ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF GRDUATE STUDIES

TEACHERS’ AWARENESS, ATTITUDES AND PRACTICE OF ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION: THE CASE OF OROMO NATIONALITY ADMINISTRATION, AMHARA REGION

BY GEBRE TAFERE

A THESIS SUBMITTED TO COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY AND ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION

ADVISOR: AKLILU DALELO (PhD)

FEBRUARY, 2010

ADDIS ABABA

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Acknowledgements

I am very much grateful to many individuals for the support they provided me. I am particularly

pleased to record my sincere thanks to my instructor and thesis advisor Dr. Aklilu Dalelo for his

extensive support from the beginning to the final preparation of this Thesis.

Data collection would have been almost impossible without the help of the supervisors of the

education offices of Dewa Chefa woreda, Artuma Fursi woreda and Kemissie town

administration. I thank all these personnel with special thanks to Ato Teshome Kibert, Deputy

Head of Artuma Fursi woreda Education office. My thanks also go to Ato Zinabu Belete,

curriculum expert in the Department of Education of the Oromo Nationality Administration, who

assisted me in the rating process of the textbook analysis.

I am also indebted to Ato Desalegn Mekonen who allowed me to use his PC until I completed

my study. I also thank Ato Abebe Tesfaye, Ato Mohammmed Siraj, Ato Yohannes Simegn, Ato

Wondowson Teka and Knife Tafa for their material support. I wish to say a big „Thank you‟ to

Hussien Ali for assisting with the computer work.

G.T.

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Contents

Page

Acknowledgements .....................................................................................................................1

Contents ......................................................................................................................................2

List of Tables ..............................................................................................................................5

List of Figures .............................................................................................................................7

Acronyms ...................................................................................................................................8

Abstract ......................................................................................................................................9

CHAPTER ONE ....................................................................................................................... 10

INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................... 10

1.1 Background of the Study ..................................................................................................... 10

1.2 Statement of the Problem .................................................................................................... 11

1.3 Research Questions ............................................................................................................. 15

1.4 Significance of the study ..................................................................................................... 16

1.5 Scope of the study ............................................................................................................. 16

1.6 Definition of Terms and Concepts ...................................................................................... 17

1.7 Limitations of the Study ...................................................................................................... 17

CHAPTER TWO ...................................................................................................................... 18

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE ................................................................................. 18

2.1 Theoretical Framework of Environmental Education ........................................................... 18

2.2 Environmental Worldviews and their Educational Implications ........................................... 24

2.3 Information Sources on Environmental Issues and Environmental Education ...................... 29

2.4 Environmental Education in the Formal Education System .................................................. 31

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2.4.1 Curriculum Content of Environmental Education ...................................................... 31

2.4.2 Teaching and Learning Strategies for Presenting Environmental Education .............. 32

2.4.3 Constraints to Effective Implementation of Environmental Education ....................... 34

2.5 Environmental Education in Ethiopia: Inception and Current Trends ................................... 36

2.6 Findings of Previous Studies ............................................................................................... 41

2.6.1 Studies on the Characteristics of Environmental Education ....................................... 41

2.6.2 Studies on Awareness, Attitudes and Practice of Environmental Education ............... 47

2.6.3 Studies in Ethiopia on Environmental Education ....................................................... 51

CHAPTER THREE ................................................................................................................... 56

DESIGN OF THE STUDY AND METHODS .......................................................................... 56

3.1 Brief Description of the Study Area ..................................................................................... 56

3.2 Methodology ....................................................................................................................... 57

3.3 Methods of Data Collection ................................................................................................. 58

3.3.1 Sampling .................................................................................................................. 58

3.3.2 Tools ........................................................................................................................ 61

3.4 Methods of Data Analysis ................................................................................................... 66

CHAPTER FOUR ..................................................................................................................... 67

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ................................................................................................ 67

4.1 Integration of Environmental Issues into the Textbooks of Upper Primary Level ................. 67

4.1.1 Proportion of Environmental Issues .......................................................................... 67

4.1.2 Environmental Issues Covered .................................................................................. 68

4.1.3 The Balance among the Three Strands of Environmental Literacy: Knowledge,

Affective and Skills. ................................................................................................ 71

4.2 Teachers‟ Awareness about Environmental Issues and Environmental Education ................ 73

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4.3 Teachers‟ Environmental Attitudes ...................................................................................... 79

4.4 Teachers‟ Attitudes towards Environmental Education ........................................................ 86

4.5 Teachers‟ Actual Practice of Environmental Education ....................................................... 95

4.6 Awareness-Attitude-Practice Nexus .................................................................................. 100

4.7 Teachers‟ Information Sources on Environmental Issues and Environmental Education .... 101

4.8 Teachers‟ Feelings about their Competence to Teach Environmental Education ................ 102

4.9 Teaching Environmental Education: Opportunities and Constraints ................................... 104

CHAPTER FIVE .................................................................................................................... 106

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ................................................................... 106

5.1 Conclusions ....................................................................................................................... 106

5.2 Recommendations ............................................................................................................ 108

REFERENCES ....................................................................................................................... 109

APPENNDICES ..................................................................................................................... 121

Appendix A............................................................................................................................. 121

Appendix B ............................................................................................................................. 133

Appendix C ............................................................................................................................. 134

Appendix D............................................................................................................................. 135

Appendix E ............................................................................................................................. 136

Appendix F ............................................................................................................................. 137

Appendix G............................................................................................................................. 138

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List of Tables

Page

Table 1 Number of Schools and Teachers by Woreda/ Town Administration (2008/2009 A.Y) . 59

Table 2 Number of Samples in each School by Woreda/ Town Administration ......................... 60

Table 3 Summary of the Demographic Characteristics of the Participants ................................. 61

Table 4 Proportion of Environmental Issues .............................................................................. 68

Table 5 Environmental Contents in the English Textbooks ........................................................ 70

Table 6 The Environment Focused Units and their Associated Ratings ...................................... 72

Table 7 Percentage of Teachers Giving Correct Responses ........................................................ 75

Table 8 Mean Scores and SD of Awareness Scores (raw scores) ............................................... 76

Table 9 Independent Sample „t‟- test for Awareness Scores by Sex and School Location. ......... 77

Table 10 One-way ANOVA for Environmental Awareness Scores ............................................ 78

Table 11 Frequency Distributions of the Respondents for NEP Scale items ............................... 80

Table 12 Frequency of Percentage Responses of Pro and Anti NEP........................................... 82

Table 13 Mean Scores and SD of Environmental Attitude Scores by the Independent Variables 83

Table 14 Independent Sample t-test for Environmental Attitude Scores ..................................... 84

Table 15 One–way ANOVA for Environmental Attitude Scores ............................................... 86

Table 16 Frequency of Percentage Distributions of Responses to EE Attitude Statements ......... 87

Table 17 Acceptance that EE should be Taught Across the Curriculum by Country (% of

Respondents) ................................................................................................................. 90

Table 18 Mean Scores and SD of EE Attitude Scores ................................................................ 92

Table 19 Independent Sample t-test for EE Attitude Scores ....................................................... 93

Table 20 One-way ANOVA for EE Attitude Scores .................................................................. 94

Table 21 Rankings of EE Practices ............................................................................................ 96

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Table 22 Mean and SD of EE Practice Scores ........................................................................... 98

Table 23 Independent Sample t-test for EE Practice Scores ....................................................... 99

Table 24 One-way ANOVA for EE Practice Scores ................................................................ 100

Table 25 Pearson‟s Product Moment Correlation ..................................................................... 101

Table 26 Mean Scores of Responses for the Various Aspects of EE ........................................ 103

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List of Figures

Page

Figure 1 European perspectives on environmental politics and resource management;

contemporary trends in environmentalism ................................................................... 25

Figure 2 The contemporary dynamics of environmentalism, social change and environmental

management ............................................................................................................... 27

Figure 3 Aspects of environmentalism- organized along the single dimension of eco-

centricity/anthropocentricity ....................................................................................... 29

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Acronyms

ANRS Amhara National Regional State

DSP Dominant Social Paradigm

EE Environmental Education

EEP Environmental Education Project

ELA Essential Learning Areas

EPA Environmental Protection Authority

FDRE Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia

GEQAEA General Education Quality Assurance and Examinations Agency

HPE Health & Physical Education

ICDR Institute of Curriculum Development and Research

IEEP International Environmental Education Program

MEDaC Ministry of Economic Development and Cooperation

MOA Ministry of Agriculture

MOE Ministry of Education

NEP New Environmental Paradigm/New Ecological Paradigm

NGO Nongovernmental Organization

NSW New South Wales

SDP Society‟s Dominant Paradigm

SIDA Swedish International Development Agency

TTI Teacher Training Institute

UNEP United Nations Environment Program

UNESCO United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organization

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Abstract

This study focuses on the Upper Primary level teachers’ awareness, attitudes and practice of

environmental education with particular reference to the Oromo Nationality Administration of

the Amhara Region. It also comprises an assessment of the integration of environmental

issues into the textbooks of Upper Primary level; examination of the extent to which various

experiences contributed to the teachers’ environmental education knowledge, attitude and

skills; and identification of the opportunities and constraints for teaching environmental

education.

Qualitative data generated from textbook analysis of two subjects and quantitative data

gathered by a questionnaire from 120 participants randomly selected from 30 schools of three

woredas were used for the study.

The textbook analysis showed that environmental issues conceptually linked to environmental

education are adequately integrated in the textbooks of civics and ethical education and most

of the environmental issues of Ethiopia are covered in the English textbooks though the three

strands of environmental literacy are not sufficiently balanced in both subjects.

The study also revealed that teachers possessed positive attitudes towards both environmental

issues and environmental education though there are indications that they lack the necessary

awareness about several issues related to the environment and environmental education. It is

evident that environmental education practices are limited to routine classroom activities.

Extracurricular and out of school activities are almost neglected.

The study further showed that the media and personal reading are the most important sources

of information for the teachers’ knowledge, attitudes and skills of environmental education.

The study revealed teachers’ pre-service training has inadequately prepared teachers for EE

as a result of which, along with other factors, teachers feel less competent to teach EE. Even

though there are several opportunities for teachers that enhance their EE, this study made it

clear that teachers didn’t use all the opportunities effectively. It appears that heavy workload,

lack of teaching resource materials, lack of training and time constraints are the major

obstacles that hindered environmental education. In light of these findings, recommendations

have been suggested for future improvement.

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CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

The ultimate goal of environmental education is to promote the development of responsible

environmental behavior (Hungerford and Volk, 1990). At the formal level of education, the

responsibility for environmental education mainly rests with schools, colleges, and universities

and other tertiary institutions (Palmer, 1998). There is also a general perception that schools

should be instrumental in realizing the goals of environmental education (Lee and Williams,

2001) because they provide the largest organized base for environmental education and action.

Schools offer an effective instrument for embedding in them the desirable environmental ethics.

For this reason, the appropriate preparation for taking rational actions to protect the environment

as well as the solving of environmental problems resulting from the actions of people are

necessary elements of contemporary school education (Buchcic and Grodzinska-Jurczak, 2004).

In school system, teachers are important factors which are bound to affect such a program. They

can provide a vital link in the delivery of the necessary environmental knowledge, skills,

attitudes/values, its associated problems and their solutions. Moreover, their positive influence is

not limited within the school. Spreading the environmental sensibility and awareness all over the

society can only be achieved by conscious environmental educators (Yenice, Saracaloglu and

Karacaoglu, 2008).

The successful implementation of environmental education programs within the formal

education system and the extent to which it is adopted outside this sector is therefore likely to

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depend on teachers with a good understanding of environmental issues, their desirable attitudes

towards the environment in general and environmental education in particular and their

commitment to act responsibly. Taking this into consideration, this study is conducted to assess

the upper primary teachers‟ awareness, attitude and practice of environmental education with

reference to Oromo Nationality Administration of the Amhara region.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Our worldview influences to a great extent the way in which society relates to nature and the

environment (Andersson, Folke and Nystrom, 1995). The dominant worldview of humans as

superior to the rest of nature has dominated for thousands of years (Devall and Sessions, 1985).

This worldview led to escalation of the impacts of human activities and influences as well as the

risks and threats associated with those impacts (Palmer, 1998).

Environmental Education has been seen as a basic tool to contribute to the change of

conceptions, values, and attitudes (Tracana, Ferreira, Caravalho, and Ferreira, 2008). That is

why it is getting attention from people who are concerned with the problem of a sustainable

environment (Rii, 2000). That individuals must learn in a formal way to reflect on the

implication of their actions and act in positive ways that support and enhance the quality of life

and the environment has been advocated by environmentalists, politicians, educationalists; and

environmental education (both formal and informal) emerged as a response to this (Lee and

Williams, 2001). In formal system of education, teaching of environmental education depends

not only on curriculum and other facilities provided to the students, but also the quality of

teachers in terms of knowledge, awareness, attitudes and skills relating to environmental

education (Larijani and Yeshodhara, 2008).

