


3/21

Chicago Transit Authority control

tower 18 on the Chicago 'L'

Highway 401 in Toronto, the busiest

highway in North America

and disposal; electric power generation and transmission; telecommunications; and hazardouswaste management and the combined system these modal elements comprise. Acomprehension of infrastructure spans not only these public works facilities, but also theoperating procedures, management practices, and development policies that interact togetherwith societal demand and the physical world to facilitate the transport of people and goods,

provision of water for drinking and a variety of other uses, safe disposal of society's wasteproducts, provision of energy where it is needed, and transmission of information within and

between communities."[10]

In Keynesian economics, the word infrastructure was exclusively used to describe public assets thatfacilitate production, but not private assets of the same purpose. In post-Keynesian times, however, the wordhas grown in popularity. It has been applied with increasing generality to suggest the internal frameworkdiscernible in any technology system or business organization.

"Hard" versus "soft" infrastructure

In this article, "hard" infrastructure refers to the large physical networks necessary for the functioning of a

modern industrial nation, whereas "soft" infrastructure refers to all the institutions which are required tomaintain the economic, health, and cultural and social standards of a country, such as the financial system,the education system, the health care system, the system of government, and law enforcement, as well as

emergency services.[7][11][12]

Types of hard infrastructure

The following list of hard infrastructure is limited to capital assetsthat serve the function of conveyance or channelling of people,vehicles, fluids, energy, or information, and which take the formeither of a network or of a critical node used by vehicles, or used forthe transmission of electro-magnetic waves.

Infrastructure systems include both the fixed assets, and the controlsystems and software required to operate, manage and monitor thesystems, as well as any accessory buildings, plants, or vehicles thatare an essential part of the system. Also included are fleets ofvehicles operating according to schedules such as public transit busesand garbage collection, as well as basic energy or communicationsfacilities that are not usually part of a physical network, such as oil

refineries, radio, and television broadcasting facilities.

Transport infrastructure

Road and highway networks, including structures (bridges,tunnels, culverts, retaining walls), signage and markings,electrical systems (street lighting and traffic lights), edgetreatments (curbs, sidewalks, landscaping), and specializedfacilities such as road maintenance depots and rest areasMass transit systems (Commuter rail systems, subways,

tramways, trolleys, City Bicycle Sharing system, City Car Sharing system and bus transportation)Railways, including structures, terminal facilities (rail yards, railway stations), level crossings,signalling and communications systemsCanals and navigable waterways requiring continuous maintenance (dredging, etc.)


21 2013-05-02 11:27 AM G


4/21

Seaports and lighthousesAirports, including air navigational systemsBicycle paths and pedestrian walkways, including pedestrian bridges, pedestrian underpasses andother specialized structures for cyclists and pedestriansFerries

For canals, railroads, highways, airways and pipelines see Grbler (1990),[13] which provides a detailed

discussion of the history and importance of these major infrastructures.

Energy infrastructure

Electrical power network, including generation plants, electrical grid, substations, and localdistribution.

Natural gas pipelines, storage and distribution terminals, as well as the local distribution network.Some definitions may include the gas wells, as well as the fleets of ships and trucks transportingliquefied gas.Petroleum pipelines, including associated storage and distribution terminals. Some definitions may

include the oil wells, refineries, as well as the fleets of tanker ships and trucks.Specialized coal handling facilities for washing, storing, and transporting coal. Some definitions mayinclude Coal mines.Steam or hot water production and distribution networks for district heating systems.Electric vehicle networks for charging electric vehicles.

Coal mines, oil wells and natural gas wells may be classified as being part of the mining and industrial

sector of the economy, not part of infrastructure.[14]

Water management infrastructure

Drinking water supply, including the system of pipes, storage reservoirs, pumps, valves, filtration andtreatment equipment and meters, including buildings and structures to house the equipment, used forthe collection, treatment and distribution of drinking waterSewage collection, and disposal of waste waterDrainage systems (storm sewers, ditches, etc.)Major irrigation systems (reservoirs, irrigation canals)Major flood control systems (dikes, levees, major pumping stations and floodgates)Large-scale snow removal, including fleets of salt spreaders, snow plows, snowblowers, dedicateddump trucks, sidewalk plows, the dispatching and routing systems for these fleets, as well as fixed

assets such as snow dumps, snow chutes, snow meltersCoastal management, including structures such as seawalls, breakwaters, groynes, floodgates, as wellas the use of soft engineering techniques such as beach nourishment, sand dune stabilization and the

protection of mangrove forests and coastal wetlands.

Communications infrastructure

Postal service, including sorting facilitiesTelephone networks (land lines) including telephone exchange systemsMobile phone networks

Television and radio transmission stations, including the regulations and standards governingbroadcastingCable television physical networks including receiving stations and cable distribution networks (doesnot include content providers or "networks" when used in the sense of a specialized channel such as


21 2013-05-02 11:27 AM G


5/21

CNN or MTV)The Internet, including the internet backbone, core routers and server farms, local internet service

providers as well as the protocols and other basic software required for the system to function (doesnot include specific websites, although may include some widely-used web-based services, such associal network services and web search engines)Communications satellitesUndersea cables

Major private, government or dedicated telecommunications networks, such as those used for internalcommunication and monitoring by major infrastructure companies, by governments, by the military or

by emergency services, as well as national research and education networksPneumatic tube mail distribution networks

Solid waste management

Municipal garbage and recyclables collectionSolid waste landfillsSolid waste incinerators and plasma gasification facilities

Materials recovery facilitiesHazardous waste disposal facilities

Earth monitoring and measurement networks

Meteorological monitoring networksTidal monitoring networks

Stream Gauge or fluviometric[15] monitoring networksSeismometer networksEarth observation satellitesGeodetic benchmarksGlobal Positioning SystemSpatial Data Infrastructure

Types of soft infrastructure

Soft infrastructure includes both physical assets such as highly specialized buildings and equipment, as wellas non-physical assets such as the body of rules and regulations governing the various systems, the financingof these systems, as well as the systems and organizations by which highly skilled and specialized

professionals are trained, advance in their careers by acquiring experience, and are disciplined if required byprofessional associations (professional training, accreditation and discipline).

Unlike hard infrastructure, the essence of soft infrastructure is the delivery of specialized services to people.Unlike much of the service sector of the economy, the delivery of those services depend on highly developedsystems and large specialised facilities or institutions that share many of the characteristics of hardinfrastructure.

