What is Media?What is Media?

Media Media (plural of medium) is all the ways in (plural of medium) is all the ways in which information can be stored and which information can be stored and delivered, including paper, film and digital delivered, including paper, film and digital formats.formats.

Mass MediaMass Media – use of any medium to – use of any medium to communicate information or ideas to the communicate information or ideas to the public. It includes newspapers, public. It includes newspapers, magazines, television radio, computer magazines, television radio, computer games and the Internet.games and the Internet.

Pro and anti social behaviour.Pro and anti social behaviour.

Pro –socialPro –social - any behaviour that benefits - any behaviour that benefits someone else, but does not lead to an obvious someone else, but does not lead to an obvious reward, e.g. helping someone in need, reward, e.g. helping someone in need, comforting those in distress etc.comforting those in distress etc.

Anti social behaviourAnti social behaviour – any action that is – any action that is designed to arm another person or people, eg designed to arm another person or people, eg aggressive behaviour.aggressive behaviour.

It has been suggested that the power of mass It has been suggested that the power of mass media can alter the behaviour of children and media can alter the behaviour of children and young people. young people.

What kind of programmes show pro What kind of programmes show pro and anti social behaviourand anti social behaviour

All programmes show anti social and pro All programmes show anti social and pro social behaviours including news, cartoons social behaviours including news, cartoons and the more likely source of soaps.and the more likely source of soaps.

2005 – average time spent watching TV 2005 – average time spent watching TV men 160 minutes women 145 minutesmen 160 minutes women 145 minutes

Heymann (1989) TV showed 5 violent acts Heymann (1989) TV showed 5 violent acts per hour and cartoons 20.per hour and cartoons 20.

Media and anti social behaviour.Media and anti social behaviour.

Many people are concerned that children may Many people are concerned that children may become more aggressive as a consequence of become more aggressive as a consequence of witnessing aggression. Film and television are witnessing aggression. Film and television are getting more violent. Wilson et al (2002) counted getting more violent. Wilson et al (2002) counted 14 acts an hour in children’s television as 14 acts an hour in children’s television as opposed to less than 4 in adult TV. Children are opposed to less than 4 in adult TV. Children are increasing exposed to violent programmes increasing exposed to violent programmes designed for an adult audience. (designed for an adult audience. (The The ProfessionalsProfessionals) More films which feature graphic ) More films which feature graphic and extended torture (and extended torture (Saw and HosteSaw and Hostel) are l) are increasingly popular increasingly popular

Influence on Physiological Influence on Physiological responsesresponses

Increased arousal is part of your stress Increased arousal is part of your stress responseresponse

Zillman’s excitation transfer theory - Zillman’s excitation transfer theory - argues that arousal fro real life situations argues that arousal fro real life situations which involve conflict.which involve conflict.

Desensitisation- Desensitisation-

Desensitisation

Repeated exposure to violence in the media reduces the impact of the violence. People become ‘desensitised’ to the violence and it has less impact on them (habituation).

They become less anxious about violence per se and may, therefore, engage in more violent behaviour.

Cognitive PrimingCognitive Priming

Aggressive ideas shown in Aggressive ideas shown in media (film) can media (film) can “spark “spark off”off” other aggressive other aggressive thoughts, thoughts, (Berkowitz, (Berkowitz, 1984).1984). After viewing a After viewing a violent film, the viewer is violent film, the viewer is ‘primed‘primed’ to respond ’ to respond aggressively.aggressively.

Huesmann (1982)Huesmann (1982) argued argued that children lean problem-that children lean problem-solving through solving through observationobservation and that and that aggressive scripts may be aggressive scripts may be learntlearnt through violent through violent scenes. If children find scenes. If children find themselves in the same themselves in the same situation in real life they situation in real life they may recall the violent script may recall the violent script as a solution. as a solution.

Research StudiesResearch Studies

Huesmann et al. (2003)Huesmann et al. (2003)Gundter et al. (2002)Gundter et al. (2002)

Effects of watching Pro Social Effects of watching Pro Social behaviourbehaviour

Smith et al (2006) analysed the content of Smith et al (2006) analysed the content of 18 American television channels for one 18 American television channels for one week. 73% of programmes featured some week. 73% of programmes featured some pro social behaviour e.g. Sesame Street pro social behaviour e.g. Sesame Street featured storylines that were designed to featured storylines that were designed to foster pro social behaviour linked to foster pro social behaviour linked to current events such as floods and current events such as floods and earthquakes. In the Night Garden , Peppa earthquakes. In the Night Garden , Peppa Pig – sharing, family values and working Pig – sharing, family values and working together.together.

Research has shown that :Research has shown that :Regular watching of programmes with pro Regular watching of programmes with pro

social content does influence how helpful social content does influence how helpful children are.children are.