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Currently, environmental pollution and global warming (climate change) and improvement of the

human environment are the major global concerns. In the developing countries like Ethiopia,

poverty, pollution of air and water, overpopulation and degradation of the environment are at the

forefront of environmental problems. Box 1 below shows a well summarized view of the major

environmental problems of Ethiopia by Eco-Consult (1994); cited in Laekemariam (2001).

Box 1. Major Environmental Problems of Ethiopia

There is serious deforestation caused by expansion of agricultural land,

utilization of forests as sources for fuel wood and construction material with

little replacement. As a result, there is serious loss of biodiversity as well as

vegetation cover;

Land degradation (soil erosion, nutrient depletion) is the major environmental

problem occurring mainly in the highlands. Contributing factors include

torrential rainfall, loss of vegetation cover and the disruption of the nutrient

cycle (as a result of burning dung and crop residues). There is limited land

degradation due to salinity and water logging in areas of irrigated agriculture;

The most important source of water degradation is soil erosion. There is limited

pollution by agricultural chemicals around large scale farms. There is

considerable pollution in urban centers, especially in Addis Ababa, where most

of the industries dump their waste directly into streams;

Urban centers have very few sanitation facilities, and rural areas, where 85% of

the population lives, have no sanitation facilities at all. In Addis Ababa (the

capital city), about one million people have no toilet facilities, and most of the

available facilities are shared. Defecation in the open is a common practice in

rural as well as urban center;

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The root cause of the problems is the low level of awareness of the general public about

environmental problems, their causes and the appropriate solutions. Laekemariam (2001)

summarizes the problem as follows:

‘let alone the society at large, even the very people engaged in various

scientific discipline dealing with the environment do not have a holistic

approach for understanding environmental issues. They master their

particular skills but do not see the interaction and the interrelation among

the different components of environmental issues’ (Laekemariam, 2001,

pp. 191-192).

Realizing the urgent need for the protection and preservation of the environment, significant

measures have been taken in Ethiopia since the change of government in 1991. The change of

government in Ethiopia coincided with the period when environmental and development issues

were deliberated up on at an international forum (the Rio-summit from June 3-14, 1992). The

most significant outcome of this summit was the consensus reached by participant countries of

Box 1 continued

The machinery and other equipment used in factories are old, technologies are

obsolete and spare parts are hard to come by; hence their energy utilization is

poor and are major causes of pollution;

The major source of energy is bio mass energy, made up of fuel wood; charcoal,

dung and crop residues, from which biomass energy pollutants (e.g. CO2, CH4)

are produced. Biomass will continue to be the major source of energy for some

time to come;

Protected areas are encroached up on by communities living around them.

These communities see no personal benefit from these resources, the pressure is

normally increased during social upheavals;

(Eco-Consult, 1994: cited in Laekemariam, 2001, pp.192-93).

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the integration of environment and development in decision making. Following this summit, the

government has taken a number of steps towards alleviating the most pressing environmental

problems of natural resource degradation (Getachew and Demele, 2001).

Above all, Article 92 of the constitution deals with the responsibilities and duties of the

government and citizens to protect the environment. The official recognition for the

Environmental Protection Authority and the subsequent enactment of the FDRE Environmental

Policy are other important steps. The New Education and Training Policy is also an important

development towards the improvement of the quality of the environment for it underlines the

integration of environmental issues into the different levels of the education system. If

environmental education is fully integrated into the formal curricula, the school can serve as a

medium through which knowledge of environmental management and resource protection can be

widely disseminated (ICDR, 1998). The issuance of the National Population Policy, which is

believed to consider environmental issues along with population issues, is another significant

achievement (Aklilu, 2006).

The above national policies and other measures imply that environmental issues in Ethiopia have

been considered as important public duties. In spite of this, researches on public awareness,

attitudes and practices of environmental and related issues are very much limited. Whereas

educational institutions provide the largest organized bases for environmental education and

action and teachers are important factors, researches on the teachers‟ knowledge, attitudes,

awareness, values, practices, etc. are very much limited. The results of a few of the studies that

have been done so far in Ethiopia are not promising as far as environmental awareness and

environmental education is concerned.

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The aim of this study is therefore to assess Upper Primary school teachers‟ awareness, attitudes

and practice of environmental education with reference to Oromo Nationality Administration of

the Amhara Region and to assess the integration of environmental education in the existing

curricula of Upper Primary level.

1.3 Research Questions

This study is framed to answer the following questions:

1. To what extent is environmental education integrated into the existing curricula of Upper

Primary level?

2. How aware are teachers about environmental problems and the role of environmental

education in solving those problems?

3. What is the attitude of teachers regarding society – nature relationships?

4. What is the attitude of teachers towards environmental education?

5. To what extent are teachers engaged in addressing environmental issues?

6. To what extent do teachers feel competent in and prepared for teaching environmental

education?

7. What are the sources of information for teachers about environmental issues and

environmental education?

8. What are the opportunities and constraints for the teaching of environmental education?

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1.4 Significance of the study

Generally, there has been very little research regarding environmental education issues in

Ethiopia. Furthermore, the works that have been done so far have tended to focus on secondary

school curriculum and students‟ views (see for example Desalegn, 1998; Aklilu, 2001; Damtew,

2007; Asmare, 2007) with the consequences that the teachers‟ views and practices of

environmental education are not sufficiently investigated. Exceptions include Melaku (1994)

who investigated pre-service teachers‟ knowledge, attitude and skills, and Atlabachew (2007)

who examined University instructors‟ environmental knowledge, attitude, intention and

behavior.

[This study focuses on Upper Primary school teachers and analysis of Upper Primary level

curriculum; and hence responds to such a situation. Following the adoption of the new education

and training policy of Ethiopia, environmental education is spreading from few subjects to

almost all subjects of the new curricula. Since teachers are the prominent actors in the

implementation of this new curricula, this study, which is about upper primary level teachers‟

awareness, attitudes and practice of environmental education, will enable educationalists and

other concerned bodies to become aware of teachers‟ ideas and thoughts and the characteristics

of environmental education practices.

1.5 Scope of the study

There are a number of issues in Ethiopia with respect to environmental education. This study will

focus on teachers‟ awareness, attitudes and practice of environmental education. Even though

there are different levels in the Ethiopian education system, this study delimits itself to the Upper

Primary level teachers‟ of the Oromo Nationality Administration of the Amhara Region.

17

To improve the comprehensiveness of the study teachers‟ environmental awareness and attitudes

will be assessed and the place of environmental education in the existing curricula of the Upper

Primary level will also be reviewed.

1.6 Definition of Terms and Concepts

Environmental Awareness: - descriptive and interpretive knowledge about separate facts and

phenomena and cause - response in the environment; and understanding ecological

problems and awareness of the effect of human beings on the environment.

Environmental Attitude: - feelings and thoughts towards human - environment interactions.

Environmental Education Awareness: - trust and understanding of the role of environmental

education in solving environmental problems.

Environmental Education Attitude: - interest and concern for and understanding of

environmental issues and involvement in environmental action and teaching.

Practice of Environmental Education: - teaching environmental issues, engagement in co-

curricular activities and participation in environmental action in the community.

1.7 Limitations of the Study

Financial problems have limited the geographical area as well as the sample size of this study.

Internet articles based on print sources were the most important references used in the study.

However, the full text of latest journals was not easily accessed. Therefore, lack of related and

latest articles has also limited the depth of argument in the study.

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CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 Theoretical Framework of Environmental Education

The standard reference point for a „definition of environmental education‟ is the

Intergovernmental Conference on Environmental Education held in Tbilisi in 1977 (Bell, 2004).

Lucko, Disinger and Roth (1982) argued that „to enhance environmental education efforts, a

common, clear, comprehensive goal statement should be established‟. A commonly accepted

statement about environmental education which has been repeated numerous times, with

variations is:

Environmental education is process aimed at producing a citizenry that

is: 1. knowledgeable about the biophysical and socio-cultural

environments of which man is a part, 2. aware of managemental

problems and management alternatives of use in solving those problems,

and 3. motivated to act responsibly in developing diverse environments

that are optimal for living a quality life (Lucko et al. 1982, p. 8).

According to the Tbilisi Conference, the goals of environmental education are:

To foster clear awareness of, and concern about, economic social, political and

ecological interdependence in urban and rural areas;

To provide every person with opportunities to acquire the knowledge, values,

attitudes, commitment and skills needed to protect and improve the environment;

and

To create new patterns of behavior of individuals, groups and society as a whole

towards the environment; (UNESCO, 1978. p. 8).

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The goals of environmental education are further reinforced by the following objectives:

Awareness: to help social groups and individuals acquire an awareness of and sensitivity to

the total environment and its allied problems.

Knowledge: to help social groups and individuals gain a variety of experience in, and

acquire a basic understanding of the environment and its associate problems.

Attitudes: to help social groups and individuals acquire a set of values and feelings of

concern for the environment, and motivation for actively participating in environmental

improvement and protection.

Skills: to help social groups and individuals acquire the skills for identifying and solving

environmental problems.

Participation: to provide social groups and individuals with an opportunity to be actively

involved at all levels in working towards resolution of environmental problems (UNESCO,

1978, pp. 26-27).

In spite of the fact that the goals, objectives and guiding principles of EE identified by the Tbilisi

conference are still used as a reference for research, evaluation and curriculum development,

environmental education has undergone important developments in theoretical foundation. For

example, Hungerford and Volk (1990) suggested four levels of instructional goals which

incorporate variables related to „ownership‟ and „empowerment‟ with the super ordinate goal

being:

‘to aid citizens in becoming environmentally knowledgeable and,

above all, skilled and dedicated citizens who are willing to work

individually and collectively, toward achieving and/or maintaining a

dynamic equilibrium between quality of life and quality of the

environment (Hungerford and Volk, 1990).

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Based upon the theoretical underpinnings and results of their studies Jeronen and Kaikkonen

(2002) suggested the following lifelong and hierarchic aims of EE:

To foster environmental sensitivity;

To learn environmental awareness and knowledge; and

To acquire readiness and responsibility to solve environmental

problems through action for the environment (Jeronen and Kaikkonen,

2002, p.347).

Environmental sensitivity, awareness, knowledge and understanding, attitudes and values,

skills, participation and action are the variables common to all the suggested goals and

objectives. The basis for environmental sensitivity is feelings and emotions which are features

of a life experience (Tanner, 1980). Jeronen and Kaikkonen (2002) argue that the development

of the senses is crucial in environmental education. They further argue that the development of

environmental awareness should be based on conscious experiences, ideas, beliefs and

knowledge. Knowledge in this connection doesn‟t mean only facts and concepts but also an

understanding of phenomena and their interrelationships. Slater (1996, cited in Seke, 2000)

describes two ways of knowing and understanding, that is, knowledge as a product of the mind

which is objective and natural and knowledge as a product of inner feelings and experiences

which is subjective and value laden. People value what they consider to be worthwhile,

significant and important and they give preferences and priority to those thoughts and ideas

they value (Slater and Lambert, 1998). Values have to be developed and nurtured until they

become deep seated in an individual (Seke, 2000).

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A person‟s environmental attitude is connected with his values, outlook and knowledge, i.e.

with the way he interprets and comprehends environmental matters (Aho, 1984). Hence, an

understanding of environmental relationships may be complemented by a love of and respect

for nature with feelings of interconnectedness with living things that can lead to motivation to

act from a sense of responsibility and concern for environmental protection (Littledyke, 2008).

Besides the necessary knowledge and attitude, participation and action on behalf of the

environment requires the acquisition of essential skills. This include skills in the areas of

communication, numeracy, information and problem solving, as well as self management and

competitive skills, social and cooperative skills, physical skills and work and study skills

(Eames, Cowie and Bolstad, 2008).

The endorsement of guiding principles of environmental education is another outcome of the

Tbilisi conference. The following are some of the guiding principles identified by the

conference.

- consider the environment in its totality-natural and built, technological and social

(economic, political, technological, cultural-historical, moral aesthetic);

- be a continuous lifelong process, beginning at the pre-school level and continuing

through all formal and non-formal stages;

- be interdisciplinary in its approach, drawing on the specific content of each discipline in

making possible a holistic and balanced perspective.

