When traditions become innovations and innovations become ... · When traditions become innovations...

Australian Journal of Adult Learning Volume 52, Number 3, November 2012

When traditions become innovations and innovations become traditions in everyday food

pedagogies

Helen BennySwinburne University of Technology

This paper explores the way learning to cook remains important for the maintenance of ‘ethnic’ food traditions and how sharing food knowledge plays a role in intercultural exchanges. Ethnographic data from an ongoing study in Melbourne is presented to highlight how, in everyday practices, both tradition and innovation are involved in learning experiences related to cooking. Using an everyday multiculturalism perspective, the study was designed to investigate the resilience of ethnic food cultures in the face of increasing industrialisation in global food systems. In this paper, I focus in particular on the interplay between tradition and innovation in everyday settings by drawing closely on three women’s accounts of cooking and learning. The women remain attached to the food traditions they learned by observing and taking part in daily routines of meal preparation

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and they stress that many of these practices need to be preserved. At the same time, their accounts reveal how everyday settings can be considered as ‘pedagogical spaces’ where opportunities for innovation arise and new knowledge about food and cooking can be acquired. Families, schools, travel, workplaces and neighbourhood networks emerged as sites where traditional food knowledge can be shared and new skills developed. The paper contributes to our understanding of food pedagogies by highlighting the dynamic relationship between tradition and innovation in everyday, mundane encounters and exchanges in multicultural societies.

Introduction

Thispaperexploresthewaylearningtocookremainsimportantforthemaintenanceof‘ethnic’foodtraditionsandhowsharingfoodknowledgeplaysaroleininterculturalexchanges.EthnographicdatafromanongoingstudyinMelbourneispresentedtohighlighthow,ineverydaypractices,bothtraditionandinnovationareinvolvedinlearningexperiencesrelatedtocooking.Theempiricalworkdescribedheretookplaceduring2010-2011inastudydesignedtoinvestigatetheresilienceofethnicfoodculturesinthefaceofincreasingindustrialisationinglobalfoodsystems.InthispaperIfocus,inparticular,ontheinterplaybetweentraditionandinnovationineverydaysettingsbydrawingcloselyonthreewomen’saccountsofcooking and learning.

Manyobserversbelievetraditionalcookingskillsarerecedingbecausemodern,industrializedfoodsystemsofferconsumersmoreopportunitiestoeatpre-preparedmeals.However,notionsoftraditionandinnovationusedindiscussionsofcookingpracticesareproblematicbecausetheyhavenotbeencarefullydefined(Short2006:113).Inbothscholarlyandpopulardiscourseoncooking,termssuchas‘traditional’arelooselydefinedbutgenerallyusedtomean

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natural,unprocessedand‘authentic’productsand‘cookingfromscratch’.Innovationincookingalsocan,andis,definedinvariousways.Onewayitcanbedefinedistoindicatepracticesassociatedwithprocessedfoodproductsandshortcuts(Ritzer2008);anotheristoindicatenew‘foodie’trends(Laudan2001).Butforthepurposeofthispaper,Iwilldefineinnovationasthepracticeofchangingone’s‘traditional’foodsasonedrawsonnewknowledgesandskillsfromothers.

Thelackofdefinitionhasledtoimprecisenotionsofwhatconstituteactualcookingskillsandhowtheyarelearned.Forinstance,FrancesShortaskswhyfryingapieceoffreshfishisconsideredtobe‘propercooking’,whenheatingaready-madefishmealinamicrowave–apracticethatmightrequireasmuchphysicaldexterityasfryingfreshfish–isnotseeninthesameway?(2006:99).AccordingtoShort,thissuggeststhatincontinuingdebatesabouttheperceiveddeclineincookingcapabilities(Lang&Caraher2001;Murcott1997),knowinghow to cook is often portrayed solely as a set of technical skills. Short arguesthisisinsufficientforexplaininghowfoodknowledgeandskillsareacquiredandreproduced.Sherecommendsthatattentionbeshiftedtothepersonperformingorlearningthetasksinvolvedincooking.A‘person-centred’focus,ratherthanconcentratingontechnicalabilities,enablesustotakeintoaccounttheattitudes,beliefsanddailylivedexperienceofthepersondoingthecooking(Short2006:98).Forthispaper,usingsuchanapproachprovidesawayofunderstandinghowbroadersocialandculturalprocesseshaveabearingonlearningtocookasthefollowingreviewoftheliteratureillustrates.

