Wiater - Tragedies to Laugh At
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Transcript of Wiater - Tragedies to Laugh At
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NicolasWIATER
Tragediesto
Laugh
at
Lucian
on
the
Failures
of
Mimesis
Noticebiographique
NicolasWiaterisalecturer(wissenschaftlicherMitarbeiter)inClassicsatBonnUniversity.He
wrote his Ph.D on The Ideology ofClassicism. Language,History, and Identity inDionysius of
Halicarnassus andhaspublishedarticlesonGreek IntellectualCulture andhistoriographyof the
HellenisticandEarlyImperialTimes.
Rsums
CetarticleexaminelesconceptionsdelatragdiechezLucien,entrephilosophie,thtreet
rhtorique. Lide selon laquelle la vie est une forme de tragdie que nousjouons sur terre est
insparablede la conception rhtoriquede lamimsis,quiexigede celuiquiprend laparolequil
imitelesgrandsorateursetlesacteursde lhistoirepasse.lpoquedeLucien,cetterecherchede
limitationnese limitaitpasauxorateursmaisconcernaitaussi lesphilosophes.Llmentprincipal
autourduquelsarticulelacritiquedeLucienestquecesderniersprtendenttrelessuccesseursdes
philosophesclassiquesetqueladfinitionquilsdonnentdeuxmmesreposesurcetteprtentionet
leurmasquesocial,pluttquesurdesralisationsintellectuelles.Laconceptiondutragiquechez
Lucienapourbutdervlercefossentrelespersonnesrellesetleurstentativespoursemettreen
scnecommelesgrandsphilosophesdupass.UndesobjectifsprincipauxdestextesdeLucienestde
mettrefincettetragdie(involontaire)endmasquantlesprtensionsinfondesdecesacteurseten
tournantcestragdiesdelautofabricationdesoiencomdiesdelchecdelamimsis.
My paper examines Lucians conception of tragedybetween philosophy, drama, and
rhetoric.Theideaoflifeasatragedywhichweareenactingonearthisinseparablefromtherhetorical
conception ofmimesiswhich requires the speaker to impersonate the great orators and historical
actorsofthepast.InLucianstimes,thismimeticdesirewasnotlimitedtooratorsbutalsoincluded
philosophers.Luciansmainpointofcriticismisthatthelatterpretendtobesuccessorsoftheclassical
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forebearsandthattheirselfdefinitionisbasedonthesepretensions,theirsocialmasks,ratherthanon
intellectualachievement.Luciansconceptionofthetragicisaimedatrevealingthisgapbetween
theactualpersonandtheirattemptstostagethemselvesasthegreatphilosophersofthepast.Oneof
themajoraimsofLucians texts is to end this (involuntary) tragedybyunmasking theunfounded
pretensionsofitsactorsandturningthesetragediesofselffashioningintocomediesoffailedmimesis.
Motscls:Lucien,mimsis,philosophie,rhtorique,tragdie,comdie.
Keywords:Lucian,mimesis,philosophy,rhetoric,tragedy,comedy.
Sommaire
Introduction:TragedyandComedy................................................................................................................. 21.MimesisMisunderstood:LuciansConceptionofTragedy........................................................................ 42.TurningtheReaderintoSpectators:LuciansUseofComedy............................................................... 153.ReFashioningTradition:LuciansConstructiveLaughter..................................................................... 20Bibliography....................................................................................................................................................... 24
Introduction:TragedyandComedy
The relationship between the comic and the tragic and especially between its
exemplarymanifestationsinliterature,tragedyandcomedy,ishardtodefine.Comparisons
are deceptive,but in some ways tragedy and comedy resemble nonidentical twins: the
observercanhardlydenyastrangesimilaritybetweenthetwo,andtheoneinevitablyseems
tocalltomindtheother;butatthesametime,thesesimilaritiesareconstantlyontheverge
ofbeingdissolvedbyanequallystrongimpressionofdistinctnesswhichleavestheobserver
withanambiguousmixtureofdoubtandcertainty.Inthesameway,comedyandtragedy
belong togetherwhile at the same timebeing totally separate,and they complement each
otherasmuchastheyareopposites1.
1Ontheintersectionsoftragedyandcomedysee,e.g.,SEIDENSTICKER1982;TAPLIN2003.
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Thisambiguitywasfeltalreadyinantiquity.InPlatosPhilebus,forexample,Socrates
points to the paradoxical nature of the spectators experience during a performance of a
tragedy or a comedy: spectators of a tragedy, Socrates says at 48a 56, enjoy crying
( ); a comedy, by contrast, provokes laughter at other peoplesmisconceptionsofthemselvesortheirabilities,their ofthemselves:lifedepictedin
comedy is lifewhich is contrary to the famousDelphicmaxim of ,which
Socrateshimselfhasadoptedasthestandardofhisownlife.Yet,bydefinition,laughingat
otherpeoplesmishapsismaliceorillwill,theGreektermforwhichis ,and
harms the soul, it is a .Therefore as tearsandjoy, and , are
mixed in tragedy, laughter and harm, and , arepaired in comedy.Themost
famous passage, however,which deals albeitbriefly with the strange relationship of
comedyandtragedyisthelastsceneofPlatosSymposium:whileallotherguestsarealready
firmly asleep, Socrates, the philosopher, is arguing with the tragedian Agathon and the
comedianAristophanes,forcingthemtoagreethatitispossibleforoneandthesameman
toknowhowtocreatecomedyandtragedy,andthatthemanwhohastheskillofatragic
poetisalsoacomicpoet([ ]
,
,223d362).
This statementofSocrates shows thatPlatowas awareof adeepaffinitybetween
bothtypesofdrama,buthisdeclarationofsuchanaffinitywasatoddswiththehistorical
realityofhistimes:Platosphrasing,thatSocrateshastoforceAgathonandAristophanes
toagreewithhim,remindsusofthefactthatapoetwhocombinedcomicandtragicskills
didnotexisteitherinthefifthorinthefourthcenturyBCE:ForthefifthcenturyAthenian,
tragedy was tragedy, and comedy comedy, and never the twain should meet thusBernardKnoxsasfamousasdecisivestatement,whichis,paradoxicallyenough,confirmed
bythesameSocratesinthePoliteia.Everyindividual,Socratesstatesat395a16,candoonly
one thing well. Therefore, the same persons cannot perform well two different acts of
2 On Platos conception of tragedy and the tragic in general see HALLIWELL 2003; HALLIWELL 1984;HALLIWELL 1982;KUHN 1941;KUHN 1942; on tragedy and comedy in the Symposiums specifically seePATTERSON1982;KUHN1941,p.12(onSymp.223d).
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mimesis [], even if these seem tobevery closely related to each other [
],suchascomedyandtragedy3.
Iwillargue in thispaper thataproperappreciationof the functionofhumourandlaughter, in short: of the comic, in Lucians uvre depends on our understanding of
Luciansconceptionoftragedy.ToLucian,itwillturnout,thetermtragedywasnot
confined anymore to classical Attic drama as it was presented at the feast of the Great
Dionysia.Tobesure,heusesthisterminthissensetoo,butwhatinterestsushereisrathera
metaphoricaluseoftheword4.InthefirstsectionofmypaperIwillshowthatLucianuses
tragedyasametaphorforamistakenconceptionofmimesis.Thiskindofmimesisrisksto
reduce the culture of the past to a shallowmask and thus to strip it of itsmeaning, its
authorityanditsvalue.
