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WHAT IS A GRAMMATICAL CATEGORY?
DefinitionA grammatical category is a set of syntactic features that
express meanings from the same conceptual domain
occur in contrast to each other, and
are typically expressed in the same fashion. Discussion
The term grammatical category has been used to cover a wide variety of things, including what
traditional grammars call "parts of speech."
Examples (English)
A set of verb affixes that express aspect
A set of auxiliary verbs that express modality
Kindsa. What is aspect?b. What is case?c. What is definiteness?d. What is mood and modality?e. What is a noun class?f. What is number?g. What is polarity?h. What is tense?i. What is transitivity?
j. What is voice?What is aspect?
DefinitionAspect is a grammatical category associated with verbs that expresses a temporal view of the event or
state expressed by the verb.
DiscussionAspect is often indicated by verbal affixes or auxiliary verbs.
Example (English)He is talking.
The be + -ing construction expresses progressive aspect.
KindsHere are some kinds of aspect:
What is imperfective aspect?
What is perfective aspect?
What is cessative aspect?
What is inchoative aspect?
Generic
Aspect is a kind of
What is a grammatical category?
What is Imperfective Aspect?
DefinitionImperfective aspect is an aspect that expresses an event or state, with respect to its internal
structure, instead of expressing it as a simple whole.
Examples (English)Progressive aspect
Example: be + -ing
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Habitual aspect with
Example: used to
KindsWhat is continuous aspect?
What is habitual aspect?
What is iterative aspect?
What is continuous aspect?
DefinitionContinuous aspect is an imperfective aspect that expresses an ongoing, but not habitual, occurrence of
the state or event expressed by the verb.
Example (Quechua)The word -sa expresses continuous aspect, as in the following example:
rik''usan He sees it. (literally, He is seeing it.)Source: Bills, Vallejo, and Troike 1969 21
KindHere is a kind of continuous aspect:
What is progressive aspect?
What is progressive aspect?
DefinitionProgressive aspect is a continuous aspect that expresses processes, not states.
Example (English)The be + -ing construction indicates progressive aspect. Its characteristic of expressing processes rather
than states can be seen in the following examples:
Fred is silly.
Fred is being silly.
The first example is stative; the second is processual and paraphrasable as "Fred is acting in a silly
manner." Source: Comrie 1976a 36 Generic
Progressive aspect is a kind of
What is continuous aspect?
What is habitual aspect?
DefinitionHabitual aspect is an imperfective aspect that expresses the occurrence of an event or state as
characteristic of a period of time.
Example (English)He used to live here.
GenericHabitual aspect is a kind ofWhat is imperfective aspect?
What is iterative aspect?
DefinitionIterative aspect is an aspect that expresses the repetition of an event or state.
Example (English)The English prefix re- expresses iterative aspect:
rewrite
Example (Hungarian)The Hungarian suffix -gel expresses iterative aspect (diacritical markings are not reproduced
here):
nevetgel give a series of laughs
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Source:
Comrie 1985a 343
KindHere is a kind of iterative aspect:
What is distributive aspect?
GenericIterative aspect is a kind ofWhat is imperfective aspect?
What is distributive aspect?
DefinitionDistributive aspect is an iterative aspect which expresses that an event is applied to members of a group
one after another. These members are typically the referents named by
the subject of an intransitive verb, or
the object of a transitive verb.
Example (Russian)Russian po- in On po-zapiral dveri. `He locked the doors one at a time.' Source: Comrie 1985a
344
GenericDistributive aspect is a kind of
What is iterative aspect?
What is perfective aspect?
DefinitionPerfective aspect is an aspect that expresses a temporal view of an event or state as a simple whole,
apart from the consideration of the internal structure of the time in which it occurs.
Examples (English)He walked there.
This type of construction expresses a temporal view of walk distinct from those expressed in the
following constructions:
He was walking there.
He used to walk there.
GenericPerfective aspect is a kind of
What is aspect?
What is cessative aspect?
DefinitionCessative aspect is aspect that expresses the cessation of an event or state.
GenericCessative aspect is a kind of
What is aspect?
What is case?