Food: learning and tradition

Thereisasignificantbodyofworkonfoodexploringnotionsofcontinuityandchangeinclass,gender,identityandconsumption,but there is little discussion in this literature on learning to cook


(notableexceptionsincludeDuruz2005;Short2006;Sutton2001).Furthermore,thereisemergentliteratureonhowfoodineverydayinterculturalinteractionsprovidesopportunitiesforlearning(Wise2011;Noble2009;Flowers&Swan2012).Thisbriefsurveyofthe literature will suggest how questioning the interplay between traditionandinnovationincontemporarymulticulturalsocietiesishelpfulforrevealingtheprocessesinvolvedinlearningtocookaswellas for understanding how people learn about other cultures through their foodways.

AlanWarde(1997)pointsoutthatmanyconcernsaboutfoodincontemporarysocietiesarelamentsfortheperceivedpassingoftraditionalcookingpractices(seealsoLang&Caraher2001).TheseconcernsareinlinewiththeclaimsinGeorgeRitzer’sMcDonaldization thesis that eating cultures are increasingly dominatedbystandardizationandhomogeneity(2008).

Atthesametime,however,asubstantialbodyofworkstressestheresilienceofethniccuisinesinthemodernworld.Forinstance,maintainingtraditionalcookingandeatingpracticesisseenasfundamentaltoprocessesofmulticulturalhome-buildingandcreatingasenseofbelonginginanewsettingforthoseinmigrantcommunities(Hage1997).Traditionalethnicfoodpracticesarecloselylinkedtothesymbolicsignificanceofsharedculturalvalues(Kwik2008),asmarkersofethnicidentity(Beoku-Betts1995),andforprovidingculturalstrategiesfornegotiatinggenerationaldifferences(Vallianatos&Raine2008).Whilesuchworksareusefulforframingmulticulturalexperiences,theyfrequentlyleaveasidethequestion of how cooking skills and practices are actually acquired. OnescholarwhodoesfocusonthisquestionisDavidSutton.

Inhistreatmentoffoodandmemory,DavidSuttonfocusesonfoodtraditionsbeingtaughtthroughprocessesof‘embodiedapprenticeship’.Intheseprocesses,culinaryknowledgeandskillsaretransmittedandreceivedthrough taking part in the physical

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performanceof‘doing/learningcooking’(2001:126).Becausemuchofthepracticalknowledgerequiredforaccumulatingcookingskillsinvolvessedimentationofsensoryimageryintomemories,watchingandcopyingaretheprimarywaythiskindoflearningisachieved.Thesearelargelyinformal,mimeticprocesseswhereculturaltastepreferencesandmemoriesbecomeembeddedbyobserving,listening,smellingandtasting.Abankofcognitive,sensoryandphysicalskillsdeveloptogethertobuilda‘stockofknowledge’uponwhichtodrawin future practice.

Astockofknowledgeinvolvesmorethansimplyknowingthemanualtasksnecessaryforpreparingfood.Shortarguesthat‘perceptual,conceptual,emotionalandlogistical’skillsareallbroughtintoplaywhenpeoplecook.Thisis‘tacit’knowledgenecessaryfortheorganizationandmulti-taskinginvolvedinroutinemealprovision(2006:61).Sutton(2001)emphasisesthatmostofthisknowledgeisabsorbedcasuallyandoftenwithoutformal‘lessons’:thebodylearns through habituated practice in a way that cannot be set down inmoreformalsituationssuchasfollowingwritteninstructionsinrecipebooks.Itis,asShortsuggests,‘inadvertentlygatheredknow-how’(2006:52).Sensorycuessuchassmellandtasteareparticularlyimportantforindicatingwhenfoodiscorrectlypreparedaccordingtocustomandtheculturaltastesofthosewhowillbeeatingit(Choo2004).

Asmanyobserverspointout,theassumptionthatdomesticfoodworkisprimarilytheresponsibilityofwomenisfoundinmostsocieties(Beaganet.al2008;Beoku-Betts1995;Lupton1996).Embodiedapprenticeshipisshapedbythegendereddivisionofdomesticlabourandisillustratedbythefactthatitisfrequentlyanolderfemalerelativewhoisdemonstratinghowadishshouldbepreparedandayoungerfemalewhoisexpectedtoabsorbtheknowledgeimpartedbytakingpartintheprocesswithher(Sutton2001:134).


Anothersalientfeatureinhowtraditionalfoodpracticesarelearnedisrepetition.Gesturesandpracticesusedforpreparingfoodarerepeated as is the seasonal rotation of dishes associated with traditionalcuisines.Wardeclaimsfamiliarityengenderedbyrepeatedpracticeisindicativeofthewaycertaindishesorentirecuisinescometoberegardedastraditional(1997:64).Forfoodtobejudgedasbelongingtoatraditionitmustbethoughtofaslong-livedandauthentic.InWarde’sdefinitionthesebecomemoralandaestheticvalues.