As Iwill argue in the second section, the satiric and comic inLuciansworksde
maskstheshallowattitudeofhiscontemporariesbyrepresentingitinanexaggerated,even
grotesque,mannerand,thus,laysbaretheirfaultsandtheconsequencesfortheroleofthe
GreekintheRomanpresentwhichtheyimply.Lucianstextsturnhisreadersintospectators
oftheircontemporariesridiculoustragediesandthusactasacorrectivewhichmakestrue
continuitywiththegreatpastpossibleagain.
In the third, final section ofmypaper, Iwillproffer some suggestions as to how
Luciansgenreofthecomicosatiricdialogueitselfismeantasacontributiontokeepingthe
classicaltraditionmeaningfulbycreativelyreworkingit.
1.
MimesisMisunderstood
:
Lucians
Conception
of
Tragedy
In order to understand Lucians conception of humour and his criticism of his
contemporaries, we have to recall the role of Attic language and literature for the self
definition of Greek intellectuals in the Second Sophistic5. Stephen Greenblatts notion of
3Onthispassagecf.KUHN1941,p.12.
4SeetheoverviewinSEECK1994,p.234235.5Thistopichasrecentlybeenexploredbyanumberofexcellentstudies;someofthemostrecentareSWAIN1996;SCHMITZ1997;WHITMARSH2001;REARDON1971providesastillveryvaluableoverview.
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selffashioning is a helpful tool to understand the intersection of selfdefinition and
literature in Lucians times6. The Roman conquest of Greece in the second century BCE
triggered a process which is now commonly described as Hellenization. But this term
obfuscates thejanusfacednatureof thiscomplexprocess,because it suggestsaonesidedtransformation ofRoman life throughGreek culture. Yet the Romanswere anythingbut
passiverecipients.TheysoontriedtofreethemselvesfromGreekinfluenceandtostressthe
subordination of Greek culture to Roman power: Graecia capta might have civilized the
barbarousvictors,butitremainedGraeciacapta7.TheRomanattemptatdistinctionforcedthe
Greeks to reassert thevalueof, and topreserve, theirown cultural and literaryheritage.
Only thuscould theypreventGreek languageandculture frombeing subduedbyRoman
power. Selffashioning, as Stephen Greenblatt has it, is achieved in relation to
somethingperceivedasalien,strangeorhostile,and:selffashioning isalways, though
notexclusively,inlanguage8.GreekliteratureoftheRomanEmpirecanbeexplainedasthe
medium of this process of selffashioning. It is the attempt to keep the Greek heritage
meaningfulbymaking it the interpretive grid throughwhich the authorsperceived their
presentandpast,theirworldandthemselves:literature,thus,isnotanexpressionofGreek
identity,but literarypractice,writing, readingand reciting, constitutesGreek identity.The
boundariesbetween literature and social life are thusblurred: literature, in Greenblatts
words, invariably crosses theboundariesbetween the creationof literary characters, the
6SeeGREENBLATT1980.7 TheRomans ambivalent attitude towards theGreeks andGreek culture is illustratedby such passages asCicero,Tusc.,1.12(meumsemperiudiciumfuitomnianostrosinvenissepersesapientiusquamGraecosautacceptaabillisfecissemeliora[].Nammoresetinstitutavitaeresquedomesticasacfamiliarisnosprofectoetmeliustuemuret lautius,
remveropublicamnostrimaiorescertemelioribustemperaverunt etinstitutisetlegibus.Quidloquarderemilitari?inqua
cumvirtutenostrimultumvaluerunt,tumplusetiamdisciplina.Imaillaquaenatura,nonlitterisadsecutisunt,nequecum
Graecianequeullacumgentesuntconferenda.Quaeenimtantagravitas,quaetantaconstantia,magnitudoanimi,probitas,fides,quae tamexcellens inomnigenerevirtutis inullisfuit,utsitcummaioribusnostriscomparanda?);Vergil,Aen.,847853(excudentaliispirantiamolliusaera| (credoequidem),vivosducentdemarmorevultus,|orabuntcausasmelius,caeliquemeatus|describentradioetsurgentiasideradicent:|turegereimperiopopulos,Romane,memento|(haetibierunt
artes),paciqueimponeremorem,|parceresubiectisetdebellaresuperbos);ValeriusMaximus2.2.2(magistratusveroprisciquantopere suipopuliqueRomanimaiestatem retinentes segesserint hinc cognoscipotest, quod inter cetera obtinendae
gravitatisindiciailludquoquemagnacumperseverantiacustodiebant,neGraecisunquamnisiLatineresponsadarent.quin
etiamipsoslinguaevolubilitate,quaplurimavalent,excussaperinterpretemloquicogebantnoninurbetantumnostra,sed
etiaminGraeciaetAsia,quoscilicetLatinaevocishonosperomnesgentesvenerabiliordiffunderetur.necillisdeerantstudia
doctrinae, sed nulla in repallium togae subici debere arbitrabantur, indignum esse existimantes inlecebris et suavitati
litterarum imperii pondus et auctoritatem donari). On the Romans ambivalent reactions to the process ofHellenizationwhichtheywereundergoingseeWHITMARSH2001,p.917;onthedifferentaspectsofthiscomplex
processofHellenization see,e.g.,WALLACEHADRILL1998and,most recently,WALLACEHADRILL2008;GRUEN1992;MACMULLEN1991.8Greenblatt1980,p.9.
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shaping of ones own identity, the experience ofbeing moldedby forces outside ones
control,theattempttofashionotherselves9.
It is this process of selffashioning which we are used to call mimesis. Therefore
mimesisismuchthansimplyimitation,asTimWhitmarshstressed:toengageinliterarypracticewasnecessarily toanchor thepresent in traditionand to reanimate thepast.The
dominantnotionintheliteraryaestheticofRomanGreecewasmimesis,acomplextermthat
coversboth artistic representation and imitation of predecessors. Impersonation of
figures from theClassicalpastwasubiquitous inGreek cultureduring theperiod of the
Romanprincipate10.
Arrian,forexample,styledhimselfasthenewXenophonorreferredtohimselfas
Xenophon tout court,andonan inscriptionanAtheniancallshimself thenewHomer
and new Themistocles ( ); the sophists extempore
speeches inacrowded theatrebroughtthemclosest toactuallymergingpresentandpast:
deliveringanextemporemeleteinperfectAttic,theynotonlyrepresented,say,Alexanderor
Demosthenesas longas theywere speaking, theywere them,and theheroesof thepast
materializedthroughtheirbodies11.
