What Every SLMS Should Know What Every SLMS Should Know

about Research in Readingabout Research in Reading

Prepared by the Prepared by the SLMS Role in Reading Task ForceSLMS Role in Reading Task Force

July 2009July 2009

Two Schools of Thought on Two Schools of Thought on Reading:Reading:Free Voluntary ReadingFree Voluntary Reading

Free Voluntary Reading: People who Free Voluntary Reading: People who say they read more read better say they read more read better (Krashen, 2004). Free choice and (Krashen, 2004). Free choice and access to books are important elements access to books are important elements in reading engagement (Schraw et al., in reading engagement (Schraw et al., 1998). This includes the choice to 1998). This includes the choice to pursue personal reading interests. pursue personal reading interests.

Two Schools of Thought on Two Schools of Thought on Reading:Reading:Direct InstructionDirect Instruction

Direct Instruction: Research has shown that Direct Instruction: Research has shown that many children who read at 3many children who read at 3rdrd grade level in 3 grade level in 3rdrd grade will not automatically become proficient grade will not automatically become proficient comprehenders in later grades (Office of comprehenders in later grades (Office of Educational Research and Improvement & Rand Educational Research and Improvement & Rand Reading Study Group, 1999). Therefore, Reading Study Group, 1999). Therefore, teachers must teach comprehension explicitly. teachers must teach comprehension explicitly. Research shows teacher need expertise to do Research shows teacher need expertise to do this, but receive inadequate pre-service training this, but receive inadequate pre-service training (Ibid.)(Ibid.)

Free Voluntary ReadingFree Voluntary Reading::Implications for PractitionersImplications for Practitioners

Maximize access to books through: Maximize access to books through: extended library hours; lending “collections” for extended library hours; lending “collections” for classrooms; book fairs; advocacy for strong classrooms; book fairs; advocacy for strong material budgets; supplementary sources of material budgets; supplementary sources of through grants and other sources.through grants and other sources.

Advocate for free choice of genre, reading levels, Advocate for free choice of genre, reading levels, and types of reading, including alternative media and types of reading, including alternative media such as periodicals and non-print media, for such as periodicals and non-print media, for summer reading lists, curriculum-based inquiry summer reading lists, curriculum-based inquiry units, and research guides that support inquiry.units, and research guides that support inquiry.

Free Voluntary Reading:Free Voluntary Reading:Implications for PractitionersImplications for Practitioners

Promote the use of literature circles in Promote the use of literature circles in classrooms and as part of inquiry learning; classrooms and as part of inquiry learning; adapt literature circles to information circles adapt literature circles to information circles for inquiry.for inquiry.

Free Voluntary Reading is pleasant. Free Voluntary Reading is pleasant. (Csikszentmihalyi, 1991; Nell, 1988). Avoid (Csikszentmihalyi, 1991; Nell, 1988). Avoid extrinsic rewards for reading!extrinsic rewards for reading!

Direct Reading Instruction:Direct Reading Instruction:Implications for PractitionersImplications for Practitioners

Integrate reading for comprehension strategies Integrate reading for comprehension strategies with inquiry learning and other teaching with inquiry learning and other teaching situations.situations.

Collaborate with classroom teachers to Collaborate with classroom teachers to integrate reading strategies with classroom integrate reading strategies with classroom instruction. Students need time to practice the instruction. Students need time to practice the strategies and to learn when to apply them.strategies and to learn when to apply them.

Direct Reading Instruction:Direct Reading Instruction:Implications for PractitionersImplications for Practitioners

The primary goal of reading for The primary goal of reading for comprehension is to raise students awareness of comprehension is to raise students awareness of their comprehension breakdown and to supply their comprehension breakdown and to supply the tools they need to monitor their the tools they need to monitor their comprehension and apply the strategies.comprehension and apply the strategies.

Reading skills are thinking skills. They help Reading skills are thinking skills. They help students activate prior knowledge, apply what students activate prior knowledge, apply what they know to new situations, analyze, evaluate, they know to new situations, analyze, evaluate, and synthesize (create). They are taught in the and synthesize (create). They are taught in the context of intellectual challenges that require context of intellectual challenges that require critical thinking.critical thinking.