Thereis,however,adangerofromanticisingnotionsoftradition(Laudan2001).JeanDuruznotesthatregretsaboutsupposedly‘lost’traditionsareoftenvoicedasdiscoursesof‘nostalgicreturn’toapastwhereitisimaginedthefoodwasbetterthanthatofthepresentday(Duruz1999).Asthesewritersnote,theproblemwithsuchaccountsistheyignorethedifficultiesofdailylifesuchasthelabour-intensivepracticesinvolvedin‘traditional’mealprovision.Whotoday,Shortasks(2006:101),reallywantstoplucktheirownchickensormilltheirowngrain?Indeed,ithasbeensuggestedthatcallsfortheresurrectionoftraditionalcookingpracticesmightdisguiseasociallyconservativeargumentthatwomen‘belong’inthekitchenandaretoblameifnegativeoutcomesarisewhentraditionalpracticesfallintodisuse(Lang&Caraher2001:11).

This raises interesting questions about the continuation of traditional foodpracticesandlearningtocookinmodernsocieties.Whilepeoplefindtheideaoflongevityinacuisineanappealingone(Warde1997:66),thereiswidespreadagreementintheliteraturethattraditionsarenotfixedandimmutable.Suttonarguesthateventhemostentrenchedcustomsassociatedwithtraditionalcookingcanbedisruptedbycircumstanceandthereforethestockofknowledgemustallowforadaptation(Sutton2001:129).Wardefoundthatacertainamountofimprovisationisnecessaryforapracticetobesuccessfully

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sustainedovertimebecauseotherfactorsintrudeespeciallytheamountoftimeandmoneyavailableforcooking(1997:129).

Insumthen,theliteratureonfoodandtraditiontellsusthatpeopleremainattachedtodistinctstylesofcookingandtransmissionoffoodknowledgebecausetheyregardthemasprovidingcomfortandasenseofbelonginginrelationtocollectivecookingandeatingpractices. There are equally appealing attractions to be found through learningaboutothercuisinesandcustomsandinthenextsectiononewaythisoccursisexplored.

Food: learning and everyday multiculturalism

EverydaymulticulturalismperspectivesareparticularlyusefulforexploringideasaboutfoodandlearningincontemporaryAustraliabecause,asAmandaWiseandSelvarajVelayuthampointout,anapproachthattakes‘thelivedexperienceofdiversity’asitscentralfocusisabletoshowhow‘socialactorsexperienceandnegotiateculturaldifferenceontheground’(Wise&Velayutham2009:3).Everydaymulticulturalismemphasizes‘ordinary’encounterswithdifferenceanddiversity;‘micro-moments’thatoccurinmundanesituationssuchasworkplaces,neighbourhoodsorschoolyards(Noble2009).Forthepurposesofthispaper,whentheseencountersinvolveinteractionsaroundfoodtheybecomeimportantforconsideringhowpossibilitiesforlearningandinnovationarise.

Theattentionto‘ontheground’experiencedoesnot,however,meanthatbroaderstructuralprocessesareignoredordiscounted(Wise&Velayutham2009).Thisisimportantwheninvestigatingfoodpracticesbecausecomplexfactorsincludingaccesstoeconomicresources,age-differentiatednutritionalrequirements,powerfulmarketingmessagesandincreasinglyindividualizedtastepreferencesinevitablyimpingeonbothlearningandsustainingcookingpractices(Bell&Hollows2007).


Onesuchfactoristhemigratoryflowscharacterizingthecurrentphaseofglobalizationwhich,ithasbeensuggested,havehelpedbroadenfoodchoicesavailableforconsumersinmoderncities(James2005;Wise2011).Asmigrantcommunitiesestablishfoodbusinessestocaterforthetastesandtraditionsoftheirownmembers,thewiderpopulationisalsoofferedopportunitiestotryfoodfromothercultures.DonnaGabaccia(1998)pointsoutthatmainstreambusinessesthenbegintoofferdifferentfoodrangesandarequicktocommodify‘exotic’produceasconsumersbecomemorefamiliarwith‘new’dishesanddifferentwaysofpreparingfood.AhmadJamal(1996)arguesthattheappearanceof‘ethnic’productsinmainstreamsupermarketshelpsthoseinthemajorityculturetoadoptproductsfromotherculturesintotheircooking.Inarecentviewofthecomplexrelationshipsinmulticulturalsocieties,GregNobleexplorestheway‘beingtogether’isregularlynegotiatedinpracticalterms,includingviareciprocaltransactionsaroundfood(Noble2009).Hesuggeststhat‘strangeness’disappears through habitual contact as people are brought together inordinarysituationssuchassportingclubs,schoolsandcommunitygroups(ibid:61).