However, this process of selffashioning through literary mimesis was inherently
ambiguous:itcouldconcealthedistancethatseparatedpresentandpast,butitcouldaswell
makethisdistanceallthemoreevident.Ideally,thespeakershouldlivetheidealofthepast:
speakinglikeDemosthenesandbeinglikeDemostheneswerethesame.Yet,aswewillsee,it
isarecurrentsubjectinLucianswritingsthatmanyofhiscontemporariesfellshortofthis
aim: instead of selffashioning, theyused language for selfmasking, trying to hide their
patheticexistencebehindthesublimeauthorityofAtticlanguage.AccordingtoLucian,his
contemporaries created a discrepancybetween words and life which underscored, evenenforced,thesenseofagapseparatingpastandpresent:thegreatpastisindangertolose
itsmeaning to thepresent.Thismisallianceof the sublime, the ,of thepast and the
bathos of the present endangers the central concern of Greek intellectuals in the Second
9GREENBLATT1980,p.3;cf.ID.,p.45.10WHITMARSH 2001, p.2627; cf.ID., p.2: literarywritingwas in this period inherentlybound upwith theprocessofnegotiationofan identitydiscrete fromRome.Literarywritingwas the central (albeitno theonly)
meansofaffirmingGreekness[]authorsdonotwritebecausetheyareGreek;theyareGreekbecausetheywrite.Literatureisaneverincomplete,everunstableprocessofselfmaking(emphasesintheoriginal).11TheseandotherexamplesquotedinWHITMARSH2001,p.27.
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Sophistic, to establish continuitywith their greatpast, thus keeping itmeaningful as the
pointofreferenceoftheirselfdefinitionasGreeksunderRomanrule12.
Itisagainstthisbackground,theroleofmimesistobridgethegapbetweenpastandpresentandthedangersinherentinit,thatwehavetoconsiderLuciansuseoftragedy13.
Lucian refers to an incongruitybetween language and speaker, words and identity, as
alazoneia,astateofmindwhichTheophrastusdefinesasa ,
pretendingtoownthingswhichdonotexist14.Lucianusestragedyasametaphorto
describe this discrepancy between appearance and reality. Lucian is drawing on a
metaphoricaluseoftragedyandcomedyforacertainkindoflifewhichisatleastas
oldasPlato.InawellknownpassageintheseventhbookoftheLaws(817b),Platodescribes
thepoliteia,theconstitution,ofhisidealcity,asanenactmentofthebestandmostbeautiful
life, a ; this form of life he calls the truest
tragedy, .Similarly,inthePhilebus,asmentionedabove,Socrates
defines the simultaneous presence ofjoy and pain as the defining characteristic of the
spectatorsexperienceoftragicandcomicperformances.Thismixtureof and ,
hearguesalittlelater(50b14),isnotconfinedtothetheatre, ,butis
typicalof thewhole tragedy and comedyof life,
. TRD has rightly pointed out that these passages represent a precursor to
Lucians conception of tragedy15. To Lucian, as to Plato, tragedy is the vehicle of a
highlydistinctive sense of life somuch so, indeed, that itbecomes equally possible to
regard tragedyasan interpretationof life,and life itselfasaquasiaestheticphenomenon
possessing thekindsofpropertieswhichare exhibited in theirmost concentrated form in
theatricalworks16
.Yet,Platoobservesanatleastambiguousattitudetowardstragedy.Heviewstragedy
asadangertotruth,asamythandafalshood[]whichissharplyopposedtothetruth
12SeeREARDON1971,p.18.13Luciansuseoftragedyandthetragichasbeensubjectofvariousstudiesinthepast,seeKARAVAS2005;SEECK1994;SCHMITZ(forthcoming);TRD2002,esp.p.587595;cf.BRACHTBRANHAM1989,p.181210.14Char.XXIII.1.HALL1981,p.186,callsthenotionofthe almostLuciansfavouritetheme(withexamplesonp.186188).
15TRD2002,p.589.16HALLIWELL2003,p.337(onPhil.50b14);HALL1981,p.81,pointsout thatthe idea thatall theworld isastagehadbecomeacommonplacebyLucianstimeinrhetoricaswellasphilosophy.
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of the divine17.At the same time, though,Plato seeks to transform and overcom this
dangerous formof tragedywithhisownphilosophicalconceptionoftragedy,with the
truesttragedythatisrepresentedbyalifeinformedbyphilosophicalknowledge18.Lucian
toouses tragedy todenote amistaken conceptionof lifewhich isdistinguishedby anincompetentattempttoimplementliteraryandculturaltraditioninthepresent19.Butunlike
Plato,Luciandoesnotseektodevelopanalternativeconceptionoftragedy;tohim,there
canbe no . Instead, he seeks to end this tragedy of life that
threatensthevalueoftheGreekclassicaltraditionbyrevealinghiscontemporariesclaimto
betherepresentativesofthepastasbeingnomorethanabadlystagedperformance.Inthe
remainderofthissection,IwillillustratehowLucianemploysthenotionoftragedyasa
metaphoreforan,inhisview,mistakenattitudetotheclassicalGreektradition.
In a rather general, quasiphilosophical sense Lucian calls the lives of people in
superior positions in society tragic: there is no need to envy exceptionally rich or
powerfulpeople,becausetheirwealthandpowerisnotruevalue20.Itsadvantagesaremore
thanweighedupbyitsdisadvantages,andoncelifeisoverandinmostcasesthelivesof
the powerful and rich are over more quickly than they think their former pompous
possessionsareworthnothing.Whentheyfall,thecockexplainstoMicyllus inTheDream,
or:TheCock,thepowerfulandrichmakenobetterfigurethantheactorsthatyouoftensee,
whoforatimepretendtobeaCecropsoraSisyphusoraTelephus,withdiademsandivory
hiltedswordsandwavinghairandgoldembroideredtunics;butif(asoftenhappens)one
ofthemmisseshisfootingandfallsdowninthemiddleofthestage,itnaturallymakesfun
17HALLIWELL2003,p.337;similarly,TREDE2002,p.585586:toPlato,sheasserts,tragedyisalwaysnegative,
because itrepresents the ideaoflhommecommeunemarionettesoumiseaux tensionsde fils infrangiblesceux duplaisir et de lapeine, ces deux conseillers qui lescortent, tousdeuxprivsde raison et cherchent lentranerdansdesdirectionsopposes,sanssoucidufildordelaraison(p.585).18HALLIWELL2003,p.338(onleg.VII,817b18);Cf.ID.,p.338339(truesttragedyastheultimatetropeforphilosophyitselfandforitseffortstocreateanalternativevisionofwhatthefinestandbestlifemightbe);thisconstructiveapproachtotragedyinPlatoisneglectedbyTRD.19OnLuciansrelationtoPlatoingeneralseetheimportantdiscussioninBRACHTBRANHAM1989,p.67123;onLuciansuseoftragedybeinginfluencedbyPlatoseeSCHMITZforthcoming,p.5.20ThequestionofwhetherLuciansworksaretobeconsideredphilosophicalhasbeenmuchdebated;seethediscussioninHALL1981,p.151251,whorightlypointsoutthatinLucianstimesphilosophyandrhetoricwerenotstrictlyseparatedanymore(p.151).ApartfromPlato,itisabovealltheuseoftheatreasametaphorforlifeincynicwritingsandinMenippusthatinfluencedLuciansuseofthenotionoftragedy,seeTRD2002,
p.587588;BRACHTBRANHAM1989,p.25;butseethecautionaryremarkinHALL1981,p.81,whorightlywarnsagainstviewingLuciansuseof theatreasametaphor for lifeasdue tocynic influenceonly.KOKOLAKIS1960providesanimportantoverviewovertheuseoftragedyasasimileforlifethroughoutancientGreekliterature.