Governance infrastructure

The system of government and law enforcement, including the political, legislative, law enforcement,justice and penal systems, as well as specialized facilities (government offices, courthouses, prisons,etc.), and specialized systems for collecting, storing and disseminating data, laws and regulationEmergency services, such as police, fire protection, and ambulances, including specialized vehicles,

buildings, communications and dispatching systems


21 2013-05-02 11:27 AM G


6/21

Very Large Telescope.[16]

Military infrastructure, including military bases, arms depots, training facilities, command centers,communication facilities, major weapons systems, fortifications, specialised arms manufacturing,strategic reserves

Economic infrastructure

The financial system, including the banking system, financial institutions, the payment system,

exchanges, the money supply, financial regulations, as well as accounting standards and regulationsMajor business logistics facilities and systems, including warehouses as well as warehousing andshipping management systemsManufacturing infrastructure, including industrial parks and special economic zones, mines and

processing plants for basic materials used as inputs in industry, specialized energy, transportation andwater infrastructure used by industry, plus the public safety, zoning and environmental laws andregulations that govern and limit industrial activity, and standards organizationsAgricultural, forestry and fisheries infrastructure, including specialized food and livestocktransportation and storage facilities, major feedlots, agricultural price support systems (includingagricultural insurance), agricultural health standards, food inspection, experimental farms and

agricultural research centers and schools, the system of licencing and quota management, enforcementsystems against poaching, forest wardens, and fire fighting

Social infrastructure

The health care system, including hospitals, the financing of health care, including health insurance,the systems for regulation and testing of medications and medical procedures, the system for training,inspection and professional discipline of doctors and other medical professionals, public healthmonitoring and regulations, as well as coordination of measures taken during public healthemergencies such as epidemics

The educational and research system, including elementary and secondary schools, universities,specialised colleges, research institutions, the systems for financing and accrediting educationalinstitutionsSocial welfare systems, including both government support and private charity for the poor, for peoplein distress or victims of abuse

Cultural, sports and recreational infrastructure

Sports and recreational infrastructure, such as parks, sportsfacilities, the system of sports leagues and associationsCultural infrastructure, such as concert halls, museums,libraries, theatres, studios, and specialized training facilitiesBusiness travel and tourism infrastructure, including bothman-made and natural attractions, convention centers, hotels,restaurants and other services that cater mainly to tourists and

business travellers, as well as the systems for informing andattracting tourists, and travel insurance

Uses of the term

Engineering and construction

Engineers generally limit the use of the term "infrastructure" to describe fixed assets that are in the form of a


21 2013-05-02 11:27 AM G


7/21

large network, in other words, "hard" infrastructure. Recent efforts to devise more generic definitions ofinfrastructure have typically referred to the network aspects of most of the structures, and to the accumulatedvalue of investments in the networks as assets. One such effort defines infrastructure as the network of assets"where the system as a whole is intended to be maintained indefinitely at a specified standard of service by

the continuing replacement and refurbishment of its components".[17]

Civil defense and economic development

See also: Civil defense by country

Civil defense planners and developmental economists generally refer to both hard and soft infrastructure,including public services such as schools and hospitals, emergency services such as police and fire fighting,and basic financial services. The notion of Infrastructure-based development combining long-terminfrastructure investments by government agencies at central and regional levels with public private

partnerships has proven popular among Asian- notably Singaporean and Chinese, Mainland Europan andLatin American economists.

Military

Military strategists use the term infrastructure to refer to all building and permanent installations necessaryfor the support of military forces, whether they are stationed in bases, being deployed or engaged inoperations, such as barracks, headquarters, airfields, communications facilities, stores of military equipment,

port installations, and maintenance stations.[18]

Critical infrastructure

Main article: Critical infrastructure

The term critical infrastructure has been widely adopted to distinguish those infrastructure elements that, ifsignificantly damaged or destroyed, would cause serious disruption of the dependent system or organization.Storm, deluge, or earthquake damage leading to loss of certain transportation routes in a city, for example

bridges crossing a river, could make it impossible for people to evacuate, and for emergency services tooperate; these routes would be deemed critical infrastructure. Similarly, an on-line booking system might becritical infrastructure for an airline.

Urban infrastructure

Urban ormunicipal infrastructure refers to hard infrastructure systems generally owned and operated bymunicipalities, such as streets, water distribution, and sewers. It may also include some of the facilitiesassociated with soft infrastructure, such as parks, public pools and libraries.

Green infrastructure

Main article: Green infrastructure

Green infrastructure is a concept that highlights the importance of the natural environment in decisions

about land use planning.[19][20] In particular there is an emphasis on the "life support" functions provided bya network of natural ecosystems, with an emphasis on interconnectivity to support long-term sustainability.Examples include clean water and healthy soils, as well as the more anthropocentric functions such asrecreation and providing shade and shelter in and around towns and cities. The concept can be extended toapply to the management of stormwater runoff at the local level through the use of natural systems, or

engineered systems that mimic natural systems, to treat polluted runoff.[21][22]


21 2013-05-02 11:27 AM G


8/21

Marxism

In Marxism, the term infrastructure is sometimes used as a synonym for "base" in the dialectic synthetic pairbase and superstructure. However the Marxist notion of base is broader than the non-Marxist use of theterm infrastructure, and some soft infrastructure, such as laws, governance, regulations and standards, would

be considered by Marxists to be part of the superstructure, not the base.[23]

Other uses

In other applications, the term infrastructure may refer to information technology, informal and formalchannels of communication, software development tools, political and social networks, or beliefs held bymembers of particular groups. Still underlying these more conceptual uses is the idea that infrastructure

provides organizing structure and support for the system or organization it serves, whether it is a city, anation, a corporation, or a collection of people with common interests. Examples include IT infrastructure,research infrastructure, terrorist infrastructure, and tourism infrastructure.

Related concepts

The term infrastructure is often confused with the following overlapping or related concepts.

Land improvement and land development

Main articles: Land improvement and Land development

The terms land improvementand land developmentare general terms that in some contexts may includeinfrastructure, but in the context of a discussion of infrastructure would refer only to smaller scale systemsor works that are not included in infrastructure because they are typically limited to a single parcel of land,

and are owned and operated by the land owner. For example, an irrigation canal that serves a region ordistrict would be included with infrastructure, but the private irrigation systems on individual land parcelswould be considered land improvements, not infrastructure. Service connections to municipal service and

public utility networks would also be considered land improvements, not infrastructure.[24][25]

Public works and public services

Main articles: Public works and Public services

The termpublic works includes government owned and operated infrastructure as well as public buildings

such as schools and court houses. Public works generally refers to physical assets needed to deliverpublicservices. Public services include both infrastructure and services generally provided by government.

Typical attributes

Hard infrastructure generally has the following attributes.

Capital assets that provide services

These are physical assets that provide services. The people employed in the hard infrastructure sectorgenerally maintain, monitor, and operate the assets, but do not offer services to the clients or users of theinfrastructure. Interactions between workers and clients are generally limited to administrative tasksconcerning ordering, scheduling, or billing of services.


21 2013-05-02 11:27 AM G


9/21

Large networks

These are large networks constructed over generations, and are not often replaced as a whole system. Thenetwork provides services to a geographically defined area, and has a long life because its service capacity ismaintained by continual refurbishment or replacement of components as they wear out.