WhileWardesayscuriosityabout‘foreignfood’isafeatureofmodernlife(1997:59),BenHighmorewarnsthat,althoughattractiontothefoodofanotherculturecanbeseenasaformoflearningitdoesnotnecessarilyequatetoapositiveattitudetowardsmulticulturalismmoregenerally(2008:292).Furthermore,GillValentinepointsoutthatsometypesofdailyinteractionsbetweenpeoplefromdifferentgroupsarenotreally‘multiculturalencounters’atall(2008:326)andareoftencross-cutbyunevenpowerrelationsofclass,genderandage.Inthisregard,GhassanHagehascriticizedusingfoodasanindicatorofmulticulturalinteractionasbeingsuperficialandevenexploitative(Hage1997).Hagearguesthattheexperienceofdiningoutinethnicrestaurantsismoreoftenpractisedtoenhancetheculturalcapitalofthe(mostlywhiteandmiddleclass)dinersthanestablishinganyrealinterconnectionsbetweenmigrantsandthemainstream

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(1997).Forhim,therelationshipisadistantanddistancingone;itis‘multiculturalismwithoutmigrants’inwhichextantpowerhierarchiesin the relationships between the centre and periphery are left undisturbed(Hage1997).

Andyet,UmaNarayan(1997)argues,anappreciationforthefoodofothersmightbeafirststeptowardsdeeperrecognition:‘gustatoryrelishforthefoodof‘Others’mayhelpcontributetoanappreciationoftheirpresenceinthenationalcommunity,despiteignoranceabouttheculturalcontextsoftheirfoods–thesepleasuresofthepalateprovidingmorepowerfulbondsthanknowledge’(citedinHighmore2008:391).Iwanttohighlightthispointbecause,asNobleargues,itisthemultidirectionalnatureofinterculturalexchangethatisthemostsignificantcharacteristicoftheevolving‘diversificationofdiversity’inAustraliatoday.Heshowsthatwhile‘manylong-timeAustralianstakeupthediverseculturalgoodsmadeavailablebyculturaldiversity,sotoomigrantsandtheirchildrentakeupelementsoftheprevailingAustralianwaysoflifeandmaintainthediversetraditionsandpracticestheyhavebroughtwiththem,and create new traditions andassociations’(Noble2009:48,originalitalics).Inthissense,interculturalexchangescanplayanimportantroleforexploringthedynamicsoftraditionandinnovationwithineverydayfoodpedagogies.

Whatfollowsillustrateshowsharingfoodwithsomeonefromanothercultural tradition can be an introduction to learning about the dense layersofmeaningassociatedwiththefoodofthatculture(Morganetal.2005).Thisrarelyoccursinavacuum.Interculturalsharingoffoodhasthecapacitytotransforminteractionsbetweenpeople‘whereidentitiesarenotleftbehind,butcanbeshiftedandopenedupinmomentsofnon-hierarchicalreciprocity,andaresometimesmutuallyreconfiguredintheprocess’(Wise2009:23).Shopping,cookingandswappingrecipesareideal,‘unthreatening’waysthatinterculturalfoodexchangesintermeshindailypractice(Duruz2005)andcreatemeaningfulconnectionsbetweenpeople(Wise2011).


The interplay between traditional and innovative food pedagogies

Theempiricalstudydescribedheretookplaceduring2010-2011andwasdesignedtoinvestigatetheresilienceofethnicfoodculturesinthefaceofincreasingindustrialisationinglobalfoodsystems.ParticipantswererecruitedinlocalshopsandmarketsinaninnersuburbofMelbourne.Theareahasamulticultural‘feel’andprovidesanidealspaceforexploringthewayspeopleare‘doingtogetherness’(Valentine2008).In-depthinterviewswereconductedin32householdsandraisedanumberofissuescoveredintheliteraturediscussedabove.Theparticipantswereaskedtodescribehowtheylearnedtocook,whohadtaughtthemandwhatfactorsmostinfluencedtheirongoingpractices.Inaddition,theywereinvitedtodiscuss how they adapted new ideas and practices into their daily routines.

Thissectiondrawsonthreeoftheparticipants,Nadia,AnitaandSimone,andisstructuredaroundtheirresponses.Iamsinglingthesethreeoutbecausetheyexemplifythetwosignificantthemescommontoalltheparticipant’sresponsesaboutlearningtocook.Firstly,learningtocookwasdescribedastheresultofinformal,habituatedprocessesandwasprincipallyabsorbedthroughobservationofanolderrelative,usuallyawoman,preparingfoodinthehome.Thiswasthecaseevenamongstthoseparticipants,particularlymale,whohadnotbeenencouragedtocookfromayoungage.Alloftheparticipantsrememberedwatchingmealspreparedandwereable to reproduce the practices when necessary. The second broad themewastheon-goingaccumulationofcookingknowledgeandskillsinfluencedbymulticulturaldiversity.Whiletheirownculturaltastesandtraditionsremainedimportant,theparticipantsalsodescribedeverydayinterconnectionsandexchangeswithpeopleinwhich they were offered opportunities to learn new ways to prepare food.Mostoften,theseoccurredinworkplaces,neighbourhoodandfriendshipnetworksorthroughintermarriage.Whatfollowsshows

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howthewomen’scookingregimesincorporatedbothtraditionalandinnovativepracticeswhichlendsweighttoargumentsfromtheliteraturethatlearningtocookisamultifacetedprocess(Short2006).