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fortheaudiencewhenthemaskgetsbrokentopieces,diademandall,andtheactorsown
faceiscoveredwithblood,andhislegsarebaredhigh,soastoshowthathisinnergarments
aremiserableragsandthatthebuskinswithwhichheisshodareshapelessanddonotfithis
foot21
.
Laugthergoeshandinhandwiththerevelationoftheincongruitybetweentheactor
and his role, the rich or powerful persons appearance and his true nature.Thedecisive
momentisthefalloftheactor:itisthefulcrumwhichmarksthetransgressionfromstageto
life, from sublime tobathosand fromappearance to reality.This transgression isbrought
aboutby thejuxtapositionof theactorandhisrole, theinnergarmentsandthegold
embroideredtunic.Theatreworks iftheaudienceforgetthattheperformance issimplya
performance, if they let themselvesbedeceivedby theperformance.Thedrastic contrast
betweentheridiculousactorandtherolewhichhewouldbesupposedtomaintainbreaks
this illusionand reminds the spectators that the show isjusta show.TheaimofLucians
writingsistocausetheactorstofall.Bythusjuxtaposingroleandactor, and ,he
makeshisreadersawarethattheyarebeingdeceivedbyappearanceandthat, infact,they
arejustwatchingaperformance,anda fouloneat that.Whenhe succeeds inmakinghis
readerslaugh,hesucceedsinbreakingthespellofthisfoulperformance.
ThisprocedureisevocativeofthenotionofcomedyasitisdefinedinPlatosPhilebus
(4850):asBRACHTBRANHAMpointsout,inthispassagefromthePhilebustheexemplary
subjectofcomedyappearsastheexposureofadiscrepancybewteenselfperceptionand
reality,particularlywithregard to intellectualandmoralcapacities22.Lucianseems tobe
implementing thisnotionof comedy inhisworks:heuses themetaphoreofabad tragic
performancetorevealtheridiculousdiscrepancybetweentherichpeoplesclaimsandtheirselfimage and reality. By making tragedy the vehicle of his interpretation of his
21 Gall. 26: , , , , , , , ,
,
.Cf.thediscussionofthispassageinTRD2002,p.590591.22BARACHTBRANHAM1989,p.50;cf.SEIDENSTICKER1982,p.43.
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contemporaries behaviour, he is turning this behaviour in his writings into a comic
performanceforhisreaders.
Themetaphorof thetragic lifedoesnotonlyapply to the livesof the richand
powerful. More importantly, it also applies to all the pseudoeducated, the pseudo, inLucians timewhopretend tobecontinuing thegreatpast,butwho, in
fact, cannot ordonotwant to liveup to this ideal.This concerns, for example,most
philosopherswhoclaimtoberepresentativesoftheancientschoolsofthought,suchasthe
Stoics,Academics,EpicureansandPeripatetics23. In the Icaromenippus,or:TheSkyman, the
CynicphilosopherMenippus is fedupwith thevanityon earth.Thereforehe follows the
mythicalparadigmofIcarusandattachesonewingofaneagleandoneofavulture tohis
armsandfliesupintothesky.Fromhere,hecantakeagoodlookattheearthandmanfrom
theoutsidewhichenableshimtoperceiveclearlythetruenatureofhumanlife24.
Thisiswhathehastosayaboutthephilosophers:[C]loakingthemselvesinthehigh
soundingnameofVirtue,elevatingtheireyebrows,wrinklinguptheirforeheadsandletting
theirbeardsgrowlong,theygoabouthidingloathsomehabitsunderafalsegarb,verylike
actors in tragedy; for if you take away from the latter their masks and their gold
embroidered robes,nothing is leftbutacomical littlecreaturehired for theshowatseven
drachmas25.
Somewhat earlier in thedialogue,Menippus had called the philosophers attitude
pretentiousness, , and working wonders in speech,
:[T]heystoodonthegroundandwerenotabitbetterthantherestofuswho
walktheearth;infact,theywerenotevensharpersightedthantheirneighbours,butsome
of them were actually purblind through age or idleness. In spite of that, however, they
23 As HALL 1981, p.189191, points out, invectives against false philosophers were a popular subject inLucianstimes(p.189191);onLucianandthephilosphersseeJONES1986,p.2432;onthephilosophicalschoolsactiveduringtheearlyRomanempireingeneralsee,e.g.,ANDR1987;WHITTAKER1987.24Thethemeofthephilosopherlookingdownfromavantagepointintheskyonhumanlifeandobservingthefaultsofmankind,the ,iscynicinorigin,andLucianprobablytookitfromMenippuswritings,seeHALL 1981, p.123; HALL further compares the similar situations depicted in Lucians Charon 1516 andIcaromenippus1516 (seebelow)andpointsout that the samemotifcanbe found inVarrosEumenidesandhisMarcipor(p.99).25Icar.29:
, , , .
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claimed to discern theboundaries of Heaven, they measured the sun, they visited the
spheresbeyondthemoon,andyouwouldhavethoughttheyhadfallenfromthestarsfrom
thewaytheytoldabouttheirmagnitudesandpresumedtosayjusthowmanycubitsitisin
distance from the sun to the moon, often, perhaps, without even knowing how manyfurlongsitisfromMegaratoAthens26.
Theshortsightedness,evenblindness,ofthephilosophersstandsinstarkcontrastto
Menippussharpvision, ,withwhichtheeagleswingendowshimandwhich
permitshimtohavesuchaclearviewoftheearthandthebehaviourofman.Whereasthe
philosophersare theorizingon thegroundaboutheaven,Menippus actually is inheaven.
Butinsteadofacquiringfirsthandastronomicalknowledge,thesubjectofthephilosophers
enquiries,hemakes thephilosophersand the contentsof theirphilosophy themselves the
objectofhisenquiry.Menippusflighttoheavenillustratesthemainflawofcontemporary
philosophy: the avowed successors of Plato, Epicurus, Zeno or Aristotle are toobusy
arguingoverpointlessastronomicalquestions insteadof scrutinizing theirownbehaviour
andcorrectingitaccordingtothestandardsestablishedbythefoundersofthephilosophical
schoolsthetraditionofwhichtheyclaimtocontinue.
Thevantagepointaboveinthesky,fromwhichMenippusgetssuchaclearsightof
thesituationonearth, isat thesame timeametaphor for thevantagepointofknowledge
whichLucians storyoffers to the readers.The literaldistancewhich separatesMenippus
fromtheearthsymbolizesthemetaphoricaldistancewhichthegrotesquecomicelementsof
Luciansstoryestablishbetweenhisreadersandtheworld27.ThecomicelementofLucians
story, Menippus actually flying to the stars, is a tool tobring home his message: the
absurdity ofMenippus flight intoheavenmakes the readers realize the absurdity of thepseudophilosophers behaviour. Thus Lucians story creates an Archimedian point:
26Icar.6: , , ,
, , ,
[].27ItisBRACHTBRANHAMsmerittohavepointedouttheattempttosetupadistancebetweenthereaderandthe
cultural and literary tradition as amain constituent of Lucians conception of the comic and as themainfunctionofhissatiricalwritings,seeesp.p.4546;104;seetheimportantdiscussioninWHITMARSH2001,p.261263.