- examine major environmental issues from local, national, regional and international

points of view so that students receive insights into environmental conditions in other

geographical areas;

- focus on current and potential environmental situations while taking into account the

historical perspective;

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- promote the value and necessity, of local, national and international co-operation in the

prevention and solution of environmental problems;

- explicitly consider environmental aspects in plans for development and growth;

- enable learners to have a role in planning their learning experiences and provide an

opportunity for making decisions and accepting their consequences;

- relate environmental sensitivity, knowledge, problem-soloing skills and values

clarification to every age, but with special emphasis on environmental sensitivity to the

learner‟s own community in early years;

- help learners discover the symptoms and real causes of environmental problems;

- emphasize the complexity of environmental problems and thus the need to develop

critical thinking and problem-solving skills; and

- utilize diverse learning environments and a broad array of educational approaches to

teaching learning about and from the environmental with due stress on practical

activities and first-hand experience (UNESCO, 1978, p.27).

In addition to the above guiding principles the key aspects of environmental education are

exhaustively outlined in the 41 recommendations of the Tbilisi conference. However, like the

goals and objectives, the characteristics of environmental education have undergone significant

developments. According to Hart (1981) a number of characteristics such as systems thinking

of communications networking are relatively new to environmental education and are

gradually receiving more widespread attention.

Tilbury (1994) argued that environmental education must consider the cultural and gender

perspective. The author believes that the contribution of eco-feminism as well as the

indigenous people‟s cultural philosophy and practice must be explored through environmental

education.

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According to Littledyke (1997) environmental education which aims to foster understanding of

the complexity of environmental issues needs to address social and ethical implications as well

as the scientific principles which underpin the problems.

Though the Tbilisi conference recommended that „it is the right of every citizen to receive

environmental education‟ (UNESCO, 1978, p. 26), Bell (2004) argued that the language of

„rights‟ might suggest that children should be entitled to the opportunity of environmental

education but that it need not be compulsory. So Bell suggested that „to realize its ultimate goal

of protecting the environment it should be a universal and compulsory part of child‟s

education‟ (p.44).

With the emergence of the idea of sustainable development, new ideas have also emerged

about environmental education. Fien (1995) argued that environmental education needs to

reflect ways of knowing, identifies with the people and communities they purport to serve, and

respects community based approaches to social change. According to him, one such re-

conceptualization of environmental education is education for sustainable living. Similarly,

Taylor, Nathan and Coll (2003) argued that traditional environmental education is too limited

in its scope to affect the necessary attitudinal changes needed if ecological degradation is to be

reduced. Therefore, concerns regarding the shortcomings of traditional environmental

education have seen it evolve to include a social dimension, and thus become known as

education for sustainability. As such, it differs from commonly practiced environmental

education approaches (informing people „about‟ the environment, sometimes „in‟ and „for‟ the

environment) (Kennely, Taylor and Jenkins, 2008).

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2.2 Environmental Worldviews and their Educational

Implications

The study on human-nature relationships is fundamentally underpinned by a complex range of

distinctive often competing worldviews (Kent, 2000). Different societies have experienced

different orientations towards the environment at different times. For example, the set of beliefs

and values that have dominated the American society for a considerable period of time was the

„Dominant Social Paradigm‟ (DSP) (Albrecht, Bultena, Hiberg and Nowak, 1982). Among other

things, this paradigm constituted:

1. A belief in limitless resource, continuous progress and the necessity of growth;

2. Faith in the problem solving abilities of science and technology; and

3. Strong emotional commitment to a laissez- faire economy and to the sanctity of private property

rights (Albercht et al, 1982, p.39).

Gradually, new ideas emerged which differed dramatically from that provided by DSP. The new

ideas according to Dunlap and Van Liere (1978) constituted mainly the following:

1. The inevitability of “limits to growth”;

2. The necessity of achieving a “steady-state” economy;

3. The importance of preserving the “balance of nature‟; and

4. The need to reject the notion that nature exists solely for human use (Dunlap and Van Liere,

1978, p. 10). They termed this new worldview the “New Environmental Paradigm‟‟ (NEP).

Similarly, O‟Riordan (1989, cited in Gough, Scott and Stables, 2000) developed a model on

European perspectives of environmentalism. According to O‟Riordan the conception of

environmentalism represented two major worldviews. First, there is techno-centric perspective

which is a radical or manipulative perspective of society-nature relationships in which human

25

ingenuity and the spirit of competition dictate the terms of morality and conduct. Second, there is

eco-centric perspective which is a conservative and nurturing view where nature provides a

metaphor for morality and a guide to rules of conduct.

Source: O‟Riordan, 1989; cited in Gough et al., 2000, p. 37

Figure 1 European perspectives on environmental politics and resource management; contemporary trends in

environmentalism

Ecocentrism Technocenterism

Gaianism Communalism Accommodation Intervention

Faith in the rights of

nature and of the essential need for co-

evolution of human and

natural ethics.

Faith in the cooperative capabilities of societies to

establish self reliant

communities based on

renewable resource use and appropriate

technologies

Faith in the adaptability of institutions and

approaches to

assessment and

evaluation to accommodate

environmental demands

Faith in the application of science, market forces, and

managerial ingenuity

„Green, supporters‟

Radical philosophers

Radical socialists;

committed youth radical-

liberal politicians; intellectual

environmentalists

Middle ranking executives;

environmental

scientists; white collar

trade unions; liberal

socialist politicians.

Business and finance

mangers; skilled workers,

self-employed; right wing politicians; career-focused

youth.

0.1-3 per cent of

various opinion surveys

5-10 per cent of various

opinion surveys

55-70 per cent of

various opinion surveys

10-35 per cent of various

opinion surveys

Demand for redistribution of power towards decentralized, federated economy with more

emphasis on informal economic and social

transactions and the point of participatory justice.

Belief in the retention of the status- quo in the existing structure of political power, but a demand for more

responsiveness and accountability in political,

regulatory, planning and educational institutions

26

In his own development of his ideas of 1989, O‟Riordan (1990) presented a slightly different

model of society-nature relationships. He says that:

“Environmentalism is the clash of two worldviews. The simplest

distinction lies between those who believe that the earth is capable

of being improved or manipulated for the benefit both of human

kind as well as for life on earth itself; and those who believe that

human beings should at the best be only equal with other forms of

life on the planet and that society must learn to adjust their

economies and aspirations so as to cohabit with the imperatives for

the survivability, or sustainability of the earth" (O‟Riordan, 1990,

p.143).

Though the nurturing and manipulative modes are retained the two worldviews are now labeled

as earth-centered (eco-centric) and human-centered (anthropocentric). This model differs from

the 1989 model in that it moves away from an overtly political/ideological analysis to one which

involves environmental management strategies, emergent „green‟ issues, political structures and

social movements.

O‟Riordan‟s techno-centrism / anthropocentrism can be seen as an extension of the “Society‟s

Dominant Paradigm” (SDP) and eco-centrism as a challenge to it or as part of the “New

Environmental Paradigm” (NEP).

27

Management strategies Eco-auditing Scientific credibility

geared to retaining for comprehensive modeling and

global stability accounting prediction

Environmental

management

strategies

Earth-centered

or nurturing mode

Human- centered or

manipulative mode

Environmental

Philosophies

„deep green‟ „shallow green‟ „dry green‟ Green labels

*green rights

* earth survival first

*global co-

existence

*new age economics

*self reliant

communities

*developed power

*accommodation

adjustments to management and

business

*self regulation

through enlightened use of unfettered

economy

Green movement

Characteristics

Millennial decentralized society environmentally friendly

Concern advances in science and

technology

Political

structures

Right to know Right to health

Consumerism

Pacifism

Feminism

Animal rights

Social movements

Figure 2 The contemporary dynamics of environmentalism, social change and environmental management

Source: O‟Riordan, 1990, p.144, Table 1

28

The nature and place of environmental education varies between these two worldviews. In his

analysis of the three approaches of environmental education in relation to educational and

environmental ideologies, Fien (1993) explained the educational implications of the two

worldviews. According to him the focus of environmental education behind the techno-centric

worldview is to promote the belief in the rights of humans to control nature and the capacity of

science and technology to manage the effects of environmental degradation. Where as in the eco-

centric view the focus is on the development of moral and political awareness as well as the

knowledge, commitment and skills to analyze issues and participate in an informed and

democratic way in environmental decision making and problem solving.

According to Bonnet (1997) the focus of environmental education in anthropocentric view would

be to explore the consequences of actual and potential human activity in these terms i.e. to

acquire specific data to discuss the balance to be struck between competing human interests, to

establish human priorities, etc. As to him eco-centric view invites us to look well beyond

utilitarian perspective and to take seriously the need for a radical change of outlook with regard

to how we conceive our relationship to nature and what therefore our stance should be with

regard to the environment.

Even though O‟Riordan‟s (1989, 1990) models are influential in the development of

conceptualizations of environmental education (Kent, 2000), Gough, Scott and Stables (2000)

argued that O‟Riordan‟s analysis is flawed in so far as (1) it takes insufficient account of cultural

pluralism; (2) misplaces socialist positions within its overall conceptual frame, and (3) is

generally incomplete by virtue of failure to incorporate a position which balances the

anthropocentric and the eco-centric. Their last argument is particularly important. They believe

that there is a blurring of the extremes of the eco-centric/anthropocentric polarity rendered

29

necessary partly by an acceptance that all human worldviews are in some sense anthropocentric;

and that this raises significant issues for the purposes and practice of environmental education.

Therefore, even though much of O‟Riordan‟s original structure remains; they outlined another

possible way of looking at the relationships of different aspects of environmentalism as

presented in the figure below.

Source: Gough et al., 2000, p. 45-Figure 6

2.3 Information Sources on Environmental Issues and

Environmental Education

To achieve the effective development of environmental education, full advantage must be taken

of all public and private facilities available to society for the education of the population: the

formal education system, different forms of non-formal education and the mass media

(UNESCO, 1978, p. 26). Non-formal environmental education involves all educational processes

conducted outside of schools directed to all age groups, especially mature people who have

finished their studies (Wojcik, 2004). According the Sheleicher (1989), the development of a

future oriented sense of environmental responsibility depends largely on the formal education

(school teaching). He argues that the comprehension of ecological interdependencies requires

Eco-centric Anthropocentric

Gaianism Accommodation Communalism Intervention

Trust „Gaia‟

above all

Value „life‟

Above all

Value „fairness‟

Above all

Value

„progress‟

Above all

Figure 3 Aspects of environmentalism- organized along the single dimension of eco-

centricity/anthropocentricity

30

more systematic insight than the media or public opinions can offer and attitudinal changes

towards nature and natural resources are psychologically easiest with young people.

Lee and Williams (2001) noted that even though the importance of school curricula is

unquestionable, the substantial contribution made to environmental education by a number of

other formal and informal agencies, including films and television, environmental youth

organizations, and a variety of projects mounted by local, national and international

organizations shouldn‟t be underestimated.

The main aim of non-formal environmental education, according to Wojcik (2004), is to prepare

society for the understanding of proper actions for environmental protection and management in

conformity with principles of sustainable development. And the main role is played by;

- Mass media: TV, radio, press, the internet;

- Organizations and civic associations working for the environment;

- Institutions supporting and co- financing environmental education;

- Religious institutions and organizations of religious character;r

- Family; and

- Work places (Wojcik, 2004, p. 291).

The importance of different sources of information varies from society to society. A study

conducted in Japan (Barrett, Kuroda and Miyamoto, 2002) showed that the main information

sources for the young people in Japan were television followed by newspapers and school where

as family and friends played a lesser but still important role.

The importance of peer groups, the popular media, well informed teachers and well structured

and accurate texts are the general conclusions reached by the considerable amount of researches

31

carried out into environmental knowledge in England (Chambers, 1999). A study conducted in

Brunei Darussalam (Odihi, 2000) showed that despite differences in their relative importance,

print media, broadcast media, family, religious organs, interpersonal communications, society

/club/ were sources of information for the status of environment, material environmental actions

for the environment and spiritual environmental actions.

An international study conducted by Ballantyne (1999) showed that the experiences which are

more likely to have contributed to teachers‟ knowledge /skills/ in environmental education are

video /films/, recreation/leisure activities/, prepared teaching materials, conferences,

environmental groups, in-service course, curriculum guides, the mass media, involvement in

community groups and activities and participation in field excursion with students.

Wojcik (2004) suggests that the perfection of the existing means of environmental education is a

necessity through the coordination of complementary actions conducted as part of formal and

non formal education as well as the still unappreciated incidental education ( the effects of the

daily activities of people).

2.4 Environmental Education in the Formal Education System

2.4.1 Curriculum Content of Environmental Education

In the formal school sector the approach recommended by the Tbilisi conference is to integrate

environmental education in the curriculum through infusion into existing school disciplines and

areas of study (UNESCO, 1978). For environmental education in the school curriculum many

scholars refer to it as education about, in/ from and for the environment (Lee and Williams,

2001).