Nadia:

Nadia,whoidentifiesstronglyasItalian-Australian,isaforty-oneyearold,full-timemotherwiththreepre-teenchildren.NadiacametoAustraliaasachild,asdidherMacedonianpartnerwhorunsasmallsecond-handfurniturebusiness.Theirgardenhaswell-establishedfruittreesandseveralsizeablevegetablebedsbutthekitchenisclearlythecentreofmosthouseholdactivities.Well-usedpotsandpansarestackednearalargeoven,thechildren’shomeworkand newspapers are spread out on the table and a range of cooking equipment,oldandnew,occupiesthebenches.Therearenocookerybooksinthekitchenandwhenthisismentioned,Nadiashrugsandrespondsthatshedoesn’tneedthem.‘IcomefromItaly,soIeatlotsofpasta’,sheoffers,bywayofexplanation.Nadiabeginsherinterviewby saying:

IntheItalianfamilies,everybodycooks!Fromdayone,everybodycooks…youarewithyourmumandyoucookwithher.It’swhatyou do.

Shegoesontodescribeherchildrenmakinggnocchiwithhermother:

Ofcourse,it’stheirfavourite‘costheylovemakingthem.…Sotheygototheshops,theybuytheingredients,theybring‘emback.Mumboilsthepotatoes,shedoesthesemolina,shedoesthemashingpotatoes;youknowit’sthewholeprocess.Andtheygetthesieveandtheymakethe[gnocchi]andtheycook‘emandtheymakethesauceandstuff.It’sthewholeday.Notawholeday,butatleastthreeorfourhoursofanactivity.Butthat’sjustwhattheydo;especiallygrandmothers.It’sjustwhattheydo.

Nadia’sdescriptionofintergenerationaltransmissionoffoodknowledgeandskillsisakintoSutton’saccountofembodied


apprenticeship(Sutton2001:134).Herelaborationofhermother’sgnocchi-making‘lessons’withthechildrenshowshowcloselythe process of learning to cook is connected to both gendered assumptionsunderpinningdomesticfoodworkandpracticalskillsacquisition.Inthisaccount,thelabour-intensityoftraditionalcuisinesandtheassumptionthatresponsibilityforitfallstowomenappearseamlesslyintertwinedas‘justwhattheydo’.However,whatNadiahasarticulatedhereistheway,insomewomen’sexperience,taken-for-grantedexpectationsaboutcookingpracticescometobepositivelyinflectedasenjoyabletasks.Nadiamadeitclearthatsheenjoystheculinaryworksheperformsforherfamilyandfriends,anddescribesherselfas‘abitofacrowd-pleaser’:

Somepeoplefeelit’sachore,Ithink…Butformeit’sanextensionofme,ofmykindofcaringandsharing.Soifyoulovesomeone,youcansharewhatyou’vegot.

Nadia’scommentsaretypicalofallthewomenfromthebroaderstudywhodidmostofthecookingintheirhouseholds.Ratherthanseeingthisas‘falseconsciousness’orarationaleemployedtodisguiseanunequal,unfairdivisionofdomesticlabour,aviewofkitchensasspacesforcelebrationsoffeminineinnovationandpowerbringswith it the possibility that in spite of the continued lack of recognition ofthe‘workful’natureofroutinedomesticcookingtasks(DeVault1997:183),manywomenregardcookingasanavenueforcreativeexpressionsofidentity.Inthisview,learningtocookandacquiringnewcookingskillsisaformof‘positivefemininesubjectivity’(Lupton2000:185).Thecurrentpopularityoffoodshowsontelevisionmayhaveraisedthestatusofcookingandenabledwomentoclaimthekitchenasacreativespaceoverandabovetheobligationtoprovidefamilymeals(Hollows2003).

However,earlierincidentsinNadia’sculinaryeducationwerenotallpositive.Shewasregularlyteasedatschoolforthetypeofluncheshermotherprovided;aformerboyfriendrefusedtoeatatherhouse

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claiminghedidn’tthinkitwas‘safe’toeathomemadesalami;shehasrepeatedlytriedtoconvinceherneighboursthatherchildren,unliketheirown,arefondofgarlicandherbsintheirfood.Thesearecommonexperiencesraisedindiscussionsofmulticulturalismandillustratetheeverydayracismexperiencedbymanymigrantswhentheirfoodisrejected(Highmore2008;Valentine2008).