Historicity and interdependence

The system or network tends to evolve over time as it is continuously modified, improved, enlarged, and asvarious components are rebuilt, decommissioned or adapted to other uses. The system components areinterdependent and not usually capable of subdivision or separate disposal, and consequently are not readilydisposable within the commercial marketplace. The system interdependency may limit a component life to alesser period than the expected life of the component itself.

Natural monopoly

The systems tend to be natural monopolies, insofar that economies of scale means that multiple agencies

providing a service are less efficient than would be the case if a single agency provided the service. This isbecause the assets have a high initial cost and a value that is difficult to determine. Once most of the systemis built, the marginal cost of servicing additional clients or users tends to be relatively inexpensive, and may

be negligible if there is no need to increase the peak capacity or the geographical extent of the network.

In public economics theory, infrastructure assets such as highways and railways tend to be public goods, inthat they carry a high degree of non-excludability, where no household can be excluded from using it, andnon-rivalry, where no household can reduce another from enjoying it. These properties lead to externality,free ridership, and spillover effects that distort perfect competition and market efficiency. Hence,

government becomes the best actor to supply the public goods.[26]

Economics, management, engineering, and impacts

The following concerns mainly hard infrastructure and the specialized facilities used for soft infrastructure.

Ownership and financing

Main article: Public capital

Infrastructure may be owned and managed by governments or by private companies, such as sole public

utility or railway companies. Generally, most roads, major ports and airports, water distribution systems andsewage networks are publicly owned, whereas most energy and telecommunications networks are privatelyowned. Publicly owned infrastructure may be paid for from taxes, tolls, or metered user fees, whereas

private infrastructure is generally paid for by metered user fees. Major investment projects are generallyfinanced by the issuance of long-term bonds.

An interesting comparison between privatization versus government-sponsored public works involves highspeed rail (HSR) projects in East Asia. In 1998, the Taiwan government awarded the Taiwan High SpeedRail Corporation, a private organization, to construct the 345 km line from Taipei to Kaohsiung in a 35-yearconcession contract. Conversely, in 2004 the South Korean government charged the Korean High Speed RailConstruction Authority, a public entity, to construct its high speed rail line, 412 km from Seoul to Busan, intwo phases. While different implementation strategies, Taiwan successfully delivered the HSR project interms of project management (time, cost, and quality), whereas South Korea successfully delivered its HSR

project in terms of product success (meeting owners' and users' needs, particularly in ridership).Additionally, South Korea successfully created a technology transfer of high speed rail technology from


21 2013-05-02 11:27 AM G


10/21

French engineers, essentially creating an industry of HSR manufacturing capable of exporting knowledge,

equipment, and parts worldwide.[27]

Henceforth, government owned and operated infrastructure may be developed and operated in the privatesector or in public-private partnerships, in addition to in the public sector. In the United States, public

spending on infrastructure has varied between 2.3% and 3.6% of GDP since 1950.[28] Many financialinstitutions invest in infrastructure.

Infrastructure as a new asset class for pension funds and SWFs

Most pension funds have long-dated liabilities, with matching long-term investments. These largeinstitutional investors need to protect the long-term value of their investments from inflationary debasementof currency and market fluctuations, and provide recurrent cash flows to pay for retiree benefits in the short-medium term: from that perspective, think-tanks such as the World Pensions Council (WPC) have arguedthat infrastructure is an ideal asset class that provides tangible advantages such as long duration (facilitatingcash flow matching with long-term liabilities), protection against inflation and statistical diversification (lowcorrelation with traditional listed assets such as equity and fixed income investments), thus reducing

overall portfolio volatility.[29]

Private infrastructure fund is a one of the fastest growing private investment class after Private Equity,Private Debt and Private Real Estate. The importance of private infrastructure fund is gaining traction as

developed countries are facing budget deficit and look to private sector for infrastructure financing.[30]

Infrastructure debt

Infrastructure debt is a complex investment category reserved for highly sophisticated institutional investorswho can gauge jurisdiction-specific risk parameters, assess a projects long-term viability, understand

transaction risks, conduct due diligence, negotiate (multi)creditors agreements, make timely decisions onconsents and waivers, and analyze loan performance over time.

Research conducted by the World Pensions Council (WPC) suggests that most UK and European pensionswishing to gain a degree of exposure to infrastructure debt have done so indirectly, through investments

made in infrastructure funds managed by specialized Canadian, US and Australian funds.[31]

On November 29, 2011, the British government unveiled an unprecedented plan to encourage large-scalepension investments in new roads, hospitals, airports, etc. across the UK. The plan is aimed at enticing 20billion pounds ($30.97 billion) of investment in domestic infrastructure projects.

Infrastructure asset management

Main article: Infrastructure asset management

The method ofinfrastructure asset managementis based upon the definition of a Standard of service (SoS)that describes how an asset will perform in objective and measurable terms. The SoS includes the definitionof a minimum condition grade, which is established by considering the consequences of a failure of theinfrastructure asset.

The key components of infrastructure asset management are:

Definition of a standard of serviceEstablishment of measurable specifications of how the asset should performEstablishment of a minimum condition grade


f 21 2013-05-02 11:27 AM G


11/21

The Berlin Brandenburg Airport

under construction.

Establishment of a whole-life cost approach to managing the assetElaboration of anAsset Management Plan

The 2009 report card produced by the American Society of Civil Engineers [32] gave America'sInfrastructure a grade of "D".

Engineering

Main articles: Engineering and Project management

Most infrastructure is designed by engineers, urbanists or architects.Generally road and rail transport networks, as well as water andwaste management infrastructure are designed by civil engineers,electrical power and lighting networks are designed by powerengineers and electrical engineers, and telecommunications,computing and monitoring networks are designed by systemsengineers.

In the case of urban infrastructure, the general layout of roads,sidewalks and public places may sometimes be designed by urbanistsor architects, although the detailed design will still be performed bycivil engineers. If a building is required, it is designed by an architect, and if an industrial or processing

plant is required, it may be designed by industrial engineer or a process engineer.