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through the grotesquecomic it makes the readers step outside the regular philosophical
discourseinwhichtheyhavebecomeentangledsothatthe ofthephilosophers
show isrevealed.LikeMenippus,Luciansreadersthusbecomedetachedspectatorsofthe
worldaroundthem,andLucianstextturnsthetragedyenactedbythephilosophersintoacomicspectacleforhisreaders.
InTheDeadCome toLife, or:TheFishermanLucianor, rather,his surrogatepersona
Parrhesiades, isattackedby theancientphilosophers inpersona.Plato,Diogenes,Socrates,
Empedocles and others accuse him of denigrating classical philosophyby attacking the
contemporary philosophers, who are their representatives in the present. But Lucian
Parrhesiadesdefendshimself:his attacks arenotdirected against ancientphilosophybut
againstthepseudophilosopherswhodonotevencomeclosetotheoriginalstheyclaimto
berepresenting28.Again,Luciancouchesthebehaviourofthepseudophilosophersinterms
oftragedy.Thecaseseemedtomeasifsomeactorintragedywhowassoftandwomanish
shouldactthepartofAchillesorTheseus,orevenHeracleshimself,withouteitherwalking
orspeakingasaheroshould,butshowingoffairsandgracesinamaskofsuchdignity.Even
HelenorPolyxenawouldnever suffer suchaman to resemble them tooclosely, letalone
Heracles,theconqueringhero,who, inmyopinion,wouldverysoonsmashbothmanand
maskwithafewstrokesofhisclubformakinghimsodisgracefullyeffeminate29.
Thedirectcomparisonbetween thepatheticactorand theoriginal,Heracles,which
Lucianevokesinthelastsentence,isexactlythekindofgrotesquecomicsubjectonecould
imagineforoneofhiswritings.Infact,inthepresentdialogueitselfLucianpresentshimself
asbeing confronted exactlyby thephilosophers themselves,justashe imagines the actor
beingconfrontedwithHeracles.Thedecisivedifference is,ofcourse, thatLuciansmask is
28Cf.WHITMARSH2001,p.261(discussingPisc.31):philosophyhasbecomethemeansofarrogatingtooneselfthesuperficialtriflesofconventionalsocietythatitoncesoughttodisplace.Thistext[Pisc.]enactsadisjunctionbetweencanonicalpastanddecadentpresent in termsof thereductionofphilosophy tospectacleanddisplay.[]His [Lucians] irewas raisedbyhisobservation thatmosthavegained the statusofphilosophybymeremimesis,byexternalselfpresentation.29 Pisc. 31:
, ,
, , , .ThispassageisdiscussedbyTRD2002,p.590.
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notsmashedbythephilosophers,buthisintegrityisconfirmed.Theunmaskingofthetragic
actorinthelastsentencemightthusbetakenasametapoeticalcommentaryonthescopeof
Luciansdialogue.Theactofunmaskingthroughsatiricliteraturemakesthereadersaware
thatthebehaviourofthepseudoisnotgenuinebut,precisely,atragedy,apatheticshow,whichtheysimplyacceptwithoutquestioningit.
Implicitly, thus, Lucian attributes part of the responsibility for the degradation of
classicalphilosophytoamerespectacletothespectators:iftheyscrutinizedtheworldand
thebehaviour of their contemporaries more diligently instead of simply accepting their
show,theclassicalstandardcanbereestablished.OnceLuciansreadersrealizethatthey
arenotdealingwith respectable representativesof theveneratedmasters of thepast,but
withmiserable copies, theywill stop to respect them.A little later,Parrhesiades explains
whythisissoimportant:ifitistakenforgenuine,thepseudophilosopherspseudoclassical
wayoflifedisseminatesawrongimageofthepast.InsteadofthegenuinelyclassicalGreek
identityand continuitywith thepast, the corruptpseudoclassical identity representedby
thepseudophilosopherswillcometobeadopted.Theauthorityanddignityofthepastwill
bedestroyed:
Butwhatseemedtomemostshocking,Philosophy,wasthis,thatifpeoplesawany
oneofthesefellowsengagedinanywickedorunseemlyorindecentpractice,everymanof
them at once laid blame upon Philosophy herself, and upon Chrysippus or Plato or
Pythagorasorwhicheveroneofyou furnished that sinnerwithaname forhimselfanda
modelforhisharangues;andfromhim,becausehewasleadinganevillife,theydrewsorry
conclusionsaboutyouothers[Plato,Socratesandtheotheroriginalphilosophers],whodied
longago.Forasyouwerenotalive,hecouldnotbecomparedwithyou.Youwerenotthere,
and they all clearly saw him following dreadful and discreditable practices, so that yousufferedjudgmentbydefaultalongwithhimandbecameinvolvedinthesamescandal30.
The dignity of the past cannot defend itself anymore, because its original
representativesaredead.Thereforeitistemptingjusttoacceptthemodeloflifepresentedby
thepseudophilosophers asgenuinelyGreek and to adopt itwithout even considering to
30Pisc.32: , , ,
,
.
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questionit.Luciansdialoguesarrogatethetasktopreservethedignityandthetrueimageof
thepastbymakingthereadersawareofthatlackofcomparisonbetweentheoriginalsand
thecopies.
Asinthepreviousexamples,theactiondepictedinthedialogueareametaphorfortheprocessbywhichthissituationcanbecorrected.Theconfrontationoftheactorwiththe
realHeracles inthesimileandofLucianwithPhilosophyandtheclassicalphilosophersin
the dialogue illustrates the process which Lucians work is supposed to trigger in the
readers:as theactor ismeasuredagainstHeraclesandLucianswork ismeasuredagainst
the standard setby the classical originals, also the utterances and theway of life of the
contemporary philosophers has to be constantly controlled and measured against the
classicalstandards. Inorder todoso,Lucianexpectshisreaders togoback to theoriginal
texts, to study them thoroughly and to acquire the same, genuinely classical paideia as
himself, which alone permits him to recognize the charade of the pseudoeducated.
Intellectualswholoosesightoftheclassicalsourcesand,withit,ofthesourcesoftheirself
definition,bycontrast,allowthemselvestobecomenothingbuttrainedmonkeys:
Itissaid,too,thatakingofEgyptoncetaughtapestodance,andthattheanimals,as
theyarevery aptat imitatinghumanways, learnedquickly andgavean exhibition,with
purpleamntlesabout themandmaskson their faces.Fora long time the show, they say,
wentwell,untilafacetiousspectator,havingnutsinhispocket,tossedthemintothemidst.
Oncatchingsideofthem,themonkeysforgottheirdance,changedfromartistsoftheballet
ot thesimians that they reallywere,smashed theirmasks, tore theircostumes,and fought
witheachother for thenuts;whereby thecarefullyplannedballetwasentirelybrokenup
andwas laughedatbythespectators.Theseselfstyledphilosophersdojustthat,andIfor
mypart abused their sort, and shallnever stop criticizing and ridiculing ( )them31.
31 Pisc. 36: , , , ,
, . , [].