DefinitionCase is a grammatical category determined by the syntactic or semantic function of a noun or pronoun.
Discussion
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The term case has traditionally been restricted to apply to only those languages which indicate certain
functions by the inflection of nouns pronouns, or noun phrase constituents, such as adjectives and
numerals.
Example:The Latin sentencesCanis hominem mordet Dog bites man and Canem homo mordet Man bites dog,
illustrate that differing case endings express the differing functions of the nouns in Latin.
The term is sometimes extended to include such functions expressed by adpositions. Example (Japanese)
In the following sentence, case is indicated by the case markers ga, ni, and o:
John ga Mary ni hon o yatta
John NOMINATIVE Mary DATIVE book ACCUSATIVE gave
John gave Mary a book. Source:
Kuno 1973 45
KindsHere are some kinds of cases:
a. What is abessive case?b. What is ablative case?c. What is absolutive case?d. What is accusative case?e. What is allative case?f. What is benefactive case?g. What is causative case?h. What is comitative case?i. What is dative case?
j. What is delative case?k.
What is elative case?l. What is equative case?
m. What is ergative case?n. What is essive case?o. What is genitive case?p. What is illative case?q. What is inessive case?r. What is instrumental case?s. What is lative case?t. What is locative case?u. What is nominative case?v. What is partitive case?w. What is prolative case?x. What is superessive case?y. What is translative case?z. What is vocative case? Generic
Case is a kind of
What is a grammatical category?
What is abessive case?
DefinitionAbessive case is a case that expresses the lack or absence of the referent of the noun it marks.
It has the meaning of the English preposition without.
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DiscussionThe term abessive case is used especially in studies of Finno-Ugric grammar. Its synonym caritive
case is used in the description of some other languages, notably Caucasian ones.
GenericAbessive case is a kind of
What is case?
What is ablative case?
DefinitionAblative case is a case that expresses a variety of meanings including instrument cause location source,
and time.
DiscussionThe term ablative case is used especially in Latin grammar.
GenericAblative case is a kind of
What is case?
What is absolutive case?
DefinitionAbsolutive case is the case of nouns in ergative-absolutive languages that would generally be
the subjects of intransitive verbs or the objects of transitive verbs in the translational equivalents of
nominative-accusative languages such as English.
DiscussionAbsolutive case is less likely to be formally indicated on the noun than ergative case is.
GenericAbsolutive case is a kind of
What is case?
What is accusative case?
DefinitionAccusative case is the case in nominative-accusative languages that marks certain syntactic functions,
usually direct objects.
GenericAccusative case is a kind of
What is case?
What is allative case?
DefinitionAllative case is a case that expresses motion to or toward the referent of the noun it marks.
DiscussionThe term allative case has been used in studies of Finnish and Eskimo. Its synonym additive case has
been used especially in studies of Basque.
GenericAllative case is a kind of
What is case?
What is benefactive case?
DefinitionBenefactive case is a case that expresses that the referent of the noun it marks receives the benefit of
the situation expressed by the clause. Generic
Benefactive case is a kind of
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What is case?
What is causative case?
DefinitionCausative case is a case which expresses that the referent of the noun it marks is the cause of the
situation expressed by the clause.
GenericCausative case is a kind ofWhat is case?
What is comitative case?
DefinitionComitative case is a case expressing accompaniment.
It carries the meaning "with" or "accompanied by."
GenericComitative case is a kind of
What is case?
What is dative case?
DefinitionDative case is a case that marks any of the following:
Indirect objects (for languages in which they are held to exist)
Nouns having the role of
recipient (as of things given)
beneficiary of an action, or
possessor of an item
Example (German)The word mir (to) me is in dative case, as seen in the following sentence.
Gib mir Brot. Give me bread.This word contrasts with ich I and mich me.
GenericDative case is a kind of
What is case?
What is delative case?
Definition
Delative case is a case which expresses motion downward from the referent of the noun it
marks.
Generic
Delative case is a kind of
What is case?What is elative case?
Definition
Elative case is a case expressing motion out of or away from the referent of the noun it marks.
Discussion
The term elative case is used especially in studies of Finno-Ugric grammar.
Generic
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Elative case is a kind of
What is case?What is equative case?