32

This three-fold structure was first formalized and published in 1974 in the UK Schools‟

Council‟s Project Environment (Palmer, 1998). According to Project Environment:

... education about the environment seeks to discover the nature of the area under study;

…education from the environment uses the environment as a medium for enquiry and

discovery and as a source of material;

… education for the environment emphasizes on developing an informed concern for the

environment ( Schools‟ Council, 1974, cited in Palmer, 1998).

Inextricably woven with these three threads of learning are the three dimensions of learning

process; knowledge, affective and skills which are described by Lee and Williams (2001) as the

three strands of environmental literacy.

In determining environmental contents, the environment should be seen in its totality (UNESCO,

1978, p. 27). Hence the contents of environmental education should include four areas; natural,

cultural, aesthetic and ethical (Jeronen and Kaikkonen, 2002). They emphasized that since

ethical issues form the core of environmental education, they have to be reflected in every area

of the contents.

2.4.2 Teaching and Learning Strategies for Presenting Environmental

Education

Strategies refer to the process used to present environmental issues to the learners (Ombech,

1991). Researches on teaching learning strategies in environmental education reveal that there

are no standardized systems for classifying methods and there are many methods available from

which to choose (Caduto, 1983). Whatever methods are selected by a teacher, Ombech suggests,

depends on the specific environmental problem, the learners involved, the objectives to be

33

achieved, the teacher‟s competence and the resources available. He adds that any strategy has to

be practically feasible, meaningful, stimulating to the audience, and able to promote maximum

use of the knowledge and skill acquired.

UNESCO-UNEP IEEP (International Environmental Education Program) (1991) suggested the

different methods of teaching which are used in isolation or in combination with others for

teaching environmental education and have been proved quite effective. The potential methods

recommended are problem solving, experimentation, case studies, out of classroom activities,

projects, surveys, simulations and role playing, buzz sessions, brain storming, discussions and

debate (p. 59).

All the above recommended strategies are active learning methods which give learners wider

opportunities to consolidate learned or study associated knowledge and concepts, operate

environmental experiments and to think broadly of various factors that influence a certain issue

from the environmental perspective, with appropriate environmental values and attitudes. They

are constructivist in nature, providing students with opportunities to engage in the personal

experience to build knowledge (Ballantyne and Packer, 1996). The methods also open up the

space of learning through variation to bring about effective and meaningful environmental

learning. Being aware of the qualitatively different ways in which students see or learn an object

of learning, and through careful reflection and compassion with the teacher‟s ways of seeing or

teaching that object, the students come to a focal awareness of different aspects (dimensions of

variations) of the object and so are able to discern more critical features of that object

simultaneously (Kwan and Chan, 2004). As a result the students are able to reach a deeper

understanding of such an object of learning.

34

Ballantyne and Packer (1996) argued that as effective learning in environmental education

involves not only a change or growth in understanding, but also a willingness to depart from

previously held attitudes and beliefs and to make commitments to new ways of interacting with

the world, it is necessary to employ a range of teaching strategies that address students‟

knowledge, attitude/values, and behavioral orientations as part of an integrated long-term

program. A school based environmental field project in Hong Kong which integrated learning

strategies of field work, class room discussion and role play and photograph exhibition for

reflection appeared to be good to achieve meaningful and effective environmental education in

terms of knowledge, skills and attitudes /values (Kwan and Chan, 2004).

To change learner behavior through environmental education, Hungerford and Volk (1990)

suggested two methodological strategies, namely the issue investigation and the extended case

study model. In the issue investigation and action model, each student chooses an issue of

particular interest to him/her and investigates that issue in depth and reports to his/her instructor

and to his/her peers. The extended case study model is similar to the other model except that the

issue is predetermined, sometimes chosen by the class but most often chosen by the instructor.

2.4.3 Constraints to Effective Implementation of Environmental Education

Based upon previous researches, Ham and Sewing (1987/88) identified four broad categories of

barriers that impede the successful implementation of environmental education in the formal

school sector. These are:

1. Conceptual barriers that stem from a lack of consensus about the scope and content

of environmental education;

35

2. Logistical barriers those stemming from perceived lack of time, funding resources,

suitable class sizes, and so forth;

3. Educational barriers that stem from teachers‟ misgivings about their own competence

to conduct environmental education progress; and

4. Attitudinal barriers stemming from teachers‟ attitudes about environmental education

and science instruction (pp.17-18).

Other studies carried out across the world have also shown that the problems lie within these four

categories. In his study of primary teacher perspectives and practices of environmental education

in England, Littledyke (1997) found out that lack of scientific understanding of environmental

issues, lack of curriculum time, lack of coordinator and teaching support, poor approaches to

teaching and poor resourcing in schools were the major factors which deter environmental

education.

Poor approaches to teaching as a problem are also recognized in Poland (Buchcic and

Grodzinska-Jurczak, 2004) and Korea (Rii, 2000). In Poland the educational tools teachers use to

convey environmental content are dominated by talks and lectures; only a few teachers make use

of field lessons and active methods of teaching. Similarly, teaching and learning in

environmental education are accomplished in the classroom than in field work in Korea.

An international study by Ballantyne (1999) which included 419 geography educators from 18

countries showed that time constraints, work load considerations and lack of knowledge/ training

in environmental education were the major obstacles to the inclusion of environmental education

in geography classes. The same study showed that pre-service training has inadequately prepared

teachers for teaching environmental education. This is consistent with many studies undertaken

36

in Poland (Tarabula-Fiertak, Gajus-Lankamer and Wojcik, 2004) where many teachers

considered their preparation for conducting environmental education to be insufficient.

A study conducted in Albania (Sokoli and Doka, 2004) showed that insufficient qualification of

teachers and lack of auxiliary environmental literature such as books, leaflets, magazines or

video tapes have limited the implementation of environmental education projects.

The lack of funds to support environmental activities and an apparent deficiency in well

organized civic education which would support environmental education are obvious

explanations for the lagging behind of environmental education in south Eastern Europe

(Papadimitriou, 2004).

In New Zealand the challenges against which teachers should struggle to create a sustainable

environmental education program are the absence of a school-wide approach to environmental

education, a perception of an „over-crowded‟ curriculum, resourcing challenges and difficulties

creating and maintaining productive links with environmental education (Eames, Cowie and

Bolstad, 2008).

2.5 Environmental Education in Ethiopia: Inception and Current

Trends

The Tbilisi conference in its declaration, among other things, appealed to member states to

include in their educational policies measures designed to introduce environmental concerns,

activities and contents into their education systems on the basis of the objectives and

characteristics of environmental education identified in the conference (UNESCO, 1978).

37

Even though Ethiopia was not represented in the conference it is almost after a decade that

environmental education is introduced to the Ethiopian scene as a pilot project. The pilot project

in environmental education started in Ethiopia in September 1985, at a time when northern part

of Ethiopia was hard hit by severe drought (Beletu and Yosef, 1990). The project was carried out

by the Ministry of Education (MOE) with financial and technical assistance from Swedish

International Development Agency (SIDA) (MOE, 1988).

In accordance with the agreement reached, first between the government of Ethiopia and Sweden

and later between MOE and Ministry of Agriculture (MOA) the pilot project started in Semien

and Debub Wello where recurrent drought had occurred (Beletu and Yosef, 1990). A year later

the project extended to Semien Shewa where land degradation and excessive soil erosion was

severely felt. In 1989 the project extended its sphere to Sidamo and Hararghe regions (Aklilu,

2006).

At the outset of the project a preliminary study was conducted by a joint Ethiopia –SIDA team to

find out whether or not there is a real need for such a program on the part of the local populat ion

(MOE, 1988). The study carried out in this and other closely related aspects of the program has

shown the following, among others;

i. The greater majority of the respondents (87%) expressed they do face

serious environmental problems;

ii. 96.2% of those who suggested solutions to environmental problems

thought in terms of practical measures; and

iii. 87% of the respondents believed that education focused to environmental

problems and their solutions is necessary (MOE, 1988, p.44).

38

The results of the study indicated two important things. First, it was probable that the

environmental education program would be accepted as a necessary component by a large

majority of the people of Wollo. Secondly, although it was likely that the environmental

education program would be accepted by most of the local population, its potentiality in bringing

about sustainable land use practices seemed to be not yet recognized by the vast majority.

This is initiated by the fact that of those who gave suggestions to the solutions of environmental

problems, only 3.8% combined mass education with practical measures (MOE, 1988). This is a

good indicator that much was expected from the project in promoting public awareness of the

necessity of environmental education in the overall effort to bring about sustainable use of the

natural resources.

When the project was envisaged as part of an integrated plan of action, emerging from

conservation based development strategy adopted for the highland areas of Ethiopia; it was

thought that the practical activities would be better combined with theoretical knowledge (Beletu

and Yosef, 1990). Dessie and Debere Birhan Teacher Training Institutes (TTIs) in Debub Wollo

and Semin Shewa administrative regions, respectively, were selected by MOE as focal points of

the project to disseminate environmental education to other areas. It was believed that when

teachers develop a clear concept of environmental education and start to undertake some

practical activities related to environmental conservation and protection, the very idea of

environmental education will go far beyond the school compound. In 1989, the project extended

its sphere of influence further south and eastwards to include Awassa and Harrar TTIs in the then

Sidamo and Harraghe regions, respectively (Aklilu, 2006). A few primary and senior secondary

schools were also selected as „project schools‟ from the same regions of Wollo, North Shewa,

Harrarghe and Sidamo.

39

The goals and objectives of the project were in line with the goals and objectives of EE endorsed

at the Tbilisi conference. The goals of the environmental education pilot project were:

- To create awareness of environmental problems in urban and rural areas

especially in the drought stricken and degraded areas;

- To help people, living in areas with serious environmental problems, acquire

basic knowledge and skills in minimizing environmental problems;

- To help local communities raise the general awareness and understanding of

the consequences of natural resource depletion and the need to conserve,

protect and rationally utilize their natural assets;

- To support the existing education system through the dissemination of

technical information and through training staff; and

- To support the formal and non- formal education system in organizing and

starting community based development (Beletu and Yosef, 1990).

Despite some limitations, the project attained several achievements. Aklilu (2006) identified the

following:

- More emphasis given to environmental issues by project schools;

- Awareness creation through panel discussions, during flag ceremonies etc. were

initiated;

- The project enhanced elementary research activities;

- It attracted the attention and got the appreciation of the local people which led to

cooperation between schools and the communities; and

- The introduction of gardening activities into the communities by certain schools.

Aklilu also identified some limitations of the project which includes:

40

- Extremely limited geographical coverage which undermines its significance to

bring about a nation-wide impact on the deteriorating environment;

- Its heavy dependence on external assistance; and

- The little effort made to integrate it into the secondary school curricula and the

tertiary level.

Despite the above limitations, several lessons have been drawn from the project and, above all, it

has heralded the beginning of the new practice of environmental education in Ethiopia (Aklilu,

2006). It is also possible to assume that the lessons learnt from the project have contributed to the

current status of environmental education in Ethiopia especially in the formal education system.

One indicator of this is that the focus given to environmental education in the new education and

training policy of Ethiopia. Of the general and specific objectives of the policy those that are

directly related to the environment are:

1. Bring up citizens who can take care of and utilize resources wisely, who are trained in

various skills by raising the private and social benefits of education.

2. Cultivate the cognitive, creative, productive and appreciative potential of citizens by

appropriately relating education to environment and social needs.

3. To develop and enrich students‟ inquisitive ability and raise creativity and interest in

aesthetic (MOE, 1994, P.7-10).

The role of education is further strengthened by the environmental policy of Ethiopia enacted on

April 2, 1997. The policy statement on environmental education and awareness reads as „to

promote the teaching of environmental education on multi-disciplinary bases and to integrate it

into the ongoing curricula of school and colleges and not treat it as a separate or additional

subject, though this should also be done at the tertiary level‟ (EPA, MEDAC, 1997, p.24).

41

To achieve policy objectives related to environmental education, attempts have been done to

integrate environmental education /issues/ in all subjects of the primary and secondary levels

(Sitotaw, 2002). However, no comprehensive and systematic assessment has been made to see

the extent to which environmental issues are integrated into the existing curricula (Aklilu, 2006).

Nevertheless, the Federal Ministry of Education General Education Quality Assurance and

Examinations Agency (FDRE GEQAEA) (2008) in its Ethiopian Third National Assessment of

Grade Eight students found out that students are positive towards protection of historical

heritages, beautifications of the school, reforestation, and prevention of drought and planting of

flowers.