In terms of engineering tasks, the design and construction management process usually follows these steps:

Preliminary Studies

Determine existing and future traffic loads, determine existing capacity, and estimate the existing andfuture standards of serviceConduct a preliminary survey and obtain information from existing air photos, maps, and plansIdentify possible conflicts with other assets or topographical featuresPerform environmental impact studies:

Evaluate the impact on the human environment (noise pollution, odors, electromagneticinterference, etc.)Evaluate the impact on the natural environment (disturbance of natural ecosystems)Evaluate the possible presence of contaminated soils;Given various time horizons, standards of service, environmental impacts, and conflicts with

existing structures or terrain, propose various preliminary designsEstimate the costs of the various designs, and make recommendations

Detailed Survey

Perform a detailed survey of the construction siteObtain "as built" drawings of existing infrastructureDig exploratory pits where required to survey underground infrastructurePerform a geotechnical survey to determine the bearing capacity of soils and rockPerform soil sampling and testing to estimate nature, degree and extent of soil contamination

Detailed Engineering

Prepare detailed plans and technical specificationsPrepare a detailed bill of materials


f 21 2013-05-02 11:27 AM G


12/21

Prepare a detailed cost estimateEstablish a general work schedule

Authorization

Obtain authorization from environmental and other regulatory agenciesObtain authorization from any owners or operators of assets affected by the work

Inform emergency services, and prepare contingency plans in case of emergenciesTendering

Prepare administrative clauses and other tendering documentsOrganize and announce a call for tendersAnswer contractor questions and issue addenda during the tendering processReceive and analyse tenders, and make a recommendation to the owner

Construction Supervision

Once the construction contract has been signed between the owner and the general contractor, allauthorisations have been obtained, and all pre-construction submittals have been received from thegeneral contractor, the construction supervisor issues an "Order to begin construction"Regularly schedule meetings and obtain contact information for the general contractor (GC) and allinterested partiesObtain a detailed work schedule and list of subcontractors from the GCObtain detailed traffic diversion and emergency plans from the GCObtain proof of certification, insurance and bondsExamine shop drawings submitted by the GCReceive reports from the materials quality control lab

When required, review Change requests from the GC, and issue construction directives and changeordersFollow work progress and authorize partial paymentsWhen substantially completed, inspect the work and prepare a list of deficienciesSupervise testing and commissioningVerify that all operating and maintenance manuals, as well as warranties, are completePrepare "as built" drawingsMake a final inspection, issue a certificate of final completion, and authorize the final payment

File:BBI 2010-07-23 5.JPG|thumb|right|The Berlin Brandenburg Airport under construction.]]

Impact on economic development

Main articles: Economic development and Public capital

Investment in infrastructure is part of the capital accumulation required for economic development and may

have an impact on socioeconomic measures of welfare.[33] The causality of infrastructure and economicgrowth has always been in debate. In developing nations, expansions in electric grids, roadways, andrailways show marked growth in economic development. However, the relationship does not remain inadvanced nations who witness more and more lower rates of return on such infrastructure investments.

Nevertheless, infrastructure yields indirect benefits through the supply chain, land values, small businessgrowth, consumer sales, and social benefits of community development and access to opportunity. TheAmerican Society of Civil Engineers cite the many transformative projects that have shaped the growth ofthe United States including the Transcontinental Railroad that connected major cities from the Atlantic to


f 21 2013-05-02 11:27 AM G


13/21

Pacific coast; the Panama Canal that revolutionized shipment in connected the two oceans in the Westernhemisphere; the Interstate Highway System that spawned the mobility of the masses; and still others thatinclude the Hoover Dam, Trans-Alaskan pipeline, and many bridges (the Golden Gate, Brooklyn, and Bay

Bridge).[34] All these efforts are testimony to the infrastructure and economic development correlation.

Use as economic stimulus

During the Great Depression of the 1930s, many governments undertook public works projects in order tocreate jobs and stimulate the economy. The economist John Maynard Keynes provided a theoretical

justification for this policy in The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money,[35] published in1936. Following the global financial crisis of 20082009, some again proposed investing in infrastructure asa means of stimulating the economy (see the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009).

Environmental impacts

Main article: Environmental impact assessment

While infrastructure development may initially be damaging to the natural environment, justifying the needto assess environmental impacts, it may contribute in mitigating the "perfect storm" of environmental and

energy sustainability, particularly in the role transportation plays in modern society.[36] Offshore wind powerin England and Denmark may cause issues to local ecosystems but are incubators to clean energy technologyfor the surrounding regions. Ethanol production may overuse available farmland in Brazil but have propelledthe country to energy independence. High speed rail may cause noise and wide swathes of rights-of-waythrough countrysides and urban communities but have helped China, Spain, France, Germany, Japan, andother nations deal with concurrent issues of economic competitiveness, climate change, energy use, and builtenvironment sustainability.

History

Main articles: Canal, Electrical telegraph, Electric power transmission, Freeway, History of rail

transport, History of road transport, Public switched telephone network, and Telephone

The details of the history concerns mainly hard infrastructure.

Before 1700

Infrastructure before 1700 consisted mainly of roads and canals. Canals were used for transportation or for

irrigation. Sea navigation was aided by ports and lighthouses. A few advanced cities had aqueducts thatserviced public fountains and baths, while fewer had sewers.

Roads

The first roads were tracks that often followed game trails, such as the Natchez Trace.[37]

The first paved streets appear to have been built in Ur in 4000 BCE. Corduroy roads were built in

Glastonbury, England in 3300 BCE[38] and brick-paved roads were built in the Indus Valley Civilization onthe Indian subcontinent from around the same time. In 500 BCE, Darius I the Great started an extensive road

system in Persia (Iran), including the Royal Road.With the rise of the Roman Empire, the Romans built roads using deep roadbeds of crushed stone as anunderlying layer to ensure that they kept dry. On the more heavily travelled routes, there were additionallayers that included six sided capstones, or pavers, that reduced the dust and reduced the drag from wheels.


f 21 2013-05-02 11:27 AM G


14/21

In the medieval Islamic world, many roads were built throughout the Arab Empire. The most sophisticated

roads were those of the Baghdad, Iraq, which were paved with tar in the 8th century.[39]

Canals and irrigation systems

The oldest known canals were built in Mesopotamia c. 4000 BCE, in what is now modern day Iraq andSyria. The Indus Valley Civilization in India and Pakistan from c3300 BCE had a sophisticated canal

irrigation system.[40]

In Egypt, canals date back to at least 2300 BCE, when a canal was built to bypass thecataract on the Nile near Aswan.[41]

In ancient China, large canals for river transport were established as far back as the Warring States (481-221

BCE).[42] By far the longest canal was the Grand Canal of China completed in 609 CE, still the longestcanal in the world today at 1,794 kilometres (1,115 mi).

In Europe, canal building began in the Middle Ages because of commercial expansion from the 12thcentury. Notable canals were the Stecknitz Canal in Germany in 1398, the Briare Canal connecting the Loireand Seine in France in 1642, followed by the Canal du Midi in 1683 connecting the Atlantic to theMediterranean. Canal building progressed steadily in Germany in the 17th and 18th centuries with threegreat rivers, the Elbe, Oder, and Weser being linked by canals.

1700 to 1870

Roads

As traffic levels increased in England and roads deteriorated, toll roads were built by Turnpike Trusts,especially between 17301770. Turnpikes were also later built in the United States. They were usually built

by private companies under a government franchise.

Water transport on rivers and canals carried many farm goods from the US frontier between the AppalachianMountains and Mississippi River in the early 19th century, but the shorter road route over the mountains hadadvantages.