Definition
Equative case is a case that expresses likeness or identity to the referent of the noun it marks.
It can have meaning, such as
as like, and in the capacity of.
Generic
Equative case is a kind of
What is case?What is ergative case?
Definition
Ergative case is the case of nouns in ergative-absolutive languages that would generally be the
subjects of transitive verbs in the translation equivalents of nominative-accusative languages
such as English.
Discussion
Ergative case is more likely to be formally marked on the noun than absolutive case is.
Generic
Ergative case is a kind of
What is case?What is essive case?
Definition
Essive case is a case that expresses the temporary state of the referent specified by a noun.
The case has the meaning of
while, and in the capacity of.
Discussion
The term essive case is used especially in Finnish and Hungarian grammatical studies.
Generic
Essive case is a kind of
What is case?What is genitive case?
Definition
Genitive case is a case in which the referent of the marked noun is the possessor of the referent
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of another noun.
Discussion
In some languages, genitive case may express an associative relation between the marked noun
and another noun.
Examples (English)
The man's foot The man's brother The man's singing The man's book The man's pictureSource: Fleming 1988 10
Generic
Genitive case is a kind of
What is case?What is illative case?
Definition
Illative case is a case that expresses motion into or direction toward the referent of the noun it
marks.
Discussion
The term illative case is used especially in studies of Finno-Ugric grammar.
Example (Finnish)
talo-oninto the house
Source: Lyons 1968 299
Generic
Illative case is a kind of
What is case?What is inessive case?
Definition
Inessive case is a case that expresses a location within the referent of the noun it marks.
Discussion
The term inessive case is used especially in Finnish grammatical studies.
Example (Finnish)
-ssa
house -in(INESSIVE)
in the house
Source: Lyons 1968 299
Generic
Inessive case is a kind of
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What is case?What is instrumental case?
Definition
Instrumental case is a case indicating that the referent of the noun it marks is the means of the
accomplishment of the action expressed by the clause.
Generic
Instrumental case is a kind of
What is case?What is lative case?
Definition
Lative case is a case that expresses motion
up to the location of, or as far as the referent of the noun it marks.
Discussion
The term lative case is used especially in studies of Finno-Ugric grammar.
Generic
Lative case is a kind of
What is case?What is locative case?
Definition
Locative case is a case that expresses location at the referent of the noun it marks.
Discussion
The term adessive case, a synonym of locative case, is used especially in studies of Finno-Ugric
grammar.
Generic
Locative case is a kind of
What is case?
What is nominative case?
Definition
Nominative case is the case that identifies clause subjects in nominative-accusative languages.
Nouns used in isolation have this case.
Discussion
Nominative case is not often formally marked in nominative-accusative languages.
Generic
Nominative case is a kind of
What is case?
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What is partitive case?
Definition
Partitive case is a case that expresses the partial nature of the referent of the noun it marks, as
opposed to expressing the whole unit or class of which the referent is a part.
This case may be found in items such as the following:
Existential clauses Nouns that are accompanied by numerals or units of measure Predications of material from which something is madeIt often has a meaning similar to the English word some.
Discussion
The termpartitive case is used especially in studies of Finno-Ugric grammar.
Generic
Partitive case is a kind of What is case?
What is prolative case?
Definition
Prolative case is a case that expresses motion along or by the referent of the noun it marks.
Examples (Finnish)
xamples, the suffix expresses prolative case:-tse
Laiva kulki englannin sivuitseThe boat went by the coast of England. Isani aina matkusti maitseMy father always travelled by land.Source: Sebeok 1946 14
Generic
Prolative case is a kind of
What is case?What is superessive case?
Definition
Superessive case is a case that expresses location on the referent of the noun it marks.
It has the meaning of "on" or "upon."
Discussion
The term superessive case is used especially in studies of Finno-Ugric grammar.
Generic
Superessive case is a kind of
What is case?What is translative case?
Definition
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Translative case is a case indicating that the referent of the noun, or the quality of the adjective,
that it marks is the result of a process of change.