As a response to one of the major limitations of the EEP and the recommendations of the

environmental policy, there is a tendency to integrate environmental education in the tertiary

level. The newly established department of geography and environmental education in the

undergraduate and postgraduate levels in Addis Ababa University is one best example. A number

of theses have also been produced examining environmental teaching and learning practices and

their impacts or outcomes for learners engaged in environmental education. This reflects a

significant growth in post-graduate studies in environmental education with an increasing

number of graduate students seeking to undertake academic research to inform and further

develop environmental education practice.

2.6 Findings of Previous Studies

2.6.1 Studies on the Characteristics of Environmental Education

Despite the generally agreed goals and principles of environmental education, a reading of the

literature on the features of environmental education reveals that the forms, purposes and

42

contents of environmental education vary from country to country. Studies show that

environmental education has at least three different forms; as a cross curricular theme, as a

separate subject or both.

A study which was funded by the European Commission Environment Directorate General to

assess the status of environmental education in the educational systems of the European Union

has been done by Stokes, Edge and West (2001). The study has revealed a diversity of ways in

which member states of the EU address environmental education in the primary and secondary

school systems. Environmental education is a compulsory area of the curriculum in primary and

lower secondary education. It is taught using a range of different approaches, the most common

being that it is embedded in other subject areas, in particular geography and the sciences (notably

biology). In some countries an interdisciplinary thematic approach is used in a number of cases

this is combined with other approaches, notably the embedding of the subject material in other

subject areas. It is interesting that in addition to broad areas of knowledge in relation to

environmental education, the importance of values, ethics attitudes and behaviors in the

curriculum emerges, thus giving the teaching of environmental education a perspective not

always found in other areas of the curriculum. The study further showed that general concerns

about the environment and sustainability are being taken seriously by policy markers striving to

inculcate attitudes and values that will result in environmentally responsible behavior by young

citizens of Europe.

In 1990 environmental education was designated one of the five cross-curricular themes by the

national curriculum council of England (Chambers, 1999). The same is true for New Zealand. In

New Zealand, environmental education is integrated into the seven Essential Learning Areas

43

(ELAs) of the curriculum (Eames, Cowie and Bolstad, 2008). The ELAs are English, science,

mathematics, technology, social studies, the arts and health and physical education.

In Poland it is given as a separate subject (Buchcic and Grodzinska-Jurczak, 2004). The subject

„nature‟ combines content and skills from different fields of knowledge; biology, geography,

chemistry and physics. Similarly in Korea „environment‟ or „environmental science‟ became a

separate but elective subject in secondary education in 1992 (Rii, 2000). But it has been taught

with other subjects especially geography from the early 1990s due to shortage of teachers

majoring environmental education and because of the assumption that other disciplines like

geography might cover environmental education. Another example of this category is Turkey.

According to Yenice, Saracaloglu and Karacaoglu (2008), environmental education in the

primary level are presented in lessons of science and nature knowledge in nature conservation

chapter. In the secondary level environmental education lesson is called environment and human

and it is optional.

Albania uses both forms at different levels. As described by Sokoli and Doka (2004) the pre-

primary and primary level environmental education is integrated into the entire system not as a

separate subject in which geography, civic education and health education are the most important

subjects. Where as in the 9th

and 10th

grades of high school it is given as a separate subject

entitled „knowledge of the environment‟.

Variations also exit in the statements of the purpose of environmental education. According to

Chambers (1999) the ultimate objective of environmental education in England is to achieve

sustainable development and the development of responsible global citizenship.

44

As described by Buchcic and Grodzinska-Jurczak (2004) accepted as the main educational aims

of the environmental education subject „nature‟ in Poland are:

(1) An interest in the world, its diversity, wealth and beauty;

(2) An understanding of the relations existing in the natural environment;

(3) Acquiring abilities of observing and describing natural phenomena;

(4) Recognizing patterns of behavior of favoring the safety of people and nature; and

(5) The development of a sense of responsibility for the environment.

The curriculum developers of Albania, from pre-school to high school have established concrete

objectives of environmental education the most important of which are the following:

1. Consolidating and developing the students‟ education and culture at all levels of

primary and secondary education;

2. Elaborating the foundations for theoretical and practical formation and linking them

to environmental education;

3. Creating a system for environmental education, integrating scientific and practical

knowledge; and

4. Giving the basics of scientific methodology and increasing the level of qualification

of teachers, concerning environmental problems (Sokoli and Doka, 2004, p. 68).

The environmental education policy of New South Wales, Australia, aspired to:

‘… enable students to participate actively in improving the school

environment, address local environment issues, from sound judgments on

global environmental issues, play an active role and participate actively

as global citizens in protecting the environment’ (NSW Department of

Education and Training, 2001; cited in Kennelly, Taylor and Jenkins,

2008).

45

The five Aims of environmental education in New Zealand are based on the goals promulgated

by the Tbilisi declaration (Eames, Cowie and Bolstad, 2008), i.e., develop students‟:

- Awareness and sensitivity to the environment;

- Knowledge and understanding about the environment;

- Attitudes and values towards the environment;

- Skills in identifying and solving environmental problems; and

- A sense of responsibility through participation and action.

As the purpose of environmental education the range of its contents are obviously varied among

countries. In England, the concepts of sustainable development and responsible global

citizenship are emphasized (Chambers, 1999).

In the primary level schools of Poland the content of environmental education is generally on the

complexity of the phenomena and processes occurring in the environment (Buchcic and

Grodzinska-Jurczak, 2004). Whereas in the training of teachers of all subjects the issues taken

into account are:

1. The environment as a natural, social and cultural system interrelations and determinants;

2. Contemporary environmental threats-local and global attempts to overcome them;

3. Promotion of environmental values, eliminating the waste of natural resources by individuals,

social groups, the community and the society;

4. Ecological and health problems in Poland; and

5. Education for sustainable development-goals, methods and means (Tarabula-Fiertak,Gajus-

Lankamer and Wojcik, 2004, p.286).

46

According to Sokoli and Doka (2004) environmental education in the various curricula of

Albanian schools include environmental resources and their usage, pollution of all kinds,

biodiversity and sustainable development, negative influences on the environment and

precautions for prevention and improvement and environment and society.

In Korea, among the generally used concepts for environmental education, five concepts natural

environment, human environment, population, industrialization and resources are dealt in

geography which is the most important subject where environmental issues are discussed

(Rii,2000).

The four key concepts that underpin environmental education in New Zealand are

interdependence, sustainability, biodiversity and personal and social responsibility for action

(Eames, Cowie and Bolstad, 2008). According to them, the worldviews embedded in these

concepts have synergies with international environmental education ideals. These worldviews

include a strong connection to the environment, both physically and spiritually, a belief in the

interconnectedness of the physical, living and spiritual worlds and traditional conservation

practices.

The work of Wong Bing Kwan and Stimpson (2003) assessed the nature of environmental

education in Singapore. The study showed that the approach in the formal school sector broadly

follows views expressed at various UNESCO conferences to integrate environmental education

into the curriculum through infusion into existing school disciplines and areas of study. This is

primarily through geography and through biology in secondary schools and through social

studies in primary schools. The overall goal is „to cultivate amongst the population awareness

and understanding of the environment and to encourage them to take an active role in the

47

protection and maintenance of the environment‟ (Ministry of Environment, 1993, cited in Wong

Bing Kwan and Stimpson, 2003, p.125).

2.6.2 Studies on Awareness, Attitudes and Practice of Environmental

Education

Studies across the world on teachers‟ and students‟ awareness, attitudes and practice of

environmental issues and environmental education have shown varied results. After extensive

review of selected studies on environmental education, Lee and Williams (2001) summarized

that students‟ levels of knowledge tended to be low: and despite having positive attitudes, they

tended to have relatively low personal ecological involvement and they expressed powerlessness

in solving environmental problems.

A study conducted by Barrett, Kuroda and Miyamoto (2002) explored the environmental

knowledge, attitude and behavior of young people in Japan. The findings of the study showed

that whilst it is true that young Japanese are becoming increasingly familiar with concepts

commonly used by the international community; such as global warming or the ozone layer, their

knowledge is poor. The study further revealed that young people in Japan are tied into a form of

environmentalism that reflects the more widespread adoption of NEP (New Environmental

Paradigm). The same study also showed that even though young Japanese had the desire and

capability to protect the environment, for a number of complex reasons they appeared unable to

move from understanding to action.

A similar study done by Ehrampoush and Baghiani Moghadam (2005) showed that the

knowledge, attitude and practice of medical sciences students of Yazd University of Iran was not

48

appropriate and recommended that it is necessary to contribute in the development of long- term

environmental awareness programs.

A study has also been conducted by Larijani and Yeshodhara (2008) to assess the level of

environmental attitude among Indian and Iranian higher primary school teachers. The six areas

dealt with the Likert scale of the study were attitudes towards 1) Health and Hygiene; 2)

Wildlife; 3) Forests; 4) Polluters; 5) Population explosion; and 6) Environmental concern. The

study revealed that Iranian teachers have more positive environmental attitude than their Indian

counterparts except in one subscale, wildlife. Irrespective of their countries, female and male

teachers didn‟t differ significantly in total attitude scores.

Ndaruga and Irwin (2003) studied how primary school teachers in Kenya perceived wetlands.

The idea that triggered the authors to study the issue was that there is a possibility that teacher

perceptions about the local wetlands may have an influence on frequency of their mention in the

classrooms and in the community, and also teacher involvement in activities to safeguard the

value of wetlands that he/she perceives positively. The study revealed that teachers have close

and interactive relationships with wetlands and are aware of their wetland and have some well

developed perceptions of their value and threats. Furthermore, the study showed that teachers

recognized the economic, regulatory or ecological, socio-cultural and political functions of

wetlands.

An earlier case study conducted in a rural school in Ontario, Canada (Samuel, 1993) showed that

only few teachers were aware of what environmental education was or how it could be

implemented in their subjects. Although teachers exhibited a range of attitude towards the

49

environmental education project, only 10% were negatively inclined, 20% were neutral, and 70%

were positively inclined.

The study conducted by Taylor, Nathan and Coll (2003) indicated that there is clearly a body of

teachers in regional NSW with sufficient knowledge and commitment to education for

sustainability and had an intuitive understanding of the concept of education for sustainability.

The study further showed that there was general consensus that education for sustainability

should be delivered across the curriculum. The same study revealed that there were no

indications that the teachers were deficient in their understanding of key environmental and

social issues and how those might be interrelated. Furthermore, the study indicated that teachers

appeared to embrace the notion that education shouldn‟t simply focus on environmental

knowledge and attitudes, but should influence students‟ decision making in relation to the

environment.

The research done by Yenice, Saracaloglu and Karacaoglu (2008) in Turkey was made in order

to assess the views of the classroom teacher candidates related to the environmental science

course and environmental sensibility. Regarding the results of the research, it is stressed that the

environmental sensibilities of the classroom teacher program students show discrepancies with

regard to their follow up status for the program and articles about environment on media.

However, no statistically significant alteration has been determined among the students‟

environmental sensibilities taking into account their genders, ages, membership status in an

institution related to environment. The „environmental science course‟ within the curriculum of

classroom teacher program positively affects the students‟ sensibilities and ideas about

environmental education related to air, water, soil, pollution, ecological balance and birth

control. Additionally, the students who take the course are more sensitive to the environment and

50

have developed a positive idea about the sufficiency of the environmental education given at the

faculty.

One of the focuses of a recent study in New Zealand by Eames, Cowie and Bolstand (2008) was

to investigate teachers‟ perceived purposes of environmental education. The study showed that

68% of the respondents viewed environmental education as education about the environment,

34% of them as development of attitudes and values towards the environment and fewer

respondents (18%) included taking action for the environment in their description. The result is a

good indicator that most teachers are not aware of the main dimension of environmental

education-education for the environment which involves action that will contribute to a more

sustainable future.

Littledyke (1997) studied the relationships between experience, attitudes and practice of primary

teachers in science and environmental education in England. The study revealed that many

teachers regarded promoting environmental education as important and included it in their

teaching. More over the study identified two interrelated groups of attitudes; 1) interest in

environmental issues and action; and 2) interest in environmental education. According to the

study teachers in the first group were actively involved in environmental teaching and those in

the second group showed interest, concern for and understanding of environmental issues, and

were involved in environmental action and teaching.

An international study to investigate geography educators‟ perceptions of the aims of

environmental education and its place in the teaching of geography was conducted by Ballantyne

(1999). The result of the study indicate that geography educators clearly supported the inclusion

of environmental education in geography classes, in most cases believing it should be the focus

51

of at least half of geography lessons. They had also a strong commitment to teaching of

environmental knowledge, attitudes / values and responsible environmental behavior and mostly

prefer to promote an environmental ethic rather than an attempt to display a neutral stance.