Nadiaalsodescribedhowhercookingchangedthroughmarriageandtravel.Shehasextendedherculinaryrepertoireasshecatersforherpartner’sfoodpreferenceswhicharedifferentfromherownandasshetriestorecreatethemealsshetastedwhileoverseas.Whilediscussingtheseinfluences,Nadiaacknowledgedthattheopportunitiesshehadforlearningothercuisineswasnotsomethingthathadbeenavailableforhermother:

Idon’tthinkI’mthattraditionalasmymother…Butmumneverreallyworked,likeoutofthehousesoshereallykeptherways…Inmymum’shouse,weonlyeatItalian…ButIthink‘cosIalsocooklike[partner’s]family.Also,IdocookAsianmeals.AndalsosometimestheGreekcomesintheretoobecauseyou’rehereandthereareGreekseverywhere,youknow.

NadiahasseenAustraliancookingandeatingcultureschangethroughoutherlifetime:

Like,whenyougotosomeoneelse’shousethesedaysit’snotlikeitusedtobe…Theywillbringouttheciabatta,theywillbringoutthesundriedtomatoes,youknow?IfeelthatItalianfoodhasbecomepartofMelbournefood.It’slikeeveryonehascaffelatteandeverybodyhasfocacciaandeveryoneeatspasta.Yeah,IthinkItalianculturehasamalgamatedintoMelbourne.

The‘amalgamated’culturalexchangeNadiadescribeshereisreminiscentofNoble’sthesisofthemultidirectionalinteractionsbetweenmigrantsandthemainstream(2009:48)and of the importanceHageattributestohome-buildingpractices(1997).Theappearance of food products associated with Italian cuisine such


assun-driedtomatoesontheshelvesofAustraliasupermarketsindicatestheyhavebecomepopularwithabroadcross-sectionofthepopulation.AtthesametimeNadiaexpressesprideinthefactthathertraditionshavebeenreadilyadoptedintoAustralianfoodways.Thisisonewayfoodtraditions,albeitincommodifiedforminthisexample,canbetakenupbyothersandadoptedasinnovativewaysofexploringothercuisines.

Anita

Thesecondinterviewee,Anita,isasingle,twenty-sixyearoldlanguageteacher.HerparentsmigratedfromItalyinthesixtiesandworkedattheFordfactoryuntiltheirretirementwhentheyboughtahousewithagardenlargeenoughtosustainthefamily.ThekitcheninAnita’sflatiscrammedwithpreservesandproducefromherfather’sgardenandshegrowsasurprisingnumberofvegetablesandherbsinherowntinycourtyard.AnitawasborninAustraliabutregularlytravelstoItalytostaywithauntsandcousinsandtocontinueherlanguagestudies.Shedescribesherfoodtraditionsas‘Sicilian’,beingcarefultomakesurethatitisunderstoodasregionallydistinct,notthemoregeneral‘Italian’.Whenaskedwhohadtaughthertocook,herreplyisapithysummationofthepartlyunconsciousacquisitionoffoodknowledgereferredtobyShortas‘inadvertentlygatheredknow-how’(2006:52): ‘I don’t know, you grow up and it just happens!’

ForAnita,learningtocookwasintricatelyboundupwithrepetitionandhabit(Lupton1996;Warde1997).Thefollowingextractshowshowthiscementstraditionaldispositionsoftaste:

Igrewuphavingpastaconsalsa,that’sSicilian.It’sjustpastaandsauce,passata.Everynight!That’slikefivenightsaweek.Saturdaywewouldhaveourhomemadepizza,onceagainwithallthehomemadeingredients.AndthenSundaywewouldhavesomeleftovers.Thatwasit;thatwaslikethestaplediet.

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InAnita’sreflectiononhermother’scooking,theimportanceofpreservingSicilianrecipeswasaprominentconcern.Herfeelingsof custodianship towards the recipes and cooking practices she had observedasachildwereexpressedintermsofananxietytheywoulddisappeariftheyfellintodisuse.ItisnotablethatAnitamentionsonlyfemalesashavinganyresponsibilityinthisregarddespitethefact that her brother and father also cook on occasion:

AndnowI’mthinkingI’vegottastarttakingresponsibility!Mynonnadiedlastyear…andthenthere’smymumandmeandmysisterandI’vegotanieceandeverythingbutifwedon’tmakeanefforttolearnthesethingsthentheywon’texist‘costheyarenotwritten down.

A‘pedagogyofpreservation’isapparenthere.ThisisevidentwhenAnitaclaimsthat‘goingbyfeel’isappropriateforculturalinsiderswhereaslearningfrombooksopensupthetraditionforoutsiders.

