What is an Attitude? “An organized predisposition to respond in a favorable or unfavorable manner...
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Transcript of What is an Attitude? “An organized predisposition to respond in a favorable or unfavorable manner...
What is an Attitude?• “An organized predisposition to respond in
a favorable or unfavorable manner toward a specified class of objects” (Shaver, 1977)
• Position on a bipolar affective or evaluative dimension (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975)
• Networks of interrelated beliefs that reside in long-term memory and are activated when the attitude object or issue is encountered (Tourangeau & Rasinksi, 1988)
Measuring Attitudes:Thurstone’s Equal Appearing Intervals (1928)
• Create pool of belief items (~100)
• ~300 judges rate favorability of items– Scale value of item = average rating– Exclude items with high variance
• Final scale: ~20 evenly distributed items
• Person checks items (s)he agrees with
• Score = median value of checked items
Measuring Attitudes:Likert’s Summated Ratings (1932)
• Create pool of belief items
• Decide how to score each (+ or -)– exclude neutral or ambiguous items
• Administer to relevant sample– bipolar SA (+2) to SD (-2) scale
• Criterion of internal consistency– item-total correlations & Coefficient Alpha
Issues with Likert Scales
• Ambiguity of SD responses– Women deserve same job opportunities as men– So use bipolar scales (“Women deserve…”)
• Scaling is compensatory– 5 SA + 5 SD = 10 N = 5A + 5D
• Include neutral midpoint?
• How many anchors?
Measuring Attitudes:Guttman’s Scalogram (1944)
• Create set of items that form a uni-dimensional hierarchy
• Score = “highest” item person endorses• e.g., attitudes towards gambling:
– Place bets with bookie– Gambling trips to Las Vegas– Bet on greyhounds/horses– Office football/basketball pools– Penny ante poker with friends– No-stakes wager with a friend
Measuring Attitudes:Osgood’s Semantic Differential Scale
• Subjects rate items on bipolar adjectives:– good…………………………………bad– favorable ……………………unfavorable– like……………………………….dislike
• Score = sum of responses to all items
• Most direct measure of evaluation/affect
What is Job Satisfaction?
• Spector:– “the degree to which
people like their jobs”
– “How people feel about their jobs and different aspects of their jobs”
Work characteristics
JobSatisfaction(s)
Simple Discrepancy Models
• Porter (1961): Need Satisfaction– Desired-Actual
• Minnesota Work Adjustment Model– 20 “reinforcers” (based on Murray’s 12 needs)
• Locke (1976): Values– “Job satisfaction results from appraisal of one’s job as
attaining…one’s important job values”
– provided these values are congruent with basic needs
Perceived characteristics
JobSatisfaction(s)
Objective characteristics
Needs/Values
Frame of Reference Models• March & Simon
– Evaluation of inducements/contributions ratio
– Labor market affects value of contributions
• Cornell Model: Outcomes vs. Expectations– Evaluations of outcomes are affected by Frame of
Reference (alternatives, past experience, economy)
• Hulin, Roznowski & Hachiya (1985)– Frame of reference influences both contributions and
inducements
Perceived characteristics
JobSatisfaction(s)
Objective characteristics
Needs/Values
Frame of Reference
Questioning the Situational View
• A chink in the armor: are perceptions veridical with objective reality?
• Social Information Processing model
• Dispositional View
Alternative Models of JS: Social Information Processing Model
• Social construction of attitudes vs objective characteristics) – Salancik & Pfeffer (1978)– Roots in Schachter & Singer (1962)
• Attitude statements based on:– Perception of affective components– Social context cues– Self-attributions about behavior
EventGeneralized
Arousal
Cues
JS
Alternative Models of JS: Dispositional Approach
• Staw & Ross (1985)– Surprising stability over time/situations
• Staw, Bell & Clausen (1986)– Childhood temperament predicts adult JS
• Arvey et al. (1989)– JS has hereditary component (30%)
Caveats re: Dispositional Approach
• General questions about behavioral genetics
• Gerhart (1987): Situation AND Disposition– Compared effects on current satisfaction of
prior satisfaction, pay, job complexity– Job complexity had strongest effect
• Why isn’t extrinsic satisfaction heritable?
• Why is JS heritable? A JS gene?
Temperament and Job Satisfaction
• Trait NA/PA may be key factor– Some reason to believe that it may have
biological basis, and thus inheritable
• Those high in NA are more likely to:– Notice negative stimuli– Evaluate stimuli in negative terms– Recall negative stimuli– Create interpersonal conflict dissatisfaction
Primacy of Affect or Judgment
Events Affect JS
Weiss & Cropanzano (1996)
Disposition Mood at work JS
Weiss et al. (1999)
Disposition Interpretations JS
Brief (1998)
Primacy of Affect or Judgment
DispositionInterpretations
JS
Brief & Weiss (2002)
Mood
Stress events
Strain
JS
Fuller et al. (2003)
Mood
SubjectiveNorm
Attitude:Act
BehaviorIntent
Behavior
Theory of Reasoned Action (Fishbein & Ajzen)
Attitudes and Behavior
Evaluation
Behaviorbeliefs
Normativebeliefs
Motivation to Comply
SubjectiveNorm
Attitude:Act
BehaviorIntent
Behavior
Theory of Reasoned Action (Fishbein & Ajzen)
Attitudes and Behavior
Evaluation
Behaviorbeliefs
Normativebeliefs
Motivation to Comply
SubjectiveNorm
Attitude:Act
BehaviorIntent
Behavior
Theory of Reasoned Action (Fishbein & Ajzen)
Constraints
Attitudes and Behavior