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Thetossednutresemblesthefallofthetragicactorinourfirstexample:itreminds
the spectators that theyarewatchinga fake,carefullyplannedperformancewhichhas
nothing to do with the real thing apart from its superficial outward appearance. By
ridiculing thisbehaviour andby pointing out the discrepancybetween appearance andreality,Lucianmakesthetragicshowofhiscontemporariesthesubjectofacomedyinhis
works.Insodoing,he,theshrewdspectator,allowshisreaderstosharehissuperiorpointof
view and to see the monkeys underneath the masks and the costumes. Their role as
spectatorsinLucianstextsmakesthereadersrealizethattheyhadbeenspectators, ,
intherealworldallalong,thedifferencebeing,thatuntilnowtheyhadnotrealizedit.They
had been deceived by the carefully planned ballet of the pseudointellectuals. The
resulting laughter restores thebalancebetween reality and illusion: theviewon the true
nature of things is restored and the damaging influence of the mockphilosophers is
neutralized.Thecontrastbetweenthepseudophilosophersandtheclassicaloriginals,which
isunderscoredbyLucianswork,freesthewayforareturntotheoriginalsandmakestheir
qualityandauthorityshineforthonlystronger:noharmcanbedone,saysPhilosophyin
The Dead Come to Life, or: The Fisherman, by ajoke; [] on the contrary, whatever is
beautiful shines brighter and becomes more conspicuous, like gold cleansed by its
minting32.
2.TurningtheReaderintoSpectators:LuciansUseofComedy
IntheprecedingsectionwehaveseenthatisaconstitutiveelementofLucianstexts
thattheyaimtoturnhisreadersintodetachedobserversoftheworld.Inthissection,IwillinvestigatebywhatmeansLuciancreatesthisparticularreadingsituation.Iwillarguethat
andLucianachievedthisaimbycreatinganewliterarygenrebycrossingPlatonicDialogue
with satireand,aboveall,withComedy33.Lucianemploys thevividness, immediacy,and
therepresentationalforceofancientComedytoachievetheaimofphilosophicaldialogue,to
teachthereadersnovelinsightsintotheworld.MenippusflighttoheaveninIcaromenippus
32Pisc.14: , , , .33SeeBisAcc.33,quotedanddiscussedbelow.
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isagoodexampletoillustratethisprocedure:asIhavearguedabove,thisflightimpliesa
metanarrativecommentary.Thecomicevent,Menippusdecision toputonwingsand fly
intoheaven,allowshimtotakeadistancedlookattheeventsonearthandtounderstandthe
truenatureofthephilosophersbehaviour.In the sameway, thecomicelements inLuciansdialogues ingeneral implementa
distancebetweenthereaderandhisenvironmentandthusenablethemtoachieveabetter
understandingofthecultureinwhichthey live.ThecomicelementsofLuciansdialogues,
regardingboth their content and their design, serve a purpose which goesbeyond pure
entertainment;theyareameansofprovidingthereaderwithnovelinsightsintotheculture
of their times34.Thus they enable them to takea selfconscious stance toward literaryand
culturaltraditionwhichLucianregardsastheprerequisitetoimplementingthistraditionin
the present. To the deceived spectator of tragedy35 Lucian opposes the selfconscious
spectatorofcomedy.
ItisimportanttonotethatLuciansdialoguesresemblecomedynotonlywithregard
to their content:Lucian also oftenusesnames forhis characterswhich are familiar from
comedy,suchasSimon,Pamphilus,Thais,DorisandChrysis;hepresentscharactersofall
social stratagodsandheroes,philosophers,politicians,generalsaswellas cobblersand
whoresmakestheminteract,andshowsthemasbeingengagedinthemostsublimeaswell
as in the most base activities of lives; this goes handinhand with a wide range of
vocabularywhichcoversthewholegammutoftheGreeklanguage.Allthisnodoubtrecalls
Comedyandcontributestomakingthereadersfeellikespectators.Butthemainfeatureof
Lucians dialogueswhich turns the readers into observers iswhat Ipropose to call their
mimeticquality.Lucianstextsaremimeticinsofarastheydepictactionthroughwords36.
Lucianusuallysetshisdialoguesintoawelldefinedscene,placesinClassicalAthenslike theAreopagus,orGreece, likeMountOlympus,or theunderworld; these scenesare
never static.Theconversationsof thecharactersare themselvespartofanactionwhich is
revealed to the readers only through the speeches, a technique which is comparable to
implied stage directions in drama. While the characters are speaking, things happen, to
34SeeBRACHTBRANHAM1989,p.46;cf.KOVUS1984,p.313(ontheeducationalaimofLuciansworks).35Theideathatitisaconstitutiveelementoftragicperformancesinparticulartodeceivethespectatorisatleast
asoldasGorgiasfamousstatementthattragedyprovidesasortof (B23DK).36LuciansdramatictechniquehasbeenstudiedindetailbyBELLINGER1928;cf.RARDON1971,p.167.
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whichthecharactersreferandwhichinfluencethecourseoftheargument.Thereadersare
throwninthemiddleoftheactionandonlygraduallydoesitbecomeapparentwhatisgoing
on, who is speaking to whom, where and why. Take thebeginning of Charon, or: The
Inspector, for example: What are you laughing at,Charon, andwhyhaveyou leftyourferryandcomeupheretoourpartoftheworld?Youarenotatallinthehabitofconcerning
yourselfwithaffairsupabove.Iwantedtoseewhatitislikeinlife,Hermes,whatmendo
init,andwhattheylosethammakesthemallgrievewhentheycomedowntous[]37.
Charon now convinces Hermes tobe his guide in the upperworld and Hermes
choosesasuitableviewpointfromwhichtoobserveearth:Well,then,willCaucasusdo,or
Parnassus,orOlympusyonder,whichishigherthaneither?Butno,asIlookedatOlympus
anideacametomethatisnothalfbad;butyoumustbearahandandhelpmeout38.
Hermesidea isHomeric:hesuggeststofollowtheexampleofOtusandEphialtes,
mentionedintheeleventhbookoftheOdyssey,andtosetOssaonOlympusinordertogeta
betterview:So letusuprootOssa first,according to thedirectionsof thepoemand the
masterbuilder, Homer; then upon Ossa Pelion quiveringleaved. Dont you see how
easilyandpoeticallywehavedone thejob?Comenow, letmeclimbupandsee if this is
enoughorweshallhavetoaddtothepile39.
Thedialogue itself,thestart inmediasres,thedeicticpronounsandtheplacenames
createaninvisblestageinthereadersmindsonwhichtheactionunfolds:thereaderswatch
theactiondevelopastheyarereadingthetext,theybecomespectators, ,oftheworld
in the text. But this process transforms the world outside the text and turns it into a
grotesquecomicworld.Thiscausesaneffectofestrangementandbringsaboutachangeof
perspective:lookingattheworldtheyknowthrough,forexample,CharonsorMenippuss
eyes, changes the readers perception of the world outside the text and reveals the truenaturebehindtheappearances.
37Luc.Cont.1: , ; ;38Luc.Cont.3: ; .
39Luc.Cont.4: , , . ; .