The Reading-Spelling The Reading-Spelling ConnectionConnection::What the research says…What the research says… Direct instruction in spelling has limited effects Direct instruction in spelling has limited effects

(Rice, 1897).(Rice, 1897).

Dropping formal spelling instruction has no effect Dropping formal spelling instruction has no effect on accuracy (Corman, 1902).on accuracy (Corman, 1902).

Good writers delay editing concerns until the final Good writers delay editing concerns until the final draft; premature editing is a predictor of the draft; premature editing is a predictor of the frequency of writing blocks (Rose, 1985).frequency of writing blocks (Rose, 1985).

Premature concern with form and editing relates to Premature concern with form and editing relates to writing blocks for Chinese, as well as English as a writing blocks for Chinese, as well as English as a foreign language students (Lee & Krashen, 2003). foreign language students (Lee & Krashen, 2003).

The Reading-Spelling The Reading-Spelling ConnectionConnection::What the research says…What the research says…There was no difference between 4There was no difference between 4thth and 5 and 5thth

graders who had spelling instruction and those graders who had spelling instruction and those who did not (Hammill, Larsen & McNutt, 1977).who did not (Hammill, Larsen & McNutt, 1977).

There was no difference in accuracy between There was no difference in accuracy between high school and college students who said they high school and college students who said they knew the rules and used them and those who knew the rules and used them and those who said they knew the rules and did not use them, said they knew the rules and did not use them, and those who said they did not know the and those who said they did not know the rules. Many of the students who studied the rules. Many of the students who studied the rules could not recall them (Cook & O’Shea, rules could not recall them (Cook & O’Shea, 1912).1912).

The Reading-Spelling The Reading-Spelling ConnectionConnection::What the research says…What the research says…

The most effective way to build spelling The most effective way to build spelling confidence is reading. This is supported confidence is reading. This is supported by studies showing that each time readers by studies showing that each time readers read a passage containing words they read a passage containing words they cannot spell, they make a small amount of cannot spell, they make a small amount of progress in acquiring the correct spelling. progress in acquiring the correct spelling. Some studies show positive correlations Some studies show positive correlations between spelling competence and the between spelling competence and the amount of reading done.amount of reading done.

The Reading-Spelling The Reading-Spelling Connection:Connection:Implications for Practitioners Implications for Practitioners

Advise writers to delay focusing on Advise writers to delay focusing on correct spelling until their ideas are correct spelling until their ideas are firmly in place, while, at the same time, firmly in place, while, at the same time, building up spelling competence building up spelling competence through massive reading.through massive reading.

The Reading-Writing The Reading-Writing Connection:Connection:What the research says…What the research says…

Literacy instruction needs to explicitly present Literacy instruction needs to explicitly present the relationship between reading and writing the relationship between reading and writing (Goodman & Goodman 1983; Shanahan 1988). (Goodman & Goodman 1983; Shanahan 1988).

Children need to view themselves as readers Children need to view themselves as readers and writers to build knowledge about the forms and writers to build knowledge about the forms and functions of the language (Goodman & and functions of the language (Goodman & Goodman 1983; Mayo 2000; Miller 1982).Goodman 1983; Mayo 2000; Miller 1982).

The Reading-Writing The Reading-Writing Connection:Connection:What the research says…What the research says…

Reading and writing should occur naturally to Reading and writing should occur naturally to construct meaning in everyday situations (Miller construct meaning in everyday situations (Miller 1982; Wilson 1981).1982; Wilson 1981).

Reading and writing are interdependent Reading and writing are interdependent processes that are essential to each other and processes that are essential to each other and mutually beneficial (Holt and Vacca 1984). mutually beneficial (Holt and Vacca 1984).

The Reading-Writing The Reading-Writing Connection:Connection:What the research says…What the research says…

As writing improves through daily As writing improves through daily communicative use, reading is enhanced communicative use, reading is enhanced (Goodman & Goodman, 1983). (Goodman & Goodman, 1983).