IapproachrisottointhesamewayasIguessAnglofolkswould.Like,I’musingarecipebookratherthangoingbyfeelwhereasifI’mmakingapizzaorifI’mmakingpasta,whywouldIlookatarecipebook?I’lltrydifferentrisottoslikeeveryoneelse.

Anitaassumes‘everyone’willwanttotrytofindnewwaysofcookingbecause ‘Anglo cuisine doesn’t have too much of an evocative hold on us’.The‘acculturationofthemainstream’todiversefoodculturesalsostartstochangehowethnicfoodisperceived;manyfoodsandcookingstyleslosethelabel‘exotic’andbecomepartofawidelysharedandfamiliarsetofmeanings(Jamal1996:21).ThiswasalludedtoinNadia’sobservationsaboutItalianfoodbecoming‘amalgamated’intoAustralianculinarylandscapesandhere,itisseeninAnita’sviewthatmainstreamAustraliancookinghabitscontinuetobenefitthroughcross-culturalexchangeofrecipesandingredients.

Herworkplaceisonesitewherethisoccurs.Anitaoffersherco-workerssimpleSicilianrecipesandbringsaranciniforthemtotry;theyreciprocatebyteachinghersomethingoftheircuisineinreturn:


Atwork[thereare]alotofAnglo-AussiewomenandtheyhavetakenmeundertheirwingandtheyfinditamusingthatIwon’tknowabouttheseAussietraditions.Ohmygod,theytaughtmetomake…itwasgoldensyrupdumplings!AndI’mlike,‘what?’Yeah,but they take great delight in sharing these things.

Inexchangesofthiskind,thepedagogicalencountermovesfromthedomesticspheretoabroader,work-placesettingwheresharingisthekeyfeature.Learningaboutfoodfromanothercultureisnotsimplytheacquisitionofarecipe;itopensupopportunitiestolearnaboutthebroadercircumstancessurroundingcuisines.Suchexchangesdomorethaninform.Theybringpeopletogetherinordinaryandeverydayinstancesof‘people-mixing’thatcanleadtoestablishmentofongoingrelationshipsthroughcookingtogether(Noble2009:62).

Simone

NowIturntoanolderwomanfromadifferentheritageandgeneration.Simone,seventy,isanoutgoingwomanofAnglo-Irishdescentwholivesaloneinthesmallsemi-detachedcottagesheboughtonceherfivechildrenhadmovedaway.Simonerelatesacookingrepertoire based on the frugality of a working class upbringing and herstruggletoraiseherchildrenaloneonameagrewage.Duringherinterview,Simonedescribesthefoodofherchildhoodas‘theclassicEnglishdietofmeatandthreeveg’andnotesthatthisonlystartedtochangewhenshebecameactiveinpoliticalmovementsinthesixtiesandseventiesandstartedtomixwith‘bohemianpeople’.Simonegaveanaccountofembodiedlearning:

IsupposeIlearntthebasicsofcookingfromjustbeingthereandwatchingandhelpingandcuttingup…AndIthinkoneofthedifficultpartsofcookingandwhyitisimportanttowatchpeopleis that a lot of it is about how the stuff looks at certain stages of preparation.Soyouknowbylookingatitthatyouhavemixeditenough,orthatyou’vekneadeditenoughorthatit’scookedenough.Sothatvisualthing,that’sreallyquiteimportant…and

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thecookerybookscan’treallytellyouthat.Eventhephotographsdon’tkindofwork.

Inthefollowingextract,Simonerecountstheeffortofrecreatingamarmaladethattastedliketheonehermothermade.Thisisataskshenowdescribesas‘aperpetualchore’madenecessarybythefactthatshecannotfindacommercialproductasmuchtoherlikingastheonesheremembers.Eschewingconvenienceinfavourofflavourandwithoutawrittenrecipetoguideher,reproducingthetasteinvolvesvisualizinghowhermotherhaddoneit.Importantlyhereisthatshewasnotconsciouslyawarethatsherememberedhowtodoit.

Ithinkit’slikeosmosis.Withthemarmalade,Ididn’trealizethatIknewhowtomakeituntilIreallysatdownandthought‘Nowthis[boughtproduct]isnotthemarmaladethatIwant.Whatdidshedo?’AndthenIkindofsummoneditup…thisisthewaymymothermadethemarmaladeandnowthat’showIcookmarmalade.Theunwrittenrecipe–andthat’sthatthingaboutseeingsomething–youknowwhenyoulookatthefruitthatit’sbeen boiled enough.

Whilevisualizationmaybesufficientforreproducingoft-observedtraditionalpractices,thediscoveryoffoodfromanunfamiliarcuisinecanbeapromptforlearningtocookininnovativeways.Simonerecallsherfirstexperienceofdininginarestaurant:

IcanrememberwhenIwasabouteighteenandIwastakenouttodinnerandIwastakentooneofthefirstlicensedItalianrestaurantsinMelbourne…AndIcanrememberwhatIhad–IhadvealscaloppineandIthought,‘hello,howlonghasthisbeengoingon?’