However, the study showed that there was some reticence both to encourage active involvement

in local environmental issues and to use this as a teaching method.

2.6.3 Studies in Ethiopia on Environmental Education

Researches with respect to environmental education issues in Ethiopia are generally limited. As

Aklilu (2001, p.110) puts it „though education is believed to be among the most decisive

instruments for environmental protection and resource management, the extent to which this

instrument has been used and results of such a use have not been systematically investigated‟.

Furthermore, the few researches conducted so far focused solely on assessment of the integration

of environmental education curricula and students‟ views. Most of the conclusions made indicate

that environmental education is not on the right track in the Ethiopian context and the level of

awareness of the subjects studied is not promising though three decades passed since the

introduction of environmental education to Ethiopia.

Melaku (1994) attempted to determine whether the social studies courses in the TTIs of Ethiopia

helped the trainees to develop environmental education competencies (knowledge, attitude and

skill). His study suggested that objectives and contents related to environmental education in the

social studies courses were scattered and diffused; and hence inefficient in developing

knowledge. Some studies blame the method of environmental education more than the curricula.

For example, Aklilu‟s (2001) investigation revealed that there were opportunities for addressing

environmental issues on the geography syllabi but the opportunities have been largely misused or

totally lost. One indicator of this is that students‟ awareness of some key environmental issues is

52

found to be too low to be tolerated. A similar study done by Damtew (2007) revealed that

environmental education was not integrated into grade nine and ten biology and geography

curriculum guides revised in 2004 and students textbooks written in 2005 /2006 in line with the

objectives, contents, teaching methods and evaluation techniques that prepare students to

contribute to sustainable development in Ethiopia. The work of Asmare (2007) showed that the

objectives related to environmental issues in the new education and training policy of Ethiopia

are well integrated and adequate environmental issues were integrated in geography. However,

the same study further revealed that there were very few environmental objectives set for the

level in chemistry though there are serious issues related to the effects of use of chemicals.

There were also some attempts to investigate environmental knowledge /awareness/ and

attitudes. The study done by Melaku (1994) showed that nearly half of the trainees in the TTIs

appeared to be incompetent as far as their environmental knowledge is concerned. With respect

to knowledge, other studies also showed similar results. Aklilu‟s (2001) study observed that

students‟ awareness of key environmental issues like the impact of population growth on

resource use and management and about the resource base of the country and their knowledge

about the size of cultivable land and distribution of natural vegetation is surprisingly low.

Similarly, the study done by Asmare (2007) showed that only 24% of the participants were found

to have the expected knowledge. The work of Atlabachew (2007) about learners‟ and academic

staffs‟ environmental knowledge, attitude, intention and behavior of Adama University revealed

a similar result with regard to environmental knowledge. Even though the respondents confirmed

that general education at school is the major source of their environmental knowledge, learners‟

and academic staffs‟ environmental knowledge is not promising.

53

With respect to environmental attitudes, studies show varied results. Melaku‟s (1994) study

pointed out that in spite of their low level of environmental knowledge, the vast majority of pre

service teachers showed a very highly desirable inclination towards environmental problems,

environmental education and environment in general. A similar study done by Aklilu (1998)

showed similar results. The study showed that on the whole, educators manifested favorable

views regarding the use and protection of natural resources. The finding of Aklilu (2001) is also

supportive of Melaku‟s. The study found out that students had a favorable attitude (view) as to

the values of natural resources and potential contribution of the community to natural resource

management. On the contrary, the studies done by Asmare (2007) and Atlabachew (2007)

revealed that the participants of their studies had unfavorable environmental attitudes.

Attempts have also been made to investigate environmental practices. Amazingly, the findings

are all frustrating. Asmare (2007) found out that only 46% of the students in the study showed

interest in environmental action. Similarly, Atlabachew (2007) noted instructor‟s lack

commitment to take part in environmental protection activities and both students‟ and instructors

experienced an infrequent habit of pro-environment actions.

Some studies have also attempted to show variations in knowledge /awareness/, attitude and

behavior/ action/ based on variables like residence, sex, academic stream, religion etc. Aklilu‟s

(2001) study showed that male students tended to be more knowledgeable in environmental

issues than female students. Asmare (2007) concluded that though the overall performance in

knowledge, attitude and practice was low, males and rural students were more knowledgeable.

He further pointed out that rural students have poor attitudes to environmental education

compared to urban students. Regarding academic stream, Atlabachew (2007) reported that

business students showed better performance than technical students in environmental

54

knowledge, intention and practice. Furthermore, as the findings of other studies, Atlabachew‟s

study observed that rural students are more knowledgeable than urban students. His investigation

shows that regarding environmental knowledge, intention and practice, no difference is shown as

a result of religious affiliation.

Still some studies attempted to investigate the relationships between the different variables of

environmental education goals-knowledge, attitude, skill and action. The work of Melaku (1994)

obtained positive significant relationships between environmental knowledge and environmental

attitude even though the relationships were not highly positive in most cases. The same study

observed that no significant relationship existed between environmental knowledge and

environmental skills and between environmental attitudes of the different cases and

environmental skills. Nevertheless, Atlabachew (2007) obtained that the variables (knowledge,

attitude, intention and practice) displayed significant positive relationships having different

strength. Based on the relationships, Atlabachew concluded that respondents who have high level

of environmental knowledge are likely to have high environmental attitude, intention and

practice or the vice versa.

A slightly different study was conducted by Desalegn (1998). His study focused on the extent to

which students disseminate environmental education to their surrounding community. His

expectation was that as students are relatively more accessible to environmental education

through the subjects they learn and the clubs in which they participate (particularly in

environmental education clubs), they can play significant roles in raising the awareness of the

people in their localities. The study revealed that participation in environmental education club

appears to have a positive impact on dissemination of environmental information even though it

has been experienced on a limited scale.

55

Some authors have also tried to identify the possible constraints in environmental education

practice. According to Melaku (1994) lack of elaborated statement of objectives and contents,

lack of staff, time, resources, methods and techniques of teaching, faculty cooperation, and

insistence on completion of the syllabus were the problems frequently cited by the instructors.

Poor content of the textbooks (of Geography) and the inability of teachers to handle the subject

matter sufficiently and properly have also been reported (Aklilu, 2001).

56

CHAPTER THREE

DESIGN OF THE STUDY AND METHODS

3.1 Brief Description of the Study Area

The Oromo Nationality Administration, which is one of the three Nationality Administrations of

the Amhara Region, is located between 10o, 0', 00'' - 11

o, 25', 45''N latitude and 39

o, 44', 0'' E-

40o, 26', 00'' E longitude. According to the Nationality Administration‟s Agricultural & Rural

Development Department, the altitude of the area ranges from 600 meters- 3200 meters above

sea level. Accordingly, three agro- ecological zones are distinct, namely Dega (highland) (1%),

Woina Dega (Semi highland) (21%) and Kola (lowland) (78%). The lowland has plain

topography with silt loam soil deposits brought as a result of erosion from the highlands. On the

other hand, the highlands are with sloppy rugged terrain features and highly degraded as a result

of severe deforestation and inappropriate land use which has reduced soil fertility and land

productivity.

Climatically, the Nationality Administration is characterized by relatively high temperature

having two seasons: wet and dry. Rainfall pattern in the area is bi-modal; the small rains during

„belg‟ season in the months of March to April and the Kiremt rains from July to mid-September.

The average rainfall does not exceed 900mm. The mean and maximum temperatures are 25oc

and 35oc, respectively (World Vision Ethiopia, 2002).

According to the Amhara National Regional State Bureau of Finance and Economic

Development, the major land use pattern in the Nationality Administration include cropping

areas (both rain fed and irrigable), grazing lands, woody vegetation (bush and shrub), swampy

57

areas and others such as settlements (Amhara National Regional State Bureau of Finance and

Economic Development, 2009).

According to the recent census, the Nationality Administration has a population of 459, 847

(228, 450 males and 231 397 females) (FDRE, Population Census Commission, 2008). Majority

of the people belong to Oromo ethnic group and the rest are Amhara, Argoba and Afar. The

greatest majority of the population professes Islamic religion.

The majority of the population in the rural areas depends on agriculture practicing mixed

farming, livestock husbandry and crop production simultaneously. Small business and

manufacturing are the major economic activities in the urban areas.

Environmental problems like massive soil erosion in the highlands and water logging in the

lowlands due to the flood that comes from the highlands are common despite the efforts being

made to improve the situation. The problem of erosion is aggravated by excessive deforestation.

The hot temperature and humidity of the areas makes it ideal for the multiplication of disease

causing and transmitting agents which affects both humans and animals.

3.2 Methodology

Research methodology in environmental education is based on three paradigms (Palmer, 1998).

These are positivist, interpretivist and critical paradigms. The simplest distinction among the

three is that the positivist tradition is quantitative, instrumental and objectivist; the interpretivist

is qualitative, illuminative and subjectivist; and the critical approach is qualitative, dialectical

and emanicipatory (Lee and Williams, 2001).

58

Another distinction among the three approaches is that positivism sees reality as external to the

individual, interpretivism sees it as internally constructed where as advocates of the critical

paradigm argue that our subjective views are not only internally constructed but also influenced

by persuasive social forces (Palmer, 1998).

Recently, a fourth paradigm: that of mixed methods is suggested (Lindstone and Stoltman,

2008). According to Lindstone and Stoltman, the strength of mixed methods research is that data

from a well designed study can be used to validate the response to a research question in both a

qualitative and quantitative manner. In this study this mixed methods research is employed.

3.3 Methods of Data Collection

3.3.1 Sampling

For an assessment of the extent to which environmental education is integrated into the existing

curricula of the primary level, the textbooks of two subjects were selected. The two subjects that

were dealt are Civics and Ethical Education and English. These subjects were selected

purposefully for it was assumed that despite their high coverage of environmental issues, they

are not adequately investigated.

To investigate the teachers‟ awareness, attitudes and practice of environmental education, a total

of 120 participants were selected through multistage sampling technique. When the study was

conducted, there were 794 teachers in the 144 upper primary level schools in the seven woredas/

town administrations of the Nationality Administration who were teaching in the upper primary

level (5-8). Of the 794 teachers, 290 certificate graduates were teaching above their levels. These

teachers were purposefully excluded in the study.

59

Table 1 Number of Schools and Teachers by Woreda/ Town Administration (2008/2009 A.Y)

No Woreda/Town

administration

No of

schools

No of teachers

Certificate Diploma

M F T M F T

1 Jile Timuga 23 49 14 63 58 16 74

2 Artuma Fursi 28 44 21 65 73 27 100

3 Dewa Chefa 27 55 17 72 78 18 96

4 Kemissie Town 6 8 1 9 49 23 72

5 Dewie Harewa 19 22 2 24 20 4 24

6 Bati 32 40 4 44 74 8 82

7 Bati Town 9 12 1 13 50 6 56

Total 144 230 60 290 402 102 504

Source: - Oromo Nationality Administration Department of Education

The target groups in this study were the 504 diploma holder teachers who were teaching in their

levels. After randomly selecting three woredas/town administrations, 30 schools were selected

according to the number of schools in the woredas/town administrations/. Based on staff size 120

teachers were selected from the 30 schools.

The three woredas were Artuma Fursi, Dewa Chefa and Kemissie town administration. The table

below shows the number of diploma holder teachers and the number of samples in each of the 30

schools selected.

60

Table 2 Number of Samples in each School by Woreda/ Town Administration

Dewa Chefa Artuma Fursii Kemissie town Name of the

school

No of

diploma holders*

No

of sam

ples

Name of the

school

No of

diploma holders*

No of

samples

Name of

the school

No of

diploma holders*

No of

samples

Mukechicha 7 2 Odabela 10 4 Kemissi

e 01

50 17

Woledi 21 8 Ashewa-

bishe

7 2 Kemissi

e 02

26 9

Sertie 9 3 Edomedinie 12 4 Kello 11 4

Erensa 11 4 Wadadar 6 2 Bilacha 4 1

Meti 9 3 Fugnasule 7 2

Selama 11 4 Shasho 6 2

Ruftsie 11 4 Chireti 19 7

Abilosh 5 2 Bekeja 7 2

Gerbibabile 11 4 Kichicho 6 2

Tsigie 6 2 Chefa Robit 30 11

Gobeyo 10 4 Golbo Arba 9 3

Gerbibetho 5 2 Harra 6 2

Jirota 5 2 Jarra 6 2

Total 121 44 131 45 91 31

*Data about the number of diploma holder teachers were gathered from the education offices of the

respective woredas.