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In the Double Indictment Lucian present in the dialogue as The Syrian is
criticizedheavilyby thepersonifiedPlatonicDialogue for thishybrid, this literaryhorse
centaur, :He tookaway fromme the respectable tragicmask that Ihad,
and put another upon me that is comic, satyrlike, and almost ridiculous. Then heunceremoniously penned me up with Jest and Satire and Cynicism and Eupolis and
Aristophanes, terriblemenformockingallthat isholyandscoffingatallthat isright.[]
HaveInotbeendreadfullymaltreated,whenInolongeroccupymyproperrlebutplaythe
comedianandthebuffoonandactoutextraordinaryplotsforhim?Whatismostmonstrous
ofall,Ihavebeenturnedintoasurprisingblend,forIamneitherprosenorverse,butseem
tomyhearersastrangephenomenonmadeupofdifferentelements,likeaCentaur40.
Dialogue issomewhatexaggeratingwhenclaimingthatallcomic isalientohim: it
hasbeenpointedoutthatPlatosSocratesisalsoanambiguousfigure,andwehaveonlyto
recall the famous passage from the Symposium in which Alcibiades compares Socrates
precisely toa littlewoodensatyr; furthermore,Socrates isoften referred toasstrange,
,andridiculous, , inPlatosdialogues41.ThemainprincipleofLucians
works,thecombinationoflaughterandinsight,mightthereforebesaidtoadopt,andadapt,
aconceptionwhichisitselfthoroughlyPlatonic42.
TheprecedingdiscussionofLuciansnotionoftragedyexplainswhyhethought
thisparticularcombinationwasespeciallyaptforhisowntimes:thepseudoeducatedofhis
times have turned the respectable, the , of the tragic into the shallow and the
pompous.Writingphilosophicaldialogues in the tragicmode, asDialogue claimsLucian
should have done, Lucian would have risked to be mistaken for one of the pseudo
philosophershimself.Howbelievableareyouifyouareexposingatragicactorasridiculous,
whilewearingatragicmaskyourself?Theonlywaytodemaskmocktragedyistoconfrontitwithitsradicalopposite.
40BisAcc.33: , . , . [] , ; , ,
.41See,e.g.,PATTERSON1982,p.8283.42Cf.BRACHTBRANHAM1989,p.5052.
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Moreover,asBRACHTBRANHAMhasargued,Lucianscomparisonofhisworkswith
ficitious, hybrid creatures from mythology has metanarrative implications: in so doing,
BRACHTBRANHAMargues,Luciancaricaturestheclassicalconceptionofliteraryunityasa
reflectionofnaturalunity43
.Theprecedingconsiderationpermitustotakethisobservationofametanarrative functionof thedesignofLuciansdialoguesone step further.Lucians
contemporariespretend to representandcontinue theclassical traditionbyexternalself
presentationwhich works on the level ofmere appearance (doxa)44.By adopting the
classical philosophers outer appearance (beard, walk and clothing45) as well as
discussingthesametopicsastheclassicalphilosophersinthesamelanguageandthesame
literarymediaastheirmodels,Lucianscontemporariesclaimtobeimpersonatingandthus
continuing theclassical tradition.And it is this similarity inappearance, (Pisc.31),
whichdeceives these aswellas theiraudienceandconvinces themof the
truthofthisclaim.Thephilosophersandtheirworksaresuchperfectcopiesoftheirclassical
modelsthatpeopleforgetthattheyareonlycopieswhichshouldnotbetakenforor,worse,
whichshouldnotsubstitutetheoriginal.Luciancriticizesthathiscontemporarieshavefallen
prey to a Pygmalionian, as itwere,problem: their imitations are soperfect that they
conceal theirbeing imitationsand, thus,make theircreators forget thedifferencebetween
imitationandoriginal,between theauthorityanddignityof thepastand theobligationof
thepresenttopreservethispast,butnottosupersedeit.
Lucianshybridworksopposethisideologyofarsestcelareartem:byvirtueoftheir
very hybridity, his dialogues constantly keep the reader aware of the fact that they are
artificial creation which selfconsciously combine different elements of the classical
tradition46.Lucian andhiswork are consciouslypostclassical in the sense that they keep
evoking their classical roots, while at the same time reminding the reader that they aresomethingnew for the creation ofwhich these rootshavebeen altered and recombined.
Luciansdialoguesthusareclassicalandnotclassicalatthesametime;andfarfromtrying
43BRACHTBRANHAM1989,p.44.
44WHITMARSH2001,p.261262.45WHITMARSH2001,p.262.46OnLuciansselfconsciousimitationseeWHITMARSH2001,p.265.
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toconcealthiscontemporaryofthenoncontemporary,Lucianmakesthistheconstitutive
elementofhisart47.
3.ReFashioningTradition:LuciansConstructiveLaughter
SofarwehaveseenthatLucians laughter isfarfrombeingsimplydestructive.On
thecontrary,itisconstructiveinsofarasbyridiculingthepseudoitpreserves
and reestablishes the authority of the Attic originals as the only legitimate models for
Lucians readers selffashioning.This is theonlyway inwhich thegapbetweenpastand
present,idealandreality,canbeovercomeandtruecontinuitywiththepastbeestablished.
Inthesubsequentfinalsectionofmypaper,Iwilltakeacloserlookatthiscreativesideof
Lucianic laughter. Iwillproffer some suggestion as to howLuciansdialogues as a new
literary genre actively contribute to preserving the classical tradition meaningful to the
present. In order to do so, we have discussedbriefly how Lucian defines the relation
betweenhisDialoguesandtherhetoricalpracticeofhistime.
Luciansworksarenotonlymeanttoopposethepseudophilosophers,butalsothe
massoforatorsand theirshowspeeches. In theDouble IndictmentLuciancomplainsabout
the decline of rhetoric. Rhetoricbecame a whore, happy to oblige to any suitor who is
crossingherways,andthisdrovehimawayfromhertophilosophy.Lucianisalittlemore
precise in a passage of The Dead Come to Life, or: The Fisherman in which Parrhesiades
describesoratorsasprimaryexemplarsofpretendersandcheats, .
Therefore,he fled from themand turned tophilosophybut,aswehave seenabove, the
philosophersturnouttobenolesspretendersandcheatsthantheorators.Disappointedbyboth,oratorsandphilosophersalike,Lucian finally createdhisown literarygenre, the
comicosatiricdialogue.
InAProfessor ofPublic SpeakingLucian explainswhy the orators charlatanry is so
detrimental. In this dialogue Lucian introduces by comparison two different kinds of
47ROMM1990,p.84:Lucianshybridliteraryworkssimplyrecombin[e]existinggenera,justasmanandhorse
arestillrecognizableinthecentaur.Atthesametime,LuciansliterarycrossbreedofAristophaniccomedyandPlatonicdialogueisquiteobviouslymoreoriginalthanastraightforwardimitationofeithergenre;cf.BRACHTBRANHAM1989,p.42,n.56;HALL1981,p.72;cf.RARDON1971,p.27.
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learningAtticrhetoric,atraditionalandamodernone,eachofwhichisrepresentedbya
different typeof teacher48.The first teacher represents the traditionalapproach torhetoric.