Followingthisdiscoveryoffoodfromoutsidethe‘classicEnglishdiet’ofheryouth,Simonebeganexperimentingwithawiderrangeofcookingstyles.Later,shelearntnewrecipeslargelythroughtalkingtoneighbours,‘especiallyoldpeople’andlocalshopkeepers.This‘network’or‘neighbourhoodpedagogy’hastwointerrelatedoutcomes:itteachesdifferentwaysofcookingandthinking


aboutfoodanditbuildsrelationshipsofrespectthroughcreativeexperimentation(Morganetal.2005).

ItalianandGreekfoodwasthefirstdifferentfoodthatIhadandIowemyneighboursalotforthat.Icanrememberdiscoveringolives…AndIstarted,youknow,tryingthingswithoilandIremembertherevelationofcookingcabbagewithalittlebitofoilandvinegarandwhatadifferencethatmade.

Today,Simone’sSriLankanson-in-lawteacheshertocookhisfavouritedishesand,whiledoingso,shelearnsaboutdifferentcustomsandmannersassociatedwithfoodandeating.Simone’spreviousexperienceofSriLankancuisinehasbeenfromrestaurantsorusingpre-preparedcommercialproducts;nowsheislearningfromwatchingherson-in-lawcreatingdishesathome.Thereisareversalof typical roles here: her age and gender suggest that she would be theone‘teaching’theyoungermalerelativetocookbutforSimone,learninginthiswaymeansshemustre-situateherselfasshetakespartinthefoodpreparationandbecomespartofhisfamilylife.

I’vetrieddoingafewoftheSriLankanrecipes.Forexample,thereisabeautifulchickpeacurrythathemakeswithallthesedifferentspices.Now,whenyoutastethat,youcan’timagineeventhinkingoneofthose[pre-prepared]bottlesisgoingtogiveyouanythinglike it.

HereweseehowSimoneequatestraditionwithmealsmadefromscratch.Shevaluesthewaylearningtomakethisfoodteachesherabouttraditions,inthiscasethoseofherSriLankanson-in-law.Ontheotherhand,italsointroducesinnovationbyextendingtheculinary repertoire she can draw on.

Conclusion

Families,schools,travel,workplaces,neighbourhoodsandintermarriagecanallbeconsideredas‘pedagogicalspaces’wherelong-lived,culturallydistinctculinaryskillscontinuetobepracticed

Helen Benny 613

andbecomesitesthatprovideopportunitiesforacquiringnewknowledge about food and cooking. The relationship between these isadynamicone.Formanypeople,learningtocooktraditionalfoodhappensthroughrepeatedobservationandtakingpartindailyroutinesofmealpreparationasseenintheaccountsof‘pedagogiesofpreservation’givenbyNadia,AnitaandSimone.Atthesametime,thereare‘pedagogiesofinnovation’takingplace.ForNadia,intermarriageandtravelwerepromptsforhertochangehercookinghabits.InAnita’scase,workplacerelationshipshavebeeninstrumentalforshowingherdifferentwaysofapproachingfood.AndforSimone,diningout,neighboursandin-lawshaveledhertoembraceawiderrangeofrecipes.

Thesewomenhavenotjettisonedtheir‘own’waysofcookingorthetraditionstheyfindimportant.Thedatapresentedheresuggeststhattraditional food knowledge and skills are not disappearing in the face ofincreasingindustrializationinfoodsystemsasRitzerhassuggested(2008).Buttheaccountsshowthisisbecauseofeffort,learning,andlabourtopreservetraditions.Thesetraditions,inturn,becometheingredientsforinnovationasco-workersandfriendsswaptraditionalfoodsineveryday,mundaneencountersoftenmissedbypopularandacademicaccounts..Aperson-centredapproach(Short2006)asusedhere has shown that our understanding of food pedagogies could be broadenedbypayingmoreattentiontopedagogiesofpreservationandpedagogiesofinnovationthroughwhatWisecalls‘micro-momentsofhopefulencounter’betweenpeopleofdifferentethnicities(2005:183).

Acknowledgements

Iwouldliketothanktheanonymousreviewersandtheeditorsfortheirinsightfulandinstructivecommentsonearlierversionsofthispaper.


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Contact details

Helen Benny is a PhD Candidate at Swinburne University of Technology in Melbourne. Her research interests include the sociology of food and everyday multiculturalism. Her thesis investigates the interplay between tradition and innovation in everyday cooking and eating practices in a multicultural suburb of Melbourne. It focuses in particular on how thepersistence of traditional cooking practices play a role in resisting the homogeneity found in rationalized global food systems.

Email: [email protected]

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