The table below shows summary of the demographic characteristics of the participants. As can

be seen in the table, the majorities of them are males (80.83%) and lie in the age group of 35

years or below (62.40 %).

61

Table 3 Summary of the Demographic Characteristics of the Participants

Independent

variable Category No %

Sex Male 97 80.83

Female 23 19.17

Age

<26 37 30.83

26-35 38 31.67

36-45 27 22.50

>45 18 15.00

School

location

Rural 67 55.83

Urban 53 44.16

Years of

teaching

experience

<6 30 25.00

6-10 32 26.67

11-20 30 25.00

21-30 17 14.17

>30 11 9.17

Subject

taught

Language 27 22.50

Natural science 33 27.50

Mathematics 18 15.00

Social science 29 24.17

HPE 13 10.83

Level

taught

Grade 5 33 27.50

Grade 6 28 23.33

Grade 7 34 28.33

Grade 8 25 20.83

Total 120 100

3.3.2 Tools

For textbook analysis qualitative data were gathered from the two subjects that were

investigated (Civics and Ethical Education and English). Each environmentally focused unit

was rated according to the extent to which it is related with the three strands of environmental

literacy. These strands as operationalized by Lee and Williams (2001) include:

Knowledge- involves understanding of environmental concepts;

62

Skills- involves evaluating environmental problems and issues on the basis of available

evidence (facts) and personal values and skills used in planning, implementing and

evaluating solutions;

Affective- concerned with attitudes and values that indicate a valuation of the relationships

between nature and society, a sense of commitment to and responsibility for and a

willingness to participate in the resolution of environmental problems and issues (Lee

and Williams, 2001, p. 225).

There were several elements such as objectives, contents, diagrams, exercises, etc. where the

potential for environmental literacy could be assessed. However, the elements common to all

textbooks are contents and exercises. Contents in this study refer to the environmental themes

included in the text in order to achieve unit objectives. Exercises are all activities to be done by

the students to assess whether the unit objectives are achieved or not. If the contents or exercises

of a unit are related to only one of the three strands, it received a rating of 1; if it was related to

two strands, a rating of 2 were allocated; and the highest rating of 3 was allocated to a content or

exercise of a unit which was related to all the three strands.

The rating was done by the researcher and one curriculum expert in the Education Department of

the Nationality Administration. Initially, the author and the assistant rater discussed the concepts

of each strands of environmental literacy and agreed in advance on how to allocate 1, 2 or 3 to

the contents and exercises of a unit and did the allocation separately. The reliability of the rating

was checked using a simple correlation technique (Amare, 1998) and found to be 0.88 for the

contents, 0.82 for the exercises and 0.85 for the contents and exercises combined. Differences on

the ratings were resolved through discussion of the ratings and agreement was finally reached.

63

Data related to the teachers‟ awareness, attitudes, practices and other issues were gathered by a

questionnaire. To improve the quality of the questionnaire in all aspects, it was first administered

to 20 teachers of Kemissie High School and was reviewed by subject specialists before it was

administered to the actual participants.

To investigate the teachers‟ environmental and environmental education awareness, 20 self-made

multiple-choice items containing 10 environmental awareness questions and 10 environmental

education awareness questions were used. Since the teachers are obviously from different

academic backgrounds, the questions related to environmental awareness focused more on

concepts than facts. The questions related to environmental education focused on environmental

education concepts, goals, and principles. The split-half reliability of this part of the

questionnaire was 0.76. Both percentage scores and raw scores were used for analysis of the

data.

Environmental attitudes, beliefs, values and worldview are in most cases measured by the NEP

(New Environmental Paradigm) scale. The notion of this environmental paradigm emerging as a

replacement to the contemporary dominant social paradigm was first proposed by Priages and

Ehrlich (1974) (Barrett, Kuroda and Miyamoto, 2002). Sensing that environmentalists were

calling for more far-reaching changes than the development of environmental protection policies

and stimulated by Pirages and Ehrlich‟s explication of the anti environmental thrust of Society‟s

Dominant Paradigm (SDP), Dunlap and Van Liere (1978) developed the New Environmental

Paradigm (NEP) scale .

Even though Dunlap and Van Liere‟s New Environmental Paradigm (NEP) scale has become a

widely used measure of pro-environmental orientation, Dunlap, Van Liere, Mertig and Jones

64

(2000) revised it to improve the original one in several respects and developed a new scale with a

very respectable internal consistency of coefficient alpha 0.83.

To investigate the teachers‟ environmental attitudes this new scale, termed New Ecological

Paradigm (NEP) scale, with 15 items was used in this study. The scale ranges from strongly

disagree to strongly agree. For each statement points were assigned in such a way that „5‟ is to

strongly agree, „4‟ mildly agree, „3‟ to unsure, „2‟ to mildly disagree and „1‟ to strongly disagree.

According to the NEP scale agreement with the eight odd-numbered items and disagreement

with the seven even numbered items indicate pro-environmental responses. Thus, points are

reversed for even numbered items.

Likert type items with 5 responses (strongly agree, agree, undecided, disagree and strongly

disagree) were prepared by the investigator to assess participants‟ attitudes towards

environmental education. Initially, an 18 item scale was constructed and administered to the 20

Kemissie high school teachers. The means and standard deviations of these items were calculated

and 6 items with extreme means and / or low variability were eliminated indicating that every

one answered almost the same (Musser and Malkus, 1994). The final version of the scale

contained 12 items and its Cronbach‟s alpha was 0.65.

The items comprised both favorable and unfavorable attitudes. Each item alternative was

assigned a weight ranging from 5 (strongly agree) to 1 (strongly disagree) for favorable items

(Items 42, 45, 47, 50, 51 & 53). In case of unfavorable items (Items 43, 44, 46, 48, 49 & 52) the

weight was reversed, i.e. from 1(strongly agree) to 5(strongly disagree). As the items were

twelve the highest score a participant could get was 60 and the lowest 12. The higher the score

would indicate the more favorable attitude towards environmental education and the vice versa.

65

Teachers‟ environmental education practice was assessed by 21 items questionnaire consisting of

three areas. The three areas that were dealt with were practices in (1) teaching environmental

education; (2) extracurricular activities in school and (3) out of school activities. The purpose of

these items was to measure teachers‟ practice of environmental education and how often they

practiced it. The items had five alternatives with a weight of 5 (usually), 4 (often), 3

(sometimes), 2 (seldom) and 1 (never). The score of an individual would be the sum total of item

scores on all the three areas. The highest score would be 105 and the lowest 21. A higher score

would be an indicator of a good practice of environmental education and vice versa. The test

retest reliability of this part of the questionnaire is 0.69.

To investigate the importance of different sources of environmental and environmental education

for teachers, a survey questionnaire was prepared that would require respondents to rate different

aspects. A similar questionnaire was also prepared to identify the opportunities and constraints to

teaching environmental education.

All the questions were presented in English, which is the language of instruction for several

subjects in the upper primary level in the Amhara Region. The questionnaire was distributed,

administered and collected by the researcher with the help of woreda/ town administration/

supervisors and school directors. To avoid any vocabulary problems in the test and conceptual

misunderstandings in other items a half day discussion was made on the questionnaire with

woreda supervisors so that respondents can ask for clarification. Teachers in the same school

completed the questionnaire at the same time so that independent responses are ensured.

The study had a total of 94 items and 6 independent variables. The independent variables were

sex, age, years of teaching experience, level taught, subject taught and school location.

66

3.4 Methods of Data Analysis

Both qualitative and quantitative data analyses were employed for the study. Percentages, means,

modes, standard deviations were calculated. One-way ANOVA and independent sample t-tests

were used to find out the significance of the difference among the independent variables in

awareness, attitudes and practice scores. Pearson‟s product moment correlation was employed to

examine the magnitude and strength of relationships among the dependent variables. These were

analyzed using SPSS (Version 17.0).

Rankings were used to analyze the importance of different sources of information, the

opportunities and constraints and teachers‟ feelings about their competence to teach

environmental education. The overall ranks and the ranks by the independent variables were

manually calculated by multiplying the frequency for responses to each parameter by the coding

numbers and the products per parameter were used to determine the ranks.

67

CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Integration of Environmental Issues into the Textbooks of

Upper Primary Level

In order to determine the extent to which the existing curricula offered teachers opportunities to

deliver environmental education, the integration of environmental issues into the Upper Primary

level is assessed taking two subjects as samples. The subjects selected for this purpose were

civics and ethical education and English. All the textbooks of these subjects at all levels (grade

5-8) were used for the investigation. Analysis was done on the basis of three areas: proportion of

environmental issues, environmental issues covered and the balance among the three strands of

environmental literacy.

4.1.1 Proportion of Environmental Issues

The analysis of the textbooks showed that one unit (9%) in each of the four grade levels of the

civics and ethical education contained environmental themes. Environmental issues occupy 9%

of the pages of grade 5 and 6, and 10% of grade 7 and 8 civics and ethical education textbooks.

Except for grade 7 English textbook which has only one environment focused unit (6%) each of

the other English textbooks of the upper primary level (grades 5,6 and 8) has 4 environment

focused units which is 20% for grade 5, 17% for grade 6 and 27% for grade 8. 18% of the pages

of the textbooks of grades 5 and 6 and 30% of the pages of grade 8 contain environmental issues,

where as these issues occupy only 5% of the textbooks of grade 7 English.

68

Table 4 Proportion of Environmental Issues

Textbooks

Tota

l N

o o

f unit

s

No o

f E

nvir

onm

ent

Focu

sed

unit

s

% o

f E

nvir

onm

ent

Focu

sed u

nit

s

Tota

l N

o o

f pag

es o

f

the

textb

ook

N0 o

f pag

es w

ith

Envir

onm

enta

l is

sues

% o

f pag

es w

ith

Envir

onm

enta

l is

sues

Grade 5 civics & Ethical Edu. 11 1 9 78 7 9

Grade 6 civics & Ethical Edu. 11 1 9 95 9 9

Grade 7 civics& Ethical Edu. 11 1 9 104 10 10

Grade 8 civics & Ethical Edu. 11 1 9 109 11 10

Grade 5 English 20 4 20 120 22 18

Grade 6 English 23 4 17 160 28 18

Grade 7 English 16 1 6 164 9 5

Grade 8 English 15 4 27 183 54 30

4.1.2 Environmental Issues Covered

The analysis of the integration of environmental issues in the textbooks of Civics and Ethical

Education shows that emphasis is given to the development of a sense of responsibility

concerning environmental issues. In all the grade levels, environmental issues are covered under

the units entitled „Sense of Responsibility‟. For environmental issues to be integrated into a

given subject matter, it should be conceptually related to the subject matter so that it makes sense

pedagogically (Samuel, 1993). Sense of responsibility for the environment is strongly linked to

the overall goals of citizenship education. Thus, though the number of pages devoted to these

issues in the textbooks seems lower, as far as conceptual relation is concerned, environmental

issues contained adequate spaces. The issues covered include the concepts of natural, cultural

and historical resources and individual and social responsibilities to protect these resources. As

the goal of environmental education is to empower present and future citizens to act responsibly

69

on issues of importance and as citizenship education is an opportunity to achieve this (Lindstone

and Stoltman, 2001), the inclusion of these issues is appropriate enough. As can be seen in Table

4, the number of pages devoted to environmental issues increases from 7 in grade 5 textbook to

11 in grade 8 textbook. This is a good indicator that the same issue is discussed in a greater detail

with increasing level which in turn shows a good vertical relation among environmental contents.

The civics and ethical education textbooks include not only clarification of contents but also the

concepts that pupils should acquire (the general objectives) and the activities to be developed in

or outside of the classroom.

The analysis also showed that most of the environmental issues of the country are included in the

textbooks of English. However, less emphasis is given to global problems like climate change,

ozone depletion etc. which undermines the global nature of environmental education.

Nevertheless, as compared to civics and ethical education, the English textbooks cover wider

range of environmental issues. Table 5 shows the contents covered in the environment focused

units.

In addition to the clarification of contents, the textbooks of English included the general

objectives (with the exception of grade 5 textbook), activities to be done by the pupils and

illustrations. Most of the activities are prepared in such a way that students can relate their

learning with their immediate environments. This indicates the relevance of environmental

education in these subjects as it must encourage students to explore links between their personal

lives and wider environmental and development concerns (Taylor, Nathan and Coll, 2003).