Herecommendsalongandarduousprocessoflearningwhichinvolvesintensestudyofthe
originals;hisadversary,bycontrast,advertizesaneasyandquickwaywhichwillleadthepupiltosuccesswithoutrequiringmuchsubstantialeducation.Thisteacherrecommendsnot
to read the originals, that twaddling Isocrates or that uncouth Demosthenes or that
tiresomePlato,buttoreadthespeechesofthemenwholivedonlyalittlebeforeourown
timeandthesepiecestheycallexercises[].Tobesuccessful,theteacherargues,it
is enough to randomly throw in some catchphrases in order to give the otherwise
catastrophicspeech the flavourof theoriginal:[W]hen they [theaudience]havemade
their selection [of topic], unhesitatingly say whatever comes to the tip of your unlucky
tongue [].Butdomakehasteandkeep itgoing,andonlydontstop talking. Ifyouare
speakingofacaseofassaultoradulteryatAthens,mentioninstancesinIndiaorEcbatana.
Cap every thingwith references toMarathonandCynegeirus,withoutwhichyou cannot
succeedatall.UnendinglyletAthosbecrossedinshipsandtheHellespontafoot;letthesun
be shadowedby thearrowsof theMedes,andXerxes flee the field andLeonidas receive
admiration; let the inscription of Othryadesbe deciphered, and let allusions to Salamis,
Artemisium,andPlataeacomethickandfast49.
The shallow rhetoric represented by this teacher and by some of Lucians
contemporariesrisks toreduce theadmiredpast toacoupleofcatchphrases,clichesand
commonplaces50.Thispassageshouldbereadalongsideapriorstatementofthenarratorin
whichhehadblamedlearningrhetoricfromtheAtticoriginalsasanachronistic:whowould
seriouslydispla[y]deadmenofabygoneagetoserveaspatterns,andexpec[t]youtodig
up longburied speechesas if theywere something tremendouslyhelpful,wantingyou toemulatethesonofaswordmaker[i.e.,Demosthenes],andsomeotherfellow,thesonofa
48ROMM1990,p.9495,hasimportantremarksonthiswork.49Rh.Pr. 18: , []. . , . , .
,
.50HALL1981,p.8485,rightlypointsoutthatLucianisnotcriticizingtheuseofhistoricalreferencesinspeechesingeneral,buttheexcessivetritenessinthisrespectofcontemporarysophisticpractice.
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schoolmasternamedAtrometus [i.e.,Aeschines],and that too in timesofpeace,whenno
PhilipismakingraidsandnoAlexanderissuingorderssituationsinwhichtheirspeeches
wereperhapsconsidereduseful51.
Lucian is here pointing to a risk inherent in the traditional approach to classicalrhetoric and, at the same time, to a rhetorical practice which, asmentioned in section 1
above, was typical of the sophistic performances of his times and a crucial aspect of a
sophists selffashioning. When delivering a speech in a theatron, the orators would
impersonatethegreathistoricalactorsofthepastincrucialsituations52;suchdeclamations
have theirorigin in the exercises thatwerepartof rhetorical training inantiquity, the so
calledmeletaiofwhichtherepresentativeofthemodernistapproachofrhetoricdespises
so easily53.Both the traditional and the modernist approach thusdonot appear as
wholly satisfactory because each of them risks turning tradition into a museum54: the
modernistapproachbecauseitreducestraditiontoamererepertoryofwordsandtopics
whicharehardlymore thanacamouflagetoconcealthespeakersown lackofpaideia.The
traditional approach, on the other hand, while providing a thorough knowledge of
classicalrhetoric,riskstakingthe intenseandtiresomestudyofclassical textsasanend in
itself.Andthisis,indeed,thewayinwhichmostofLucianscontemporariesmadeuseofthe
classicaltradition:theyreproduceditintheirspeeches,repeatingagainandagainthesame
subjectsinthesamestyle.
TothisapproachtotraditionLucianopposeshisownconceptionofaselfconscious,
creative reprocessing of the tradition material55. Following critics like Dionysius of
51Rh.Pr.10:[Thisiswhattherepresentativeofthetraditionalapproachwillsay] , , , .52Seesection1above,p.67.53OnmeletaiseeSCHMITZ1997,p.1015.54ForasimilarinterpretationofthisdialogueseeROMM1990,whoalsoarguesthatneitherthetraditionalnorthemodernistteacherareportrayedasunconditionallypositive.Thus,ROMMconcludes,malleability,whichlies somewherebetween thesepoles,holds thekey to success []; thePromethean artistmust reprocesshisClassicalmodelswithjusttherightamountofelasticgum(p.95).55Thus,rightly,ROMM1990,p.95.ROMMsassertion,however,thatmalleabilityliessomewherebetweenthese
poles(ibid.)issomewhatmisleading:Lucianarguesforaconceptionofmimesisthatradicallydiffersfromboththe traditional and the modernist approach, although it isbased on the kind of thorough and intenseeducationinclassicalrhetoricproposedbythetraditionalteacher.
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Halicarnassus56, Lucian seems to envisage mimesis as a creative process which uses the
traditionalmaterialandthetraditionaltechniquetobuildsomethingnew.Classicalrhetoric
hastobelearntinalongandintenseprocessofstudyingtheoriginaltexts,butthenithasto
be turned intosomethingnewalong the linesof this tradition. It is thisprinciple that liesbehindLuciansnotionofhisownworksashippocentaurswhichIhavediscussedinthe
previous section. Lucians dialogues are themselves an example of how such a creative
reworkingoftraditioncanbecarriedout.Thecomicosatiricdialogueasagenreisnew,but
it isacombinationof twowellestablished classicalgenres, thePlatonicdialogueandOld
Comedy; similarly, Lucians language follows strictly the Attic canon. We can now
appreciatehowtheblendingofPlatonicDialoguewithComedytoahybridliterarygenre
fits intoLuciansoverallconceptionofcreativemimesisandhowhe intended it torelateto
therhetoricalcultureofhistimes.
In theopeningparagraphsof theZeuxis, the speaker isannoyed thathis recipients
praise the strangeness of the thought inmy composition and thedegree of freshness it
involves (
).Heisdisappointedbecausetheaudiencespraiseforhisnoveltyonlyimplied
thatgoodvocabulary,conformity to theancientcanon,penetrationof intellect,powerof
perception,Atticgrace,goodconstruction,generalcompetence,perhapshavenoplaceinmy
work(
,
).Accordingtohim,however,thenoveltyofhisworkswas
just meant to be an additional ornament making some contribution indeed to the
approbationofmywork, theaudiencesrealpraiseandcommednation,however,going to
thoseotherqualities( []
56InparticularIamreferringtoDionysiusdistinctionbetweenanaturalandabookishkindofmimesisinhisessayOnDinarchus.Thisdistinction isvery similar to the two typesof (learninganddisplaying) classicalrhetoric in Lucians Rhet.Pr. Like Lucian, Dionysius strongly favours learning classical style directly fromstudyingtheoriginal texts ina longandtiresomeprocess,whilerejecting theeasywayof learningclassicalrhetoric from rhetoricalhandbooks.Thekeypassage isDin.7.5: [...]
, . , ; , , , ,
. For a detailed discussion of this passage andDionysiusconceptionofmimesisingeneralseemyforthcomingPh.DthesisTheIdeologyofClassicism:Language,HistoryandIdentityinDionysiusofHalicarnassus(Bonn2008),p.4050,esp.p.48.
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,
)57.Luciansdialoguesaremeanttobenovel,while
being deeply obliged to the classical traditional: they are a lesson of how to do proper
mimesisthatkeepstheclassicaltraditionaliveandmakesitanintegralpartofthepresent.
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