Examples (Finnish)
-ksiindicates translative case, as in the following examples:
Naapurini tuli rikkaaksimy neighbor became richSource: Sebeok 1946 17
suli vedeksimelted into waterSource: Hakulinen 1961 70
Generic
Translative case is a kind of
What is case?What is vocative case?
Definition
Vocative case is a case that marks a noun whose referent is being addressed.
Example (Latin)
Brute in the following example is in vocative case:
Et tu, Brute!You too, Brutus!
Source: Hartmann and Stork 1972 251
Generic
Vocative case is a kind of
What is case?
What is definiteness?
Definition
Definiteness is a category concerned with the grammaticalization of identifiability and
nonidentifiability ofreferents on the part of a speaker or addressee.
Discussion
Definiteness is frequently expressed by
articles, or affixes having functions similar to articles.
Kinds
Here are some kinds of definiteness:
What is definite identifiability? What is a generic term? What is indefiniteness? What is nonspecificity? What is specificity?
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What is definite identifiability?
Definition
Definite identifiability is a kind of definiteness which indicates that an expressionsreferent(s) is
in some way identifiable to both speaker and addressee.
The referent is identifiable because of a shared knowledge or situation, including a previousmention of the referent.
Examples (English)
the he
Generic
Definite is a kind of
What is definiteness?What is a generic term?
Definition
A generic term is a noun or noun phrase that refers to
a whole class, or any member of a class as a representative of its class.
Examples (English)
A lion is a noble beast. The lion is a noble beast. Lions are noble beasts. The lions are noble beasts.
Source: Hawkins, J. 1978 214
Generic
A generic term is a kind of
What is definiteness?What is indefiniteness?
Definition
Indefiniteness is a kind of definiteness indicating that the referent(s) of an expression are not
presumed to be identifiable.
The referent is not identifiable because of a lack of shared knowledge or situation, including no
previous mention of the referent.
Discussion
Certain demonstratives and pronouns often are used to indicate indefiniteness.
Examples (English)
Here are some examples of words that indicate indefiniteness:
a some
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somebodyGeneric
Indefinite is a kind of
What is definiteness?What is nonspecificity?
Definition
Nonspecificity is a kind of definiteness, expressed by an interpretation of or grammatical marking
on a noun or noun phrase, indicating that the speaker presumably does not know the identity of
the referent(s).
Example (English)
The following sentence has the interpretation that the speaker does not have a particular
Norwegian in mind:
Minna wants to meet a Norwegian.
Source: Hawkins, J. 1978 204
Generic
A nonspecific is a kind of
What is definiteness?What is specificity?
Definition
Specificity is a kind of definiteness, expressed by the interpretation of or grammatical marking on
a noun or noun phrase, indicating that the speaker presumably knows the identity of the
referent(s).
Examples (English)
The following sentence has the interpretation that the speaker has a particular Norwegian in
mind:
Minna wants to meet the Norwegian.
Source: Hawkins, J. 1978 204
Generic
A specific is a kind of
What is definiteness?
What is mood and modality?
Definition
Mood is one of a set of distinctive forms that are used to signal modality.
Modality is a facet ofillocutionary force, signaled by grammatical devices (that is, moods), that
expresses the illocutionary point or general intent of a speaker, or a speakers degree of commitment to the expressedproposition's believability,
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obligatoriness, desirability, or reality.
Discussion
The term moodis used by some authors in the same sense modality is.
Others distinguish the two, as we do here, by using moodto refer to the contrastive grammatical
expressions of different modalities and reserving modality to refer to the meanings so expressed.
If, in addition, modality is used to refer to meanings expressed by lexical means as well as
grammatical, it is effectively a synonym of illocutionary force.
Example (English)
Here are some examples of mood and modality; items that signal certain modalities:
Verbal inflections Auxiliary verbs
Kinds
Here are some kinds of mood and modality:
What is irrealis modality? What is necessity? What is possibility? What is realis modality? What is alethic modality? What is deontic modality? What is epistemic modality?
Generic
Mood and modality is a kind of
What is a grammatical category?What is irrealis modality?
Definition
Irrealis modality is a modality that connotes that the proposition with which it is associated is
nonactual or nonfactual.