In France, Pierre-Marie-Jrme Trsaguet is widely credited with establishing the first scientific approach toroad building about the year 1764. It involved a layer of large rocks, covered by a layer of smaller gravel.John Loudon McAdam (17561836) designed the first modern highways, and developed an inexpensive

paving material of soil and stone aggregate known as macadam.[38]

Canals

In Europe, particularly Britain and Ireland, and then in the early US and the Canadian colonies, inlandcanals preceded the development of railroads during the earliest phase of the Industrial Revolution. InBritain between 1760 and 1820 over one hundred canals were built.

In the United States, navigable canals reached into isolated areas and brought them in touch with the worldbeyond. By 1825 the Erie Canal, 363 miles (584 km) long with 82 locks, opened up a connection from thepopulated northeast to the fertile Great Plains. During the 19th century, the length of canals grew from 100miles (160 km) to over 4,000 miles (6,400 km), with a complex network in conjunction with Canada makingthe Great Lakes navigable, although some canals were later drained and used as railroad rights-of-way.

RailwaysThe earliest railways were used in mines or to bypass waterfalls, and were pulled by horses or by people. In

1811 John Blenkinsop designed the first successful and practical railway locomotive,[43] and a line was built

connecting the Middleton Colliery to Leeds. The Liverpool and Manchester Railway,[44] considered to be


f 21 2013-05-02 11:27 AM G


15/21

the world's first intercity line, opened in 1826. In the following years, railways spread throughout the UnitedKingdom and the world, and became the dominant means of land transport for nearly a century.

In the US, the 1826 Granite Railway in Massachusetts was the first commercial railroad to evolve throughcontinuous operations into a common carrier. The Baltimore and Ohio, opened in 1830, was the first toevolve into a major system. In 1869, the symbolically important transcontinental railroad was completed in

the US with the driving of a golden spike at Promontory, Utah.[45]

Telegraph service

The electrical telegraph was first successfully demonstrated on 25 July 1837 between Euston and Camden

Town in London.[46] It entered commercial use on the Great Western Railway over the 13 miles (21 km)from Paddington station to West Drayton on 9 April 1839.

In the United States, the telegraph was developed by Samuel Morse and Alfred Vail. On 24 May 1844,Morse made the first public demonstration of his telegraph by sending a message from the Supreme CourtChamber in the US Capitol in Washington, DC to the B&O Railroad outer depot (now the B&O RailroadMuseum) in Baltimore. The Morse/Vail telegraph was quickly deployed in the following two decades. On 24

October 1861, the first transcontinental telegraph system was established.

The first successful transatlantic telegraph cable was completed on 27 July 1866, allowing transatlantictelegraph communications for the first time. Within 29 years of its first installation at Euston Station, thetelegraph network crossed the oceans to every continent but Antarctica, making instant globalcommunication possible for the first time.

1870 to 1920

Roads

Tar-bound macadam, or tarmac, was applied to macadam roads towards the end of the 19th century in citiessuch as Paris. In the early 20th century tarmac and concrete paving were extended into the countryside.

Canals

Many notable sea canals were completed in this period, such as the Suez Canal in 1869, the Kiel Canal in1897, and the Panama Canal in 1914.

Telephone service

In 1876, Alexander Graham Bell achieved the first successful telephone transmission of clear speech. Thefirst telephones had no network, but were in private use, wired together in pairs. Users who wanted to talk todifferent people had as many telephones as necessary for the purpose. A user who wished to speak, whistledinto the transmitter until the other party heard. Soon, however, a bell was added for signalling, and then aswitch-hook, and telephones took advantage of the exchange principle already employed in telegraphnetworks. Each telephone was wired to a local telephone exchange, and the exchanges were wired togetherwith trunks. Networks were connected together in a hierarchical manner until they spanned cities, countries,continents, and oceans.

Electricity

At the Paris Exposition of 1878, electric arc lighting had been installed along the Avenue de l'Opera and thePlace de l'Opera, using electric Yablochkov arc lamps, powered by Znobe Gramme alternating current

dynamos.[47][48]


f 21 2013-05-02 11:27 AM G


16/21

A multi-lane, multi-carriageway

freeway

Yablochkov candles required high voltages, and it was not long before experimenters reported that the arc

lights could be powered on a seven mile (11 km) circuit.[49] Within a decade scores of cities would havelighting systems using a central power plant that provided electricity to multiple customers via electricaltransmission lines. These systems were in direct competition with the dominant gaslight utilities of the

period.

The first electricity system supplying incandescent lights was built by the Edison Illuminating Company in

lower Manhattan, eventually serving one square mile with six "jumbo dynamos" housed at Pearl StreetStation.

The first transmission of three-phase alternating current using high voltage took place in 1891 during theInternational Electro-Technical Exhibition in Frankfurt. A 25 kilovolt transmission line, approximately175 km (109 mi) long, connected Lauffen on the Neckar with Frankfurt. Voltages used for electric powertransmission increased throughout the 20th century. By 1914 fifty-five transmission systems operating at

more than 70,000 V were in service, the highest voltage then being used was 150,000 V.[50]

Water distribution and sewers

In the 19th century major treatment works were built in London in response to cholera threats. TheMetropolis Water Act (1852) was enacted. "Under the Act, it became unlawful for any water company toextract water for domestic use from the tidal reaches of the Thames after 31 August 1855, and from 31December 1855 all such water was required to be effectively filtered. TheMetropolitan Commission ofSewers was formed, water filtration was made compulsory, and new water intakes on the Thames wereestablished above Teddington Lock.

The technique of purification of drinking water by use of compressed liquefied chlorine gas was developedin 1910 by US Army Major Carl Rogers Darnall, Professor of Chemistry at the Army Medical School.Darnall's work became the basis for present day systems of municipal water purification.

Subways

In 1863 the London Underground was created. In 1890, it first started using electric traction and deep-leveltunnels. Soon afterwards, Budapest and many other cities started using subway systems. By 1940, nineteensubway systems were in use.

Since 1920

Roads

In 1925, Italy was the first country to build a freeway-like road,which linked Milan to Como,[51] known as the Autostrada dei Laghi.In Germany, the autobahns formed the first limited-access,high-speed road network in the world, with the first section fromFrankfurt am Main to Darmstadt opening in 1935. The firstlong-distance rural freeway in the United States is generallyconsidered to be the Pennsylvania Turnpike, which opened on

October 1, 1940.[52] In the United States, the Interstate Highway

System was authorized by the Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1956.[53]

Most of the system was completed between 1960 and 1990.