The relationship between reading and writing The relationship between reading and writing is based on communication. Both should is based on communication. Both should develop as a natural extension of the child's develop as a natural extension of the child's need to communicate (Wilson, 1981).need to communicate (Wilson, 1981).

The Reading-Writing The Reading-Writing Connection:Connection:What the research says…What the research says…

A reader needs to make sense of what A reader needs to make sense of what the writer is communicating through the text and the the writer is communicating through the text and the writer need to make sure that his/her message is writer need to make sure that his/her message is clear and understood by the reader. Children should clear and understood by the reader. Children should make the connection that other children will be make the connection that other children will be reading their writing, so that children will need to reading their writing, so that children will need to have a better sense of the writer and write better have a better sense of the writer and write better with the sense of the reader. Children need to with the sense of the reader. Children need to develop their communicative skills by having the develop their communicative skills by having the opportunities to read and write (Aulls, 1985; Holt & opportunities to read and write (Aulls, 1985; Holt & Vacca 1984; Smith 1983).Vacca 1984; Smith 1983).

The Reading-Writing The Reading-Writing Connection: Connection: Implications for PractitionerImplications for Practitioner Implement the reading-writing connection by Implement the reading-writing connection by

integrating instruction (Morrow, Pressley, Smith integrating instruction (Morrow, Pressley, Smith & Smith, 1997), preferably in collaboration with & Smith, 1997), preferably in collaboration with classroom teachers.classroom teachers.

Inquiry projects involve writing, as well as Inquiry projects involve writing, as well as reading, in the various stages of the inquiry as reading, in the various stages of the inquiry as well as in the final learning outcomes.well as in the final learning outcomes.

The Reading-Writing The Reading-Writing ConnectionConnection: : Implications for PractitionersImplications for Practitioners

Peer review and self-assessment Peer review and self-assessment are included as part of the process of collecting are included as part of the process of collecting information and presenting the learning outcome.information and presenting the learning outcome.

Sticky notes, the website WallWisher, and other methods Sticky notes, the website WallWisher, and other methods that facilitate manipulation of text and collaborative that facilitate manipulation of text and collaborative learning are incorporated in the inquiry.learning are incorporated in the inquiry.

Apply the stages of the writing process to the inquiry Apply the stages of the writing process to the inquiry process.process.

Implications for Practitioners: Implications for Practitioners: Writing for the Reader ActivityWriting for the Reader Activity(Smith, 1997 ; Ramonda 1997)(Smith, 1997 ; Ramonda 1997)

Students work in pairs; one is the Reader, Students work in pairs; one is the Reader, the other the Writer. the other the Writer.

Writer composes the first sentence of a paragraph. Writer composes the first sentence of a paragraph. Reader reads the sentence silently and poses a Reader reads the sentence silently and poses a question about Writer's sentence. This question, question about Writer's sentence. This question, posed aloud to Writer, may ask for additional posed aloud to Writer, may ask for additional information about the topic or clarification of what information about the topic or clarification of what was stated by Writer.was stated by Writer.

Writer answers Reader's question, adding a Writer answers Reader's question, adding a sentence to the Writer’s sentence.sentence to the Writer’s sentence.

Implications for Practitioners: Implications for Practitioners: Writing for the Reader ActivityWriting for the Reader ActivityContinuedContinued (Smith and Ramonda 1997)(Smith and Ramonda 1997)

Reader reads new sentence and asks an Reader reads new sentence and asks an appropriate question pertaining to it.appropriate question pertaining to it.

The activity continues as Writer composes and The activity continues as Writer composes and Reader interacts with the text for several more Reader interacts with the text for several more sentences before exchanging roles and repeating sentences before exchanging roles and repeating the activity.the activity.

Students discuss their complementary roles and Students discuss their complementary roles and their responsibilities to each other as readers their responsibilities to each other as readers and writers. They then try their hands at and writers. They then try their hands at composing, both Reader who asks questions and composing, both Reader who asks questions and Writer who provides answers.Writer who provides answers.