Kind
Here is a kind of irrealis modality:
What is subjunctive mood?Generic
Irrealis modality is a kind of
What is mood and modality?What is necessity?
Definition
Necessity is a degree of contingency in modality that in
alethic modality connotes logical requirement deontic modality connotes obligation, and epistemic modality connotes certainty.
Generic
Necessity is a kind of
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What is mood and modality?What is possibility?
Definition
Possibility is a degree of contingency in modality that in
alethic modality connotes logical possibility deontic modality connotes permission, and epistemic modality connotes uncertainty or speculation.
Generic
Possibility is a kind of
What is mood and modality?What is realis modality?
Definition
Realis modality is a modality that connotes the factuality of a proposition.
Discussion
In its broad usage, the term realis is approximately equivalent in meaning to the term indicative,
which in turn is used, narrowly, as a synonym todeclarative.
Generic
Realis modality is a kind of
What is mood and modality?What is alethic modality?
Definition
Alethic modality is modality that connotes the speakers estimation of the logical necessity orpossibility of the proposition expressed by his utterance.
Discussion
The adjective alethic is also used in expressions of specific degrees of alethic modality, such as
alethic possibility, or alethic necessity.
Example (English)
Alfred is a bachelor; thus he mustbe unmarried.Adapted from: Lyons 1977b 788
Generic
Alethic modality is a kind of
What is mood and modality?What is deontic modality?
Definition
Deontic modality is modality that connotes the speaker's degree of requirement of desire for, or
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commitment to the realization ofthe proposition expressed by the utterance.
Examples (English)
You maygo at four oclock. All elections shall take place on schedule.
Kinds
Here are some kinds of deontic modality:
What is commissive modality? What is directive modality? What is volitive modality?
Generic
Deontic modality is a kind of
What is mood and modality?What is epistemic modality?
Definition
Epistemic modality is a modality that connotes how much certainty or evidence a speaker has for
the proposition expressed by his or her utterance.
Example (English)
Theres no answer; he musthave already left.
Kinds
Here are some kinds of epistemic modality:
What is evidentiality? What is judgment modality?
Generic
Epistemic modality is a kind of
What is mood and modality?
What is a noun class?
Definition
A noun class system is a grammatical system that some languages use to overtly categorize
nouns. Noun classes are
often based, at least in part, on characteristics (such as gender, animacy, shape) of thereferents of some of the nouns in each class, and
distinguished byo an affix on the noun or by a clitic or word in the noun phrase, ando agreement affixes on noun phrase constituents and on the verb.
Discussion
A finer distinction may be made, according to R. M. W. Dixon, between prototypicalnoun classes
(a grammatical system) and noun classifiers (a lexical set).
Noun class systems have the following characteristics:
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They typically comprise a closed set of two to twenty classes, into which all nouns in thelanguage are divided.
Typically, few or no nouns can occur in more than one class. Expression of the noun class is obligatory in all contexts. Class may be marked on the noun itself, but will also always be marked on otherconstituents in the noun phrase or in the sentence that show concord (agreement) with the
noun.
Examples: Most types of gender systems and concord systems; many IndoEuropean
languages, Bantu languages, Niger Congo languages, Dyirbal (Australian)
Conversely, languages with noun classifiersets have the following characteristics:
They typically involve 20 or more classifiers (separate lexemes that co-occur with thenoun). One hundred classifiers are common, and 400 are attested. Not every noun must take a
classifier.
Many nouns can occur with more than one classifier. The classifier occurs in only some syntactic environments. In addition, use of theclassifier may be influenced by the pragmatics of style and the choice of written or spoken mode.(Often, the more formal the style, the richer the variety of classifiers used, and the higher the
frequency of their use.)
Noun classifiers are always free lexical items that occur in the same noun phrase as thenoun they qualify. They never form a morphological unit with the noun, and there is never
agreement marking on the verb.
Note: Noun classifiers are usually derived from words used as names of concrete, discret
moveable objects.
Examples: Japanese, Chinese, Southeast Asian languages, Austronesian languages, Mayan
languages, American Sign Language
Not all noun classifying languages fit neatly into one of these two prototypes of linguistic
categorization. Various intermediate types are attested in languages of the Americas (see Craig
1986 45 ; Payne, D. 1986 113, 129, 130 ).