The Internet

Main articles: History of the Internet and History of the World Wide Web


f 21 2013-05-02 11:27 AM G


17/21

Research into packet switching started in the early 1960s. The ARPANET in particular led to thedevelopment of protocols for internetworking, where multiple separate networks could be joined togetherinto a network of networks The first two nodes of what would become the ARPANET were interconnected

on 29 October 1969.[54] Access to the ARPANET was expanded in 1981 when the National ScienceFoundation (NSF) developed the Computer Science Network (CSNET). In 1982, the Internet Protocol Suite(TCP/IP) was standardized and the concept of a world-wide network of fully interconnected TCP/IPnetworks called the Internet was introduced. TCP/IP network access expanded again in 1986 when the

National Science Foundation Network (NSFNET) provided access to supercomputer sites in the UnitedStates from research and education organizations.[55] Commercial internet service providers (ISPs) began toemerge in the late 1980s and early 1990s. The ARPANET was decommissioned in 1990. The Internet wascommercialized in 1995 when NSFNET was decommissioned, removing the last restrictions on the use of

the Internet to carry commercial traffic.[56] The Internet started a rapid expansion to Europe and Australia in

the mid to late 1980s[57][58] and to Asia in the late 1980s and early 1990s.[59] During the late 1990s, it wasestimated that traffic on the public Internet grew by 100 percent per year, while the mean annual growth in

the number of Internet users was thought to be between 20% and 50%.[60] As of 31 March 2011, the

estimated total number of Internet users was 2.095 billion (30.2% of world population).[61]

Infrastructure in the developing world

According to researchers at the Overseas Development Institute, the lack of infrastructure in manydeveloping countries represents one of the most significant limitations to economic growth and achievement

of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs).[62] Infrastructure investments and maintenance can be very

expensive, especially in such as areas as landlocked, rural and sparsely populated countries in Africa.[62] Ithas been argued that infrastructure investments contributed to more than half of Africa's improved growth

performance between 1990 and 2005, and increased investment is necessary to maintain growth and tackle

poverty.[62] The returns to investment in infrastructure are very significant, with on average thirty to forty

percent returns for telecommunications (ICT) investments, over forty percent for electricity generation, andeighty percent for roads.[62]

Regional differences

The demand for infrastructure, both by consumers and by companies is much higher than the amount

invested.[62] There are severe constraints on the supply side of the provision of infrastructure in Asia.[63]

The infrastructure financing gap between what is invested in Asia-Pacific (around US$48 billion) and what

is needed (US$228 billion) is around US$180 billion every year.[62]

In Latin America, three percent of GDP (around US$71 billion) would need to be invested in infrastructurein order to satisfy demand, yet in 2005, for example, only around two percent was invested leaving a

financing gap of approximately US$24 billion.[62]

In Africa, in order to reach the seven percent annual growth calculated to be required to meet the MDGs by2015 would require infrastructure investments of about fifteen percent of GDP, or around US$93 billion a

year.[62] In fragile states, over thirty-seven percent of GDP would be required.[62]

Sources of funding

Currently, the source of financing varies significantly across sectors.[62] Some sectors are dominated bygovernment spending, others by overseas development aid (ODA), and yet others by private investors.[62]

In sub-Saharan Africa, the government spends around US$9.4 billion out of a total of US$24.9 billion.[62] In


f 21 2013-05-02 11:27 AM G


18/21

irrigation, governments represent almost all spending. In transport and energy a majority of investment isgovernment spending. In ICT and water supply and sanitation, the private sector represents the majority of

capital expenditure.[62] Overall, between them aid, the private sector, and non-OECD financiers exceed

government spending.[62] The private sector spending alone equals state capital expenditure, though the

majority is focused on ICT infrastructure investments.[62] External financing increased in the 2000s (decade)and in Africa alone external infrastructure investments increased from US$7 billion in 2002 to US$27

billion in 2009. China, in particular, has emerged as an important investor.[62]

See also

Airport#InfrastructureAsset Management PlanCritical infrastructureGreen infrastructureInfrastructure asset management

Infrastructure securityLand improvement

LogisticsMegaprojectPseudo-urbanizationProject financePublic capitalPublic service

Public works

References

Înfrastructure, Online Compact Oxford EnglishDictionary, http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/infrastructure (accessed January 17, 2009)

1.

^ Sullivan, arthur; Steven M. Sheffrin (2003).Economics: Principles in action

(http://www.pearsonschool.com/index.cfm?locator=PSZ3R9&PMDbSiteId=2781&PMDbSolutionId=6724&PMDbCategoryId=&PMDbProgramId=12881&level=4). Upper SaddleRiver, New Jersey 07458: Pearson Prentice Hall.

p. 474. ISBN 0-13-063085-3.

2.

^ Fulmer, Jeffrey (2009). "What in the world isinfrastructure?". PEI Infrastructure Investor(July/August): 3032.

3.

Înfrastructure, American Heritage Dictionary ofthe English Language, http://education.yahoo.com

/reference/dictionary/entry/infrastructure (accessedJanuary 17, 2009)

4.

Înfrastructure, JP1-02, Department of DefenseDictionary of Military and Associated Terms, p.260, 12 April 2001 (rev. 31 August 2005)http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA439918&Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf(accessed January 17, 2009)

5.

^ Online Etymology Dictionary. Douglas Harper,Historian. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/infrastructure (accessed: April 24, 2008)

6.

^ a bhttp://www.opendb.net/element/19099.php7.^ The Etymology of Infrastructure and the

Infrastructure of the Internet, Stephen Lewis on hisblogHag Pak Sak, posted September 22, 2008. [1](http://hakpaksak.wordpress.com/2008/09/22/the-

8.

etymology-of-infrastructure-and-the-infrastructure-of-the-internet/) (accessed: January 17, 2008)Âmerica in Ruins, Choate and Walter, 1981(http://www.amazon.com/dp/0822305542)

9.

Înfrastructure for the 21st Century, Washington,D.C.: National Academy Press, 1987.

10.

^http://129.3.20.41/eps/urb/papers/0506/0506002.pdf

11.

^http://www.cato.org/pubs/journal/cj11n2/cj11n2-4.pdf

12.

^ Grbler, Arnulf (1990). The Rise and Fall ofInfrastructures: Dynamics of Evolution and

Technological Change in Transport

(http://www.iiasa.ac.at/Admin/PUB/Documents/XB-90-704.pdf). Heidelberg and New York:Physica-Verlag

13.

^ Economic Infrastructure CRS Codes, OECD

http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/12/25/43860714.pdf

14.

^ Fluviometer (http://www.thefreedictionary.com/Fluviometer)

15.

^ "From Antu to Yepun The Construction of theVLT" (http://www.eso.org/public/images/comparisons/potw1249a/).ESO Picture of theWeek. Retrieved 4 December 2012.

16.

^ Association of Local Government Engineers NewZealand: "Infrastructure Asset ManagementManual", June 1998 - Edition 1.1

17.

^ D.O.D. Dictionary of Military and AssociatedTerms, 2001 (rev. 2005)

18.

^ The Conservation Fund, Arlington, VA. "GreenInfrastructure."(http://www.greeninfrastructure.net/) Accessed2009-10-06.

