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Why People Take Part in Sport
Lesson Objective: To understand the effects of motivation on performance
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MOTIVATION
Motivation is the stimuli, which arouse and direct behaviour and/or Internal and External factors that make us want to perform
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Why is Motivation in Sport Important?
Helps us understand why some sports performers make substantial sacrifices to become successful
Helps us understand why certain sports performers are more successful than others
Ensures Maximum effort at the most appropriate time
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Why is Motivation in Sport Important? - Continued
Ensures continued enjoyment and participation in exercise
Encourages sedentary people to take up sport and exercise!
It is generally accepted that you need to be motivated to achieve your goals
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Why do you play sport?
Write down the reasons to why you have played sport?
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Motivators of Participation
• Fun: enjoyment, pleasure, psychological benefits• Affiliation: social experience, friendship, significant others• Competence: personal challenge, skill acquisition/
improvement • Fitness: health, weight loss, strength, improve appearance• Success: competition or personal accomplishment
Motivators can often change over time
Introduction, History and Development
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Motivation depends upon:
Intrinsic/extrinsic elements Competence Arousal Level Need to avoid failure Need to achieve
What could these be?
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Intrinsic Motivation
An intrinsically motivated person is:
Someone who takes part in sport for enjoyment. They judge success on the amount of effort exerted in the task and by how much they improve
In what sporting situations would you find people participating for intrinsic reasons?
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Goal Setting Before you start to set goals,
you should try to consider the background to goal setting itself:
Understanding your commitment to the sport (how much improvement can I hope for?).
Understanding the level that you possess (What can I do today?)
Understanding the level you want to reach within the sport (what is realistic?)
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Extrinsic Motivation
An extrinsically motivated person is:
Someone who participates for external rewards including:
Trophies Medals Money Prizes
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Effects of Intrinsic/Extrinsic Motivation on Performance Introducing extrinsic rewards leads to a
reduction in intrinsic motivation Intrinsic motivation will decrease when an
external reward is perceived to be the primary reason for participation
If a reward increases an individual’s feelings of competence and self-worth, then Intrinsic motivation increases
In Professional sport motivation to win in nearly all cases would be a mixture of both Intrinsic and extrinsic factors
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Continuum of Self-determination
Ext LoC Int LoC
Amotivation Extrinsic Mot Intrinsic Mot
(Deci & Ryan, 1985)
Theories and Models
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Theories and Models 1
Achievement Goal Orientation (GO) Theory
(Nicholls, 1984)
Currently the most popular approach in motivation literature within sport psychology
Proposes that motivational affect, behaviour and cognition can be understood in terms of two goal perspectives – ego and task
Goal Orientations are thought to be influenced by both situational and dispositional factors
Both goal orientations are independent – e.g. High Task, Low Ego - Low Task, High Ego High Task, High Ego - Low Task, Low Ego
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Task Orientation (intrinsic)
Self-referenced reasons for participation skill development, skill mastery, affiliation, fitness
Typical behaviours persistence, optimal effort work hard choose challenging activities seek feedback
Theories and Models 2
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Ego Orientation (extrinsic)
Normative referenced reasons for participation Recognition, competition, social status
Typical behaviours perception of high ability careful selection of activities – avoid failure little effort during practice
Theories and Models 2
NB Both orientations find competition meaningful… it is the meaning attached to competition that
distinguishes them
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Differences in Achievement GO (Nicholls, 1978; Roberts & Treasure, 1995; White & Duda 1997), 1994)
Children tend to be more task oriented
Children of 10 years can be ego oriented
Adolescents tend to be more ego oriented
Boys and men are more ego oriented than girls and women
In the more competitive levels of sport, participants have a
higher ego orientation
Task orientation does not vary with level of participation
Theories and Models 2
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Theories and Models 3
Perceived Competence Theory (Harter, 1978)
• Motivation influenced by perceptions of competence and control
We are motivated to participate to display competence or mastery
• An activity can be too easy/difficult or a challenge.
Easy and difficult tasks provide little information on one’s mastery or skill and add little to perceptions of competence
The optimal challenge is difficult and demanding but attainable
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Mastery attempts are used to receive feedback on competence. This information then influences: Perceived competence Perceived control Affective responses Future exertion/effort Probability of continued participation
Theories and Models 3
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Mastery Attempts
Drop-outUnsuccessful Performance
NegativeEffect
Successful Performance
Positive Effect
High CompetenceMotivation
Greater effort
Low CompetenceMotivation
Less effort
Theories and Models 3
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Perceived success: can be defined either internally or externally results in intrinsic pleasure and raises competence increases achievement striving behaviour
Perceived failure: can be defined either internally or externally results in dissatisfaction and perceived incompetence encourages fewer mastery attempts
Theories and Models 3
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Theories and Models 3
Coaches, teachers, parents and peers can influence perceived competence Females rely more on feedback from significant
others Athletes who receive corrective information see it as
reflecting lower ability Athletes who receive praise see it as a reflection of
high ability
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Arousal Level
Arousal is the intensity of our motivation – there is an ideal level of motivation for any sport. This ideal level of intensity will differ between sports.