Examples (Spanish)
In Spanish, nouns are classified by gender. In the following words, the suffixes -aFEMININE
and -oMASCULINE express the noun class on the noun, and the articles laFEMININE and el
MASCULINE agree with the nouns accordingly:
la hijathe daughter el hijothe son la mesathe table el mercadothe market
Kinds
Here are some kinds of noun classes:
What is an animate class? What is grammatical gender? What is a human class? What is an inanimate class?
Generic
A noun class is a kind of
What is a grammatical category?
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What is number?
Definition
Number is a grammatical category ofnouns, pronouns, and verb agreement that expresses count
distinctions (such as "one" or "more than one").
The count distinctions typically, but not always, correspond to the actual count of the referents
of the marked noun or pronoun.
Example (English)
In the word girls, plural number is marked by the suffix -s.
Kinds
Here are some kinds of numbers:
What is dual number?
What is plural number? What is singular number? What is a trial number?
Generic
A number is a kind of
What is a grammatical category?What is dual number?
Definition
Dual number is number which refers to two members of the class identified by the noun.
Generic
Dual number is a kind of
What is number?What is plural number?
Definition
Plural number is number that expresses reference to a quantity greater than that expressed by
the largest specific number category in a language, such as "more than one" in English, and"more than two" in some other languages.
Example (English)
Here is an example of plural number:
The suffix -s expresses plural number, as in the word beggars.
Generic
A plural number is a kind of
What is number?What is singular number?
Definition
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Singular number is number that refers to one member of a designated class.
Examples (English)
The singular form batas opposed to bats. Mass nouns may be indicated by singular number, such as the singular form sugar.
Generic
Singular number is a kind of
What is number?What is a trial number?
Definition
A trial number is a number that refers to three members of the designated class.
Generic
A trial number is a kind of
What is number?
What is polarity?
Definition
Polarity is a grammatical category that distinguishes affirmative and negative.
Generic
Polarity is a kind of What is a grammatical category?
What is tense?
Definition
Tense is a grammatical category, typically marked on the verb, that deictically refers to the time
of the event or state denoted by the verb in relation to some other temporal reference point.
Kinds
Here are some kinds of tenses:
What is absolute tense? What is absolute-relative tense? What is relative tense?
Generic
Tense is a kind of
What is a grammatical category?What is absolute tense?
Definition
Absolute tense is a tense that refers to a time in relation to the moment ofutterance.
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Kinds
What is future tense? What is nonfuture tense? What is nonpast tense? What is not-yet tense? What is past tense? What is present tense? What is still tense?
Generic
Absolute tense is a kind of
What is tense?What is future tense?
Definition
Future tense is an absolute tense that refers to a time after the moment ofutterance.
Kinds
Here are some kinds of future tenses:
What is close future tense? What is hodiernal future tense? What is post-hodiernal future tense? What is predictive future tense? What is remote future tense?
Generic
Future tense is a kind of
What is absolute tense?What is close future tense?
Definition
Close future tense is a tense that refers to a time shortly after the moment ofutterance.
Discussion
Close future tense typically refers to a time within a span ranging through the end of the time
culturally defined as "tomorrow."
Generic
Close future tense is a kind of
What is future tense?What is hodiernal future tense?
Definition
Hodiernal future tense is a future tense that refers to a time that is located after the moment of
utterance within the span culturally defined as "today."
Generic
Hodiernal future tense is a kind of
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What is future tense?What is post-hodiernal future tense?
Definition
Post-hodiernal future tense is a future tense that refers to a time, in relation to the moment of
utterance, after the span that is culturally defined as "today."
Generic
A post-hodiernal future tense is a kind of
What is future tense?What is predictive future tense?
Definition
Predictive future tense is a future tense, used in predictions, that does not express intention.
Generic
Predictive future tense is a kind of
What is future tense?What is remote future tense?
Definition
Remote future is a future tense that refers to a time that is considered relatively distant. It is
characteristically after the span of time culturally defined as "tomorrow."
Generic
Remote future tense is a kind of
What is future tense?What is nonfuture tense?