English Language Learners (ELLs) and English Language Learners (ELLs) and Reading:Reading:What the research says…What the research says…

The mother tongue of ELLs is important for The mother tongue of ELLs is important for students’ overall personal and educational students’ overall personal and educational development (Baker, 2000; Cummins, 2000; development (Baker, 2000; Cummins, 2000; Skutnabb-Kangas, 2000). Skutnabb-Kangas, 2000).

More reading results in better TOEFL (Test of More reading results in better TOEFL (Test of English as a Foreign Language) performance English as a Foreign Language) performance (Constantino, Lee, Cho & Krashen, 1997); (Constantino, Lee, Cho & Krashen, 1997); Gradman & Hanania, 1991). Gradman & Hanania, 1991).

English Language Learners (ELLs) English Language Learners (ELLs) and Reading:and Reading:What the research says…What the research says…

Children's knowledge and skills transfer across Children's knowledge and skills transfer across languages. The transfer can be two-way: when languages. The transfer can be two-way: when the mother tongue is promoted in school (e.g. in the mother tongue is promoted in school (e.g. in a bilingual education program), the concepts, a bilingual education program), the concepts, language, and literacy skills that children are language, and literacy skills that children are learning in the majority language can transfer to learning in the majority language can transfer to the home language. In short, both languages the home language. In short, both languages nurture each other when the educational nurture each other when the educational environment permits children access to both environment permits children access to both languages (Cummins, 2000).languages (Cummins, 2000).

English Language Learners (ELLs) English Language Learners (ELLs) and Reading:and Reading:What the research says…What the research says…

Include reading materials in your library Include reading materials in your library

collection in the language(s) of ELL students.collection in the language(s) of ELL students.

Include reading comprehension strategies in Include reading comprehension strategies in teaching ELL students to use information.teaching ELL students to use information.

Work with ELL teachers to develop inquiry units Work with ELL teachers to develop inquiry units for intermediate and advanced ELL students.for intermediate and advanced ELL students.

Provide assured experiences, including library-Provide assured experiences, including library-specific vocabulary, for beginning ELL students specific vocabulary, for beginning ELL students to help them feel comfortable in the library.to help them feel comfortable in the library.

Gender and Reading:Gender and Reading:What the research What the research says…says…

Boys’ reading interests include sports-related Boys’ reading interests include sports-related books, informational books, adventure books, informational books, adventure stories, fantasy, historical fiction, and science stories, fantasy, historical fiction, and science fiction. They like literature with elements of fiction. They like literature with elements of humor, mystery, danger, and lessons or humor, mystery, danger, and lessons or themes that could be applied to their own themes that could be applied to their own lives (Weih, 2008).lives (Weih, 2008).

Boys are reading less fluently because of "a Boys are reading less fluently because of "a lack of engagement" (Cresswell, 2003).lack of engagement" (Cresswell, 2003).

Gender and Reading:Gender and Reading:What the research What the research says…says…

Statistically, 56 percent of the boys read only Statistically, 56 percent of the boys read only to get information, compared with 33 percent to get information, compared with 33 percent of the girls (UNESCO and OECD).of the girls (UNESCO and OECD).

Nearly half of the girls said they read for at Nearly half of the girls said they read for at least thirty minutes a day, compared with least thirty minutes a day, compared with less than one-third of the boys (Ibid).less than one-third of the boys (Ibid).

Gender and Reading:Gender and Reading:Implications for PractitionersImplications for Practitioners

Identify boys’ interests by surveying them Identify boys’ interests by surveying them and collecting circulation statistics.and collecting circulation statistics.

Develop the non-fiction section of the collectionDevelop the non-fiction section of the collection

with a focus on boys’ interests.with a focus on boys’ interests.

Include titles for boys in reading lists, as well as Include titles for boys in reading lists, as well as resource lists for inquiry units.resource lists for inquiry units.

Offer a reading club for boys.Offer a reading club for boys.

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