19.


f 21 2013-05-02 11:27 AM G
http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oedhttp://www.pearsonschool.com/http://education.yahoo.com/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-binhttp://dictionary.reference.com/browsehttp://www.opendb.net/element/19099.phphttp://hakpaksak.wordpress.com/2008/09/22/the-http://www.amazon.com/dp/0822305542http://129.3.20.41/eps/urb/papershttp://www.cato.org/pubs/journal/cj11n2http://www.iiasa.ac.at/Admin/PUB/Documentshttp://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/12/25/43860714.pdfhttp://www.thefreedictionary.com/http://www.eso.org/public/imageshttp://www.greeninfrastructure.net/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructurehttp://www.greeninfrastructure.net/http://www.eso.org/public/imageshttp://www.thefreedictionary.com/http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/12/25/43860714.pdfhttp://www.iiasa.ac.at/Admin/PUB/Documentshttp://www.cato.org/pubs/journal/cj11n2http://129.3.20.41/eps/urb/papershttp://www.amazon.com/dp/0822305542http://hakpaksak.wordpress.com/2008/09/22/the-http://www.opendb.net/element/19099.phphttp://dictionary.reference.com/browsehttp://www.dtic.mil/cgi-binhttp://education.yahoo.com/http://www.pearsonschool.com/http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed


19/21

^ Maryland Department of Natural Resources,Annapolis, MD.Maryland's Green Infrastructure

Assessment: A Comprehensive Strategy for Land

Conservation and Restoration.

(http://www.dnr.state.md.us/greenways/gi/gidoc/gidoc.html) May 2003.

20.

^ U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA),Washington, D.C., et al., Green Infrastructure

Statement of Intent. (http://www.epa.gov/npdes/pubs/gi_intentstatement.pdf) 2007-04-19.

21.

^ EPA et al. "Managing Wet Weather with GreenInfrastructure: Action Strategy 2008."(http://www.epa.gov/npdes/pubs/gi_action_strategy.pdf) January 2008.

22.

^http://www.anthrobase.com/Dic/eng/pers/marx_karl.htm (accessed January 9, 2011)

23.

^Land improvement, OnlineBusinessDictionary.com,http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/land-development.html (accessed January 31, 2009)

24.

^Land development, OnlineBusinessDictionary.com,http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/land-development.html (accessed January 31, 2009)

25.

^ Myles, G. D. (1995) Public Economics.Cambridge University Press. 263-264 pg.

26.

^ Kao, T., Yung-Cheng, L, and Shih, M. (2010).Privatization Versus Public Works for High SpeedRail Projects. Transportation Research Record:Journal of the Transportation Research Board.Issue: 2159. Pp. 18-26.

27.

^ "Money for Public Projects", The New YorkTimes, November 19, 2008http://www.nytimes.com/imagepages/2008/11/19/business/economy/19leonhardt_graphic.ready.html (accessed January26, 2009)

28.

^ M. Nicolas J. Firzli quoted by Mark Cobley (Feb.20 2012). "Infrastructure Funds Fail to Bridge theGap" (http://www.efinancialnews.com/story/2012-02-20/infra-funds-fail-to-bridge-the-gap).Financial News (.). Retrieved 14 March 2012.

29.

^ Infrastructure productivity: How to save $1trillion a year30.^ M. Nicolas Firzli quoted by Myles Neligan andSinead Cruise (November 28, 2011). "BritishInfrastructure Finance Plan No Silver Bullet"(http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/11/28/britain-economy-pensionfunds-idUSL5E7MP21Z20111128). Reuters (.). Retrieved28 November 2011.

31.

^ ASCE report card (http://www.asce.org/reportcard/2009/)

32.

^ Luis Flores Ballesteros. "How Lack and Poor

Infrastructure Shapes Inequality and Poverty" 54Pesos Sep. 2010:54 Pesos 09 September 2010.http://54pesos.org/2010/09/28/how-lack-or-

poor-infrastructure-shapes-inequality-and-poverty-in-supernations-a-lesson-from-india/>

33.

^ Griggs, F. E. (2003). Perspectives in CivilEngineering. 1852-2002: 150 Years in CivilEngineering in the United States. American Societyof Civil Engineers. Edited by Jeffrey S. Russell. Pp.111-122.

34.

^ Keynes, John Maynard (2007) [1936]. TheGeneral Theory of Employment, Interest andMoney. Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave

Macmillan. ISBN 0-230-00476-8http://cepa.newschool.edu/het/essays/keynes/keynescont.htm.

35.

^ Puentes, R. (2008). A Bridge to Somewhere:Rethinking American Transportation for the 21stCentury. Brookings Institution Metropolitan PolicyReport: Blueprint for American Prosperity seriesreport.

36.

^ Lay, M G (1992). Ways of the World. Sydney:Primavera Press. pp. 401. ISBN 1-875368-05-1.

37.

^ a b Lay (1992)38.

^ Dr. Kasem Ajram (1992). The Miracle of IslamScience (2nd ed.). Knowledge House Publishers.ISBN 0-911119-43-4.

39.

^ Rodda 2004, p. 161.40.^ Hadfield 1986, p. 16.41.^ Needham 1971, p. 269.42.^ "John Blenkinsop" (http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9001800). Encyclopdia Britannica.Retrieved 2007-09-10.

43.

^ "Liverpool and Manchester"(http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/RAliverpool.htm). Retrieved 2007-09-19.

44.

^ Ambrose, Stephen E. (2000).Nothing Like It InThe World; The men who built the Transcontinental

Railroad 18631869. Simon & Schuster.ISBN 0-684-84609-8.

45.

^ The electric telegraph, forerunner of the internet,celebrates 170 years (http://www.connected-earth.com/Daysout/BTArchives/Profile/index.htm)BT Group Connected Earth Online Museum.Accessed July 2007

46.

^ David Oakes Woodbury (1949).A Measure forGreatness: A Short Biography of Edward Weston

(http://www.archive.org/stream/measureforgreatn001419mbp/measureforgreatn001419mbp_djvu.txt).McGraw-Hill. p. 83. Retrieved 2009-01-04.

47.

^ John Patrick Barrett (1894).Electricity at theColumbian Exposition (http://books.google.com/?id=lF5KAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA3). R. R.Donnelley & sons company. p. 1. Retrieved2009-01-04.

48.

^ Engineers, Institution of Electrical (1880-03-24)."Notes on the Jablochkoff System of ElectricLighting" (http://books.google.com

/?id=lww4AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA143). Journal ofthe Society of Telegraph Engineers IX (32): 143.Retrieved 2009-01-07.

49.