ReaserchReaserch

Fogel et al. (2007)Fogel et al. (2007)

Explaining influences on behaviourExplaining influences on behaviour

Social Learning TheorySocial Learning Theory Proposed by Bandura (1977) Children learn social Proposed by Bandura (1977) Children learn social

behaviours by imitating other individuals. But, children do behaviours by imitating other individuals. But, children do not imitate everything they see. According to SLT not imitate everything they see. According to SLT children imitate behaviour when four conditions are met:-children imitate behaviour when four conditions are met:-

Observe the behaviour (model)Observe the behaviour (model) Have to be able to remember the behaviour.Have to be able to remember the behaviour. Opportunity to reproduce it.Opportunity to reproduce it. Motivation to reproduce the behaviour.Motivation to reproduce the behaviour. The motivation can be supplied when the model being The motivation can be supplied when the model being

observed is being rewarded in some way. The observed observed is being rewarded in some way. The observed reward is known as vicarious reinforcement.reward is known as vicarious reinforcement.

http://www.psychexchange.co.uk/videos/http://www.psychexchange.co.uk/videos/view/20027/view/20027/

Social Cognitive observational Social Cognitive observational learning theorylearning theory

According to this theory children have an According to this theory children have an inborn tendency to imitate the behaviours inborn tendency to imitate the behaviours which they see around them, learning via which they see around them, learning via observation rather than experience.observation rather than experience.

Young children will copy both pro and anti Young children will copy both pro and anti social behaviours.social behaviours.

But….But….

Children who are exposed to violent Children who are exposed to violent models are said to develop three types of models are said to develop three types of social cognitive structure:-social cognitive structure:-

SchemasSchemasScriptsScriptsNormative beliefsNormative beliefs

Over to youOver to you

Explain why social cognitive learning Explain why social cognitive learning theory is so strong an explanation?theory is so strong an explanation?

What research supports this?What research supports this?Explain what is meant by the Explain what is meant by the third variable third variable

theory ?theory ?

Evaluation of explanations of anti-social behaviour

Research difficulties: this area of research has been unduly influenced by political desires to blame TV for all kinds of social problems (Gauntlett, 95). It is easier to blame ‘video nasties’ than attribute blame to other factors, such as education or poverty.

In 1960, Joseph Klapper wrote that media research is too simplistic, involving counting up (quantitative/normative) the acts of aggression to assess what type of programme is under consideration. This criticism is still valid today and sophisticated methodologies remain difficult to design and elusive in practice.

Evaluation of explanations of anti-social behaviour

Much of the research Much of the research into anti-social into anti-social behaviour assumes behaviour assumes that audience that audience members all consume members all consume media in the media in the same same wayway and are and are equally equally influencedinfluenced by it. This by it. This assumptions is not assumptions is not supported by the supported by the facts facts (Dorr & (Dorr & Kovaric, 81).Kovaric, 81). It is It is also assumed that the also assumed that the amountamount of TV of TV watched influences watched influences the amount of the amount of behaviour change. behaviour change. Again, this is not Again, this is not supported by the supported by the facts. facts.

It has been found that It has been found that 50%50% of of the time when children have the the time when children have the TV on, they are doing something TV on, they are doing something else & paying little attention to else & paying little attention to the content on the screen.the content on the screen.

Finally, Finally, Cumberbatch (1989Cumberbatch (1989) ) questions why people think questions why people think viewers (particularly children) viewers (particularly children) will copy or imitate violent acts will copy or imitate violent acts on the screen. They may on the screen. They may acquire acquire the knowledgethe knowledge of violent acts, of violent acts, but this isn’t likely to but this isn’t likely to increase increase their desire to replicatetheir desire to replicate them. them. Most programmes show that Most programmes show that violence/aggression does not violence/aggression does not gain any rewards. gain any rewards. (Negative (Negative reinforcement/Punishment)reinforcement/Punishment)

Synopticity…. “It bleeds, it leads…”

Cumberbatch (89)Cumberbatch (89) argues that media effects are argues that media effects are filtered & selected before the public gets a chance filtered & selected before the public gets a chance to read them. He argues that many academic to read them. He argues that many academic journals are more interested in publishing journals are more interested in publishing ‘significant’ research findings that demonstrate ‘significant’ research findings that demonstrate that violent media cause violent effects in people. that violent media cause violent effects in people. Thus there is a Thus there is a research biasresearch bias in favour of in favour of ‘positive’ findings. It is questionable how many ‘positive’ findings. It is questionable how many pieces of research that have found no link pieces of research that have found no link between media violence and real-life violence between media violence and real-life violence have been have been excluded from publication. excluded from publication.

Furthermore, if academics know that ‘no effect’ Furthermore, if academics know that ‘no effect’ research doesn’t get published, academics will research doesn’t get published, academics will inevitably not choose to research such areas. inevitably not choose to research such areas.