However, if we are too motivated or not motivated enough in a sport we are less likely to be successful.
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Drive Theory Hull (1951); Spence (1956)
Drive theory suggests that the higher the arousal level in a performer the greater the level of their performance. For example a top-class tennis player will perform better in front of a large crowd.
Perform
ance
Arousal
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Drive Reduction Theory
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Drive Reduction Theory
When the learning goal has been achieved, the desire to continue with the same task decreases.
The initial drive to learn is strong, but once the skill has been learned the drive is reduced and the performance of the skill will decline
Therefore the drive to learn should be maintained, by setting goals/targets, providing rewards, making practices fun!!
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The Inverted U Theory
Original Theory: Optimum performance occurs at a moderate arousal level.
Modified theory: Position of optimum arousal depends upon:
Type of Activity Skill level of performer Personality of performer
Perform
ance
Arousal
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Loi de Yerkes-Dodson appliquée aux sportsLoi de Yerkes-Dodson appliquée aux sports
Weinberg et Hunt, 1976
Contrôle moteurGrossiermodéréFin
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Where does each sport fit in?
3 Inverted U graph
A B C
Perform
ance
Arousal
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Catastrophe Theory
Here performances increases as arousal increases but when arousal gets too high, performance dramatically decreases. This is usually caused by the performer becoming anxious.
Perform
ance
Arousal
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Reticular Activating System (RAS)
This is a system within the brain which controls arousal
Extroverts have lower levels of intrinsic arousal than introverts – therefore extroverts seek situations of high arousal and introverts seek low arousal situations
As a general rule which sports would extroverts and introverts tend to play?
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Extroverts Vs Introverts
Football Rugby Swimming Tennis Shot Putt Snooker Hockey Badminton
Marathon Runner Netball Chess
Extroverted Sports
Introverted Sports
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Competition Time: effect of personality…
Shooting Competition:-
Aim to score as many points as possible with three
shots, you can shoot from a distance and score 3
points, or close and score 1 point.
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NAch Vs NAF
Need to Achieve This personality type likes
a challenge and likes feedback. They are not afraid of failure and have a high task persistence.
Need to Avoid Failure This personality type
avoids challenges, often gives up and does not want feedback
A rockclimber with a high NAF would choose the easiest way up a mountain but a rockclimber with a high Nach would choose a harder route to gain maximum satisfaction
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Conclusion
What different things motivate a performer? Task and Ego orientations Perceived Compentence Arousal Level Personality (NAch and NAF)
Success and failure
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Weiner’s Attribution Theory (1985, 1986) We explain success & failure with reference to
ability, effort, task and luck
BasicAttribution Categories
BasicAttribution Categories
StabilityStability CausalityCausality Controllability
Controllability
Stable
Unstable
Internal
External
In One’s Contro
l
Out of One’s
Control
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Conclusion - continued
Arousal level depends on: The level they play at Type of activity Personality of the performer
Motivation is very important in determining
whether a performer is successful or not, why is
this true? … Pleasure for effort !
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In search of Pleasure
TRADITIONAL VIEW:- Signals carried by dopamine- travel from one specific site
NEW MODEL:- Signals carried by opioids- sites are distributed
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ACTIVATE TO CREATE PLEASURE
Finger movement+
Visual perception
Finger movement+
Visual perceptionProprioception
Whole body movement
+Visual perceptionProprioceptionEquilibrium
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Working hypothesis?
Best performance and pleasure needs: Focussed attention on action goals (internal
corrective loops) Exogenous attention to let automatic motor
organisation of sensory loops Intentional mode of action (task orientation of
motivation) because activates more brain areas than stimulus based mode.
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Further Reading
Duda, J.L. & Hall, H. (2001) Achievement goal theory in sport: Recent extensions and future directions’, in R.N. Singer, H.A. Hausenblas and C. Janelle (eds.), Handbook of Sport Psychology (pp. 417-443). New York: Wiley.
Harwood, C. and Biddle, S. (2002) ‘The Application of Achievement Goal Theory in Youth Sport’, in I. Cockerill (ed.) Solutions in sport psychology (pp. 58-73). London: Thomson.
Marcus, B. and Forsyth, L.H. (2003) Motivating People to be Physically Active. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Roberts, G. C. (2001) (ed) Advances in Motivation in Sport and Exercise. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Vallerand, R.J. and Fortier, M.S. (1998) ‘Measures of Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation in Sport and Physical Activity: A Review and Critique’, J.L. Duda (ed.), Advances in Sport and Exercise Psychology Measurement (pp. 81-101). Morgantown, WV: Fitness Information Technology.