Definition
Nonfuture tense is an absolute tense that
refers to a time at or before the moment ofutterance, and contrasts with a future tense.
Generic
A nonfuture tense is a kind of
What is absolute tense?What is nonpast tense?
Definition
Nonpast tense is an absolute tense that
refers to a time at or after the moment ofutterance, and contrasts with a past tense.
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Generic
Nonpast tense is a kind of
What is absolute tense?What is not-yet tense?
Definition
Not-yet tense is an absolute tense that refers to times at and before the moment of
utterance in asserting the present and past nonoccurrence of an event or state. It tends to
imply that the event or state is expected to occur in the future.
This tense corresponds to the meaning of the English not yet.
Example (Luganda)
Here is an example of not-yet tense:
te- tu- nna- gendaNEG- we- NOT.YET- go
We have not yet gone.
Source: Comrie 1985b 54
Generic
Not-yet tense is a kind of
What is absolute tense?
What is past tense?
Definition
Past tense is an absolute tense that refers to a time before the moment ofutterance.
Kinds
Here are some kinds of past tense:
What is hesternal past tense? What is hodiernal past tense? What is immediate past tense? What is nonrecent past tense? What is nonremote past tense? What is prehesternal past tense? What is prehodiernal past tense? What is a preterit? What is recent past tense? What is remote past tense?
Generic
Past tense is a kind of
What is absolute tense?What is hesternal past tense?
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Definition
Hesternal past tense is a past tense that refers to a time that is located somewhere in the
span beginning with the period defined culturally as "yesterday" and extends back through
some period that is considered nonremote.
Generic
A hesternal past tense is a kind of
What is past tense?What is hodiernal past tense?
Definition
Hodiernal past tense is a past tense that refers to a time as located before the moment of
utterance within the span culturally defined as "today."
Generic
Hodiernal past tense is a kind of
What is past tense?What is immediate past tense?
Definition
Immediate past tense is past tense that refers to a time considered very recent in relation to
the moment ofutterance.
Generic
Immediate past tense is a kind of What is past tense?
What is nonrecent past tense?
Definition
Nonrecent past tense is a past tense that refers to a time before the range of a contrasting
recent past tense.
Generic
Nonrecent past tense is a kind of
What is past tense?What is nonremote past tense?
Definition
Nonremote past tense is a past tense that refers to a time considered not more than a few
days ago, in contrast to a remote past tense.
Generic
Nonremote past tense is a kind of
What is past tense?
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What is prehesternal past tense?
Definition
Prehesternal past tense is a past tense that refers to a time in some span before that of an
opposing hesternal past tense.
Generic
Prehesternal past tense is a kind of
What is past tense?What is prehodiernal past tense?
Definition
Prehodiernal past tense is a past tense that refers to a time in some span before that of a
contrasting hodiernal past tense.
GenericPrehodiernal past tense is a kind of
What is past tense?What is a preterit?
Definition
A preterit, in traditional terminology, is a simple past tense not marked for aspect or
modality.
Generic
A preterit is a kind of
What is past tense?What is recent past tense?
Definition
Recent past tense is a past tense that refers to a time, culturally and situationally defined,
within the span ranging from yesterday to a week or a few months previous.
Generic
Recent past tense is a kind of
What is past tense?What is remote past tense?
Definition
Remote past tense is a past tense that refers to a time considered more than a few days
ago.
Generic
Remote past tense is a kind of
What is past tense?
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What is present tense?
Definition
Present tense is an absolute tense that refers to the moment ofutterance. It often refers to
events or states that do not merely coincide with the moment of utterance, such as thosethat are
continuous habitual, or lawlike.
Generic
Present tense is a kind of
What is absolute tense?
What is still tense?
Definition
Still tense is an absolute tense carrying the presupposition that an event or state held
before the moment ofutterance.
In positive declarative clauses, still tense asserts that the event or state holds at the
moment of utterance.
Example (Luganda)
The affix-kya
expresses still tense, as in the utterancemu-kya-tudde
you still sit.Generic
Still tense is a kind of
What is absolute tense?
What is absolute-relative tense?