^ Bureau of Census data reprinted in Hughes, pp.282283

50.


f 21 2013-05-02 11:27 AM G
http://www.dnr.state.md.us/greenways/gi/gidochttp://www.epa.gov/npdeshttp://www.epa.gov/npdeshttp://www.anthrobase.com/Dic/enghttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/land-http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/land-http://www.nytimes.com/imagepages/2008/11http://www.efinancialnews.com/storyhttp://www.reuters.com/article/2011/11/28/britain-http://www.asce.org/http://54pesos.org/2010/09/28/how-lack-or-http://cepa.newschool.edu/het/essays/keyneshttp://www.britannica.com/http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/http://www.connected-/http://www.archive.org/streamhttp://books.google.com/http://books.google.com/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructurehttp://books.google.com/http://books.google.com/http://www.archive.org/streamhttp://www.connected-/http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/http://www.britannica.com/http://cepa.newschool.edu/het/essays/keyneshttp://54pesos.org/2010/09/28/how-lack-or-http://www.asce.org/http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/11/28/britain-http://www.efinancialnews.com/storyhttp://www.nytimes.com/imagepages/2008/11http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/land-http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/land-http://www.anthrobase.com/Dic/enghttp://www.epa.gov/npdeshttp://www.epa.gov/npdeshttp://www.dnr.state.md.us/greenways/gi/gidoc


20/21

^ Paul Hofmann, "Taking to the Highway in Italy",New York Times, 26 April 1987, 23.

51.

^ Phil Patton, The Open Road: A Celebration of theAmerican Highway (New York: Simon & Schuster,

1986), 77.

52.

^ displayStory.cfm?story_id=11636517 "The cracksare showing" (http://www.economist.com/world/unitedstates). The Economist. 2008-06-26.

Retrieved 2008-10-23.

53.

^ "Roads and Crossroads of Internet History"(http://www.netvalley.com/intval.html ) by GregoryGromov. 1995

54.

^NSFNET: A Partnership for High-Speed

Networking, Final Report 1987-1995

(http://www.merit.edu/about/history/pdf/NSFNET_final.pdf), Karen D. Frazer, Merit

Network, Inc., 1995

55.

^ "Retiring the NSFNET Backbone Service:Chronicling the End of an Era"(http://www.merit.edu/networkresearch/projecthistory/nsfnet/nsfnet_article.php), Susan R.Harris and Elise Gerich, ConneXions, Vol. 10, No.4, April 1996

56.

^ Ben Segal (1995).A Short History of InternetProtocols at CERN(http://www.cern.ch/ben/TCPHIST.html).

57.

^ Rseaux IP Europens (RIPE)58.^ "Internet History in Asia" (http://www.apan.net59.

/meetings/busan03/cs-history.htm).16th APANMeetings/Advanced Network Conference in Busan.Retrieved 25 December 2005.^ Coffman, K. G; Odlyzko, A. M. (2 October1998). The size and growth rate of the Internet(http://www.dtc.umn.edu/~odlyzko/doc/internet.size.pdf) (PDF). AT&T Labs.Retrieved 21 May 2007.

60.

^ "World Internet Users and Population Stats"(http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats.htm).Internet World Stats. Miniwatts Marketing Group.22 June 2011. Retrieved 23 June 2011.

61.

^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Christian K.M.Kingombe 2011. Mapping the new infrastructurefinancing landscape (http://www.odi.org.uk/resources/details.asp?id=5666&title=latin-america-medellin-colombia-microfinance-post-washington-consensus-microcredit-microenterprise-local-development). London: Overseas Development

Institute

62.

^ Peter McCawley (2010), 'Infrastructure Policy inDeveloping countries' (http://apel.anu.edu.au/pdf/24-1/Articles/mccawley.pdf),Asian-Pacific

Economic Literature, 24(1), May. See also Asian-Pacific Economic Literature Policy Brief No 19,May 2010, on 'Infrastructure policy in developingcountries in Asia' (http://apel.anu.edu.au/pdf/24-1/Policy/mccawley.pdf).

63.

Bibliography

Larry W. Beeferman, Pension Fund Investment in Infrastructure: A Resource Paper, Capital Matter(Occasional Paper Series), No.3 December 2008A. Eberhard, Infrastructure Regulation in Developing Countries, PPIAF Working Paper No. 4(2007) World BankM. Nicolas J. Firzli & Vincent Bazi, Infrastructure Investments in an Age of Austerity : The Pensionand Sovereign Funds Perspective, published jointly in Revue Analyse Financire, Q4 2011 issue,

pp. 34 37 and USAK/JTW July 30, 2011 (online edition)Georg Inderst, "Pension Fund Investment in Infrastructure", OECD Working Papers on Insurance andPrivate Pensions, No. 32 (2009)

Further reading

Ascher, Kate; researched by Wendy Marech (2007). The works: anatomy of a city (Reprint. ed.). NewYork: Penguin Press. ISBN 978-0143112709.Hayes, Brian (2005).Infrastructure: the book of everything for the industrial landscape (1st ed.). NewYork City: Norton. ISBN 978-0393329599.Huler, Scott (2010). On the grid: a plot of land, an average neighborhood, and the systems that makeour world work. Emmaus, Penn.: Rodale. ISBN 978-1-60529-647-0.

External links

Body of Knowledge on Infrastructure Regulation (http://www.regulationbodyofknowledge.org)


f 21 2013-05-02 11:27 AM G
http://www.economist.com/worldhttp://www.netvalley.com/intval.htmlhttp://www.merit.edu/about/historyhttp://www.merit.edu/networkresearchhttp://www.cern.ch/http://www.apan.net/http://www.dtc.umn.edu/~odlyzkohttp://www.internetworldstats.com/stats.htm).http://www.odi.org.uk/http://apel.anu.edu.au/http://apel.anu.edu.au/pdf/24-1http://www.regulationbodyofknowledge.org/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructurehttp://www.regulationbodyofknowledge.org/http://apel.anu.edu.au/pdf/24-1http://apel.anu.edu.au/http://www.odi.org.uk/http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats.htm).http://www.dtc.umn.edu/~odlyzkohttp://www.apan.net/http://www.cern.ch/http://www.merit.edu/networkresearchhttp://www.merit.edu/about/historyhttp://www.netvalley.com/intval.htmlhttp://www.economist.com/world


21/21

Next Generation Infrastructures international research programme(http://www.nextgenerationinfrastructures.eu/)Report Card on America's Infrastructure (http://www.infrastructurereportcard.org/)

No Money for Infrastructure Development (http://www.clicker.com/tv/the-rachel-maddow-show/no-money-for-infrastructure-get-ready-to-crumble-1996005/)InfraInput.org: Database-driven, one-stop website for infrastructure issues and ideas(http://www.infrainput.org/)

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Infrastructure&oldid=552568711"Categories: Construction Development Infrastructure

This page was last modified on 28 April 2013 at 14:02.Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms mayapply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy.Wikipedia is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.

http://www.nextgenerationinfrastructures.eu/http://www.infrastructurereportcard.org/http://www.clicker.com/tv/the-rachel-maddow-show/no-http://www.infrainput.org/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Infrastructure&oldid=552568711http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Infrastructure&oldid=552568711http://www.infrainput.org/http://www.clicker.com/tv/the-rachel-maddow-show/no-http://www.infrastructurereportcard.org/http://www.nextgenerationinfrastructures.eu/

Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia [INFRASTRUCTURE]

Documents

Transcript of Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia [INFRASTRUCTURE]