Definition
Absolute-relative tense is a tense
that refers to a time in relation to a temporal reference point that, in turn, is referred toin relation to the moment ofutterance
in which the time and the reference point are not identical, and the reference point and the moment of utterance are not identical.
Kinds
What is future perfect tense? What is future-in-future tense? What is future-in-past tense? What is future-perfect-in-past tense? What is past perfect tense?
Generic
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Absolute-relative tense is a kind of
What is tense?What is future perfect tense?
Definition
Future perfect tense is an absolute-relative tense that refers to a time located before a
contextually determined temporal reference point that must be located in the future relative to
the moment ofutterance.
Example (English)
By that time, he will have returned.
Generic
Future perfect tense is a kind of
What is absolute-relative tense?What is future-in-future tense?
Definition
Future-in-future tense is an absolute-relative tense that refers to a time located in the future,
relative to a temporal reference point that itself is located in the future relative to the moment
ofutterance.
Example (Latin)
daturus erithe will be about to give *diacritics not shown+
Source: Comrie 1985b 74
Generic
Future-in-future tense is a kind of
What is absolute-relative tense?What is future-in-past tense?
Definition
Future-in-past tense is an absolute-relative tense that refers to a time located in the future,
relative to a contextually determined temporal reference point that itself must be located in the
past relative to the moment ofutterance.Example (English)
John left for the front; he wouldnever return.
Generic
Future-in-past tense is a kind of
What is absolute-relative tense?What is future-perfect-in-past tense?
DefinitionFuture-perfect-in-past tense is an absolute-relative tense that involves three points in time in the
past. The tense refers to a time that is in the future, relative to another point in the past, but is in
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the past relative to a point in its future. All these points in time are in the past relative to the
moment ofutterance.
Example (English)
John left for the front; by the time he should return, the field would have been burnt to
stubble.
The burning of the field is in the future relative to Johns leaving, but is in the past relative to his
returning. All these events are in the past relative to the moment of utterance.
Source: Comrie 1985b 76
Generic
Future-perfect-in-past tense is a kind of
What is absolute-relative tense?What is past perfect tense?
Definition
Past perfect tense is an absolute-relative tense that refers to a time in the past relative to a
reference point, which itself is in the past relative to the moment ofutterance.
Example (English)
The had verb construction expresses past perfect tense, as in the following sentence:
By that time, nearly everyone had left.
The construction had leftis in the past relative to that time, which itself is in the past relative to
the moment of utterance.
Generic
Past perfect tense is a kind of
What is absolute-relative tense?
What is relative tense?
Definition
Relative tense is a tense that refers to a time in relation to a contextually determined temporal
reference point, regardless of the latters temporal relation to the moment ofutterance.
Example (English)
The -ing forms in certain subordinate clauses express relative present tense, as in the following:
Walking in the woods, he saw a squirrel. Walking in the woods, he will find buried treasure.Walking in both cases is understood as simultaneous with the time of the action of the main verb.
This time may have different temporal relations with the moment ofutterance.
Kinds
Here are some kinds of relative tense:
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What is relative future tense? What is relative nonfuture tense? What is relative nonpast tense? What is relative past tense? What is relative present tense?
Generic
Relative tense is a kind of
What is tense?What is relative future tense?
Definition
Relative future tense is a relative tense that refers to a time located after a contextually determined
temporal reference point, regardless of the latters relation to the moment ofutterance.
Example (English)
Passengers about to departon Flight 26 proceeded to Gate 5.
Passengers about to departon Flight 26 should proceed to Gate 5.
Passengers about to departon Flight 26 will proceed to Gate 5.
The time of departure is, in each case, in the future relative to a temporal reference point. In thesecases, the temporal point is likely that of the action expressed by the main verb phrase.
Source: Comrie 1985b 60
Generic
Relative future tense is a kind of
What is relative tense?What is relative nonfuture tense?
Definition
Relative nonfuture tense is a relative tense that refers to a time simultaneous to, or before, a
contextually determined temporal reference point, regardless of the latter's relation to the moment
ofutterance.
Examples (English)
Those persons [that are] successful in completing the course will receive a certificate. The people entering the stadium received a program.
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