70

Table 5 Environmental Contents in the English Textbooks

Grade Unit Title Environmental issues covered

5 3 Wild

animals and

their use

- Facts and concepts about wild animals

- The use of wild animals

5 5 Caring for

plants

- Concepts and facts about trees

- The use of trees

- The need to care for trees

- The need for gardening, its importance and how gardening

takes place

5 10 Keeping the

environment

clean

- The use of streams

- The need to keep streams clean

- how to make streams clean

5 20 Water

harvesting

- Facts and concepts about water

- The importance of water and water harvesting

6 4 The highest

mountain in

Ethiopia

- Facts about the Semien mountains

- Mammals that live in the Semien mountains of Ethiopia

6 9 Drought in

Ethiopia

- History of drought in Ethiopia

- how drought occurs

- The impacts of drought

6 18 Farming and

the weather

- Factors of crop failure

- Ethiopian seasons and their associated farming activities

6 20 Food and

plants

- How fruits, vegetables and cereals from plants are used for

the making of bread in the different cultures

7 13 A clean

environment

- The history of earth day

- how pollution causes health problems

- How Antsokia area of Ethiopia changed from dust bowl to

a fertile area

8 3 Animals

useful for

tourism

- Tourist attractions in Ethiopia

- Facts and concepts about mountain Nyala, Chilada

Baboon, Zebra and the Birds in Ethiopia

8 5 Our

Museums

- Description of the Ethiopian National Museum

- The importance of museums

8 6 An educated

farmer

- Ethiopian Economy and areas of livestock and Crop

production

- Why is education important for a farmer?

- The Ethiopian policy to make the environment better

8 9 Everyday

scenes in the

environment

- Differences between the urban and rural environments

71

4.1.3 The Balance among the Three Strands of Environmental Literacy:

Knowledge, Affective and Skills.

The balance among the three strands of environmental literacy was analyzed based on the ratings

given to each of the environment focused units. The contents of only 4 out of 17 units (23.5%)

and the exercises of only 3 out of 17 units (17.6%) have contained all the three strands of

environmental literacy. The contents of 6 units (approximately 35%) and the exercise of 4 units

(23.5%) comprised only the two strands of environmental literacy. The remaining, 7 units

(approximately 41%) have contents focused on only 1 strand and the exercises of 10 units

(nearly 60%) are prepared to assess students‟ performance in only 1 of the three strands of

environmental literacy.

A more comprehensive view of environmental literacy focuses on stages of personal intellectual

and operational development, taking into account progression of the learner from awareness

through concern and understanding to action (Lee and Williams, 2002, p.225). This can be

achieved when the three strands of environmental literacy are sufficiently balanced.

The rating process of the environment focused units of the subjects under consideration

identified some similarities and differences between civics and ethical education and English.

For example, in the environmental focused units of both textbooks the three strands of

environmental literacy are not adequately balanced. They focused on only one strand. In civics

and ethical education the affective strand is over emphasized i.e., both the contents and exercises

are more concerned with attitudes and values that indicate the relationship between nature and

society, a sense of commitment to and responsibility for, and a willingness to participate in the

resolution of environmental problems and issues. The English textbooks, on the other hand,

overemphasized on the knowledge of facts and concepts. The skills strand which involves

72

evaluating problems and personal values and skills used in planning, implementing and

evaluating solutions is limited in the environmental focused units of the textbooks of both

subjects.

Table 6 The Environment Focused Units and their Associated Ratings

Grade Subject Unit Title Contents Exercises

5 Civics and Ethical

Education

6 Sense of responsibility 1 1

6 Civics and Ethical

Education

6 Sense of responsibility 3 3

7 Civics and Ethical

Education

6 Sense of responsibility 2 1

8 Civics and Ethical

Education

6 Sense of responsibility 2 3

5 English 3 Wild animals and their

use

1 2

5 English 5 Caring for plants 3 3

5 English 10 Keeping the environment

clean

3 1

5 English 20 Water harvest 1 2

6 English 4 The highest mountain in

Ethiopia

2 1

6 English 9 Drought in Ethiopia 1 1

6 English 18 Farming and the weather 1 1

6 English 20 Food and plants 1 1

7 English 13 A clean environment 3 2

8 English 3 Animals useful for

Tourism

2 1

8 English 5 Our Museums 2 1

8 English 6 An educated farmer 1 1

8 English 9 Everyday scenes in the

environment

2 2

73

4.2 Teachers’ Awareness about Environmental Issues and

Environmental Education

Twenty items related to important environmental issues and environmental education were used

to test the level of awareness of teachers. The results revealed that teachers are relatively more

familiar with environmental and related issues like the impacts of rapid population growth, water

security and the need to protect water resources, the impacts of climate change, the relationship

between economic growth and environment and the actions to be taken to tackle environmental

problems of Ethiopia. They are less familiar with issues like the relationship between human

wellbeing and environmental quality, the primary causes of global warming and climate change,

the indirect drivers of environmental damage and the concept of sustainable development (See

Table 7).

Teachers‟ familiarity with the impacts of climate change may be attributed to the fact that it was

a hot issue in the media during the study period when the UN Climate Change Summit was to be

held in Copenhagen. However, there are indications that their knowledge of climate change is

not deeper as more than half of the respondents failed to give correct responses to questions No

11 & 14 which required the understanding that combustion of the environmentally unfriendly

fossil fuels and deforestation are the primary causes of global warming and climate change.

Though it is encouraging that more than 50% of the respondents are aware of the impacts of

rapid population growth, water security and the wise use of water resources and corrective

environmental actions to reduce environmental deterioration in Ethiopia, it is apparent that

teachers‟ awareness of complex interrelationships of environmental factors is limited. The

majority of the respondents (nearly 60%) gave incorrect responses to questions related to the

74

factors that are responsible for the deterioration of the environment indirectly (Question No 12)

and the link between human wellbeing and the well being of the environment (Question No 7).

Even though teachers are aware of positive and negative impacts of economic growth on

environment, it is frustrating that nearly 55% of the respondents held misconceptions about the

notion of sustainable development.

The study observed that teachers are relatively more aware of the rationale for the need of

environmental education, its goals and objectives and the integration of relevant environmental

contents into the curriculum subjects. On the other hand, they are less familiar with the

characteristics of environmental education, the best teaching strategies and the most appropriate

instructional resources in environmental education (See Table 7).

Even though it is appreciated that teachers know the purposes of environmental education, the

implementation is under question as they have limited knowledge of its features and the

necessary skills to address environmental education. It is widely believed that quality of

instruction in environmental education is maintained when it takes place in the environment i.e.

the environment is the best instructional medium and resource in environmental education. It is

amazing that only 40% acknowledged this.

The overall mean of correct responses to the 20 questions (49.58%) is much lower than their

counterparts of Punjab whose mean score is 64.28% (Nagra, nd.). Even it is lower than the scores

of students of some countries of Asia Pacific Region on similar environmental concepts (cf.

Barett, et. al., 2002).

75

Table 7 Percentage of Teachers Giving Correct Responses

Code* Issues raised in the questions Percentage of teachers giving

correct responses

7 Human well being & environmental quality 41.67

8 The impacts of rapid population growth 55.00

9 Water security and the need to protect water

resources

53.30

10 The impacts of climate change 52.50

11 Environmental friendly / unfriendly energy resources 46.70

12 Indirect drivers of environmental damage 47.50

13 Economic growth and environment 52.50

14 Deforestation and global warming 46.67

15 Sustainable development 45.80

16 Actions to tackle environmental problems 55.00

17 The rationale for environmental education 53.30

18 The goals of environmental education 53.30

19 Categories of environmental education objectives 53.30

20 Environmental education & global partnership 41.67

21 Universality of environmental education 52.50

22 Characteristics of environmental education 46.70

23 Integration of environmental issues into curriculum

subjects

51.70

24 Relevance of environmental education contents 55.00

25 Teaching strategies for environmental education 47.50

26 Instructional resources in environmental education 40.00

Over all mean of correct responses 49.58

*The items are coded as numbered in the questionnaire

76

Table 8 Mean Scores and SD of Awareness Scores (raw scores)

Independent

variable

Category N Mean SD SE 95% C.I for mean Min. Max.

Lower

bound

Upper

bound

Sex Male 97 10.26 2.32 0.24 9.78 10.74 5 15

Female 23 8.48 1.50 0.31 7.84 9.12 5 13

Age <26 37 11.49 1.59 0.26 10.96 12.02 8 15

26-35 38 10.79 1.85 0.30 10.18 11.40 5 14

36-45 27 8.30 1.32 0.25 7.79 8.55 5 13

>45 18 7.28 1.63 0.38 6.48 8.03 5 10

School

location

Rural 67 11.15 1.73 021 10.73 11.57 5 15

Urban 53 8.39 1.94 0.27 7.84 8.93 5 13

Years of

teaching

experience

<6 30 11.47 1.17 0.21 11.04 11.90 10 14

6-10 32 11.16 1.42 0.25 10.65 11.67 8 15

11-20 30 9.53 2.01 0.37 8.78 10.28 5 15

21-30 17 7.71 0.98 0.24 7.20 8.22 6 10

>30 11 6.55 2.25 0.68 5.03 8.07 5 13

Subject

taught

Language 27 9.93 1.96 0.38 9.15 10.71 8 15

Natural

science

33 11.24 1.44 0.25 10.73 11.75 8 15

Maths 18 7.67 1.81 0.43 6.76 8.58 5 13

Social

science

29 11.10 1.70 0.32 10.44 11.76 5 15

HPE 13 7.00 1.35 0.37 6.19 7.81 6 10

Level

taught

Grade 5 33 9.82 2.21 0.39 9.02 10.62 6 14

Grade 6 28 10.29 1.67 0.32 9.63 10.95 5 14

Grade 7 34 9.50 2.58 0.44 8.60 10.40 5 15

Grade 8 25 10.20 2.58 0.50 9.13 11.27 5 15

Total 120 9.92 2.29 0.21 9.50 10.32 5 15

The mean raw scores of male teachers (10.26) is above the total mean score (9.92) and is much

higher than female teachers (8.48) (See Table 8). The independent sample t-test calculated for

the group revealed that there is significant difference between male and female teachers. The„t‟

value calculated for the group difference was 4.54 which is significant at 0.001 level. Hence,

male teachers are better informed about environmental issues and environmental education than

female teachers. As far as sex is concerned, this finding is supportive of previous studies (Aklilu,

77

2001; Asmare, 2007) who reported that male students were more knowledgeable than female

students.

Similarly, rural teachers scored higher than urban teachers, 11.15 and 8.39, respectively. The„t‟

value calculated for the group difference is 8.30 which is significant at 0.001 level. Thus, rural

teachers are more aware of the issues raised than urban teachers which are, with regard to

residential background, consistent with the findings of Asmare (2007).

Table 9 Independent Sample „t‟- test for Awareness Scores by Sex and School Location.

** Significant at 0.001 level

One way analysis of variance (ANOVA) using raw scores showed statistically significant

differences for independent variables age, years of teaching experiences and subject taught.

Independent

variables

Category N Mean SD d.f. t

Sex Male 97 10.26 2.32 50 4.54**

Female 23 8.48 1.50

School

location

Rural 67 11.15 1.73 118 8.30**

Urban 53 8.39 1.94

78

Table 10 One-way ANOVA for Environmental Awareness Scores

Independent

variable

Source of variation D.F Sum of

squares

Mean square

(variance) F

Age Between groups

Within groups

Total

3

116

119

316.367

308.800

625.167

105.456

2.662

39.614**

Years of

teaching

experience

Between groups

With groups

Total

4

115

119

333.758

291.409

625.167

83.439

2.534

32.928**

Subject

taught

Between groups

Within groups

Total

4

115

119

300.565

324.602

625.167

75.141

2.823

26.621**

Level taught Between groups

Within groups

Total

3

116

119

12.043

613.123

625.167

4.014

5.286

0.76 0NS

NS-Not significant

** Significant at 0.001 level

Younger teachers achieved higher scores than older teachers. Surprisingly, teachers with lower

years of teaching experience scored higher than teachers with a relatively longer teaching

experience. Teachers teaching natural science subjects and the social sciences achieved better

than the teachers teaching language, mathematics and health & physical education. So, despite

the fact that there are indications that teachers lack proper awareness about some environmental

and environmental education related issues, younger teachers, teachers with shorter experience

and teachers of the natural sciences and social studies academic streams are relatively more

aware of environmental concepts and aspects of environmental education. The relative emphasis

given to environmental education in recent years is perhaps one of the reasons for the relatively

better performance of younger teachers than older teachers.

79

4.3 Teachers’ Environmental Attitudes

A revised NEP scale with 15 items adopted from Dunlap et. al. (2000) was used to measure the

environmental attitudes of teachers. The percentage distributions for responses to each of the

items are presented in Table 11. Though the NEP scale has five scales (strongly agree, mildly

agree, unsure, mildly disagree and strongly disagree), strongly agree and mildly agree; and

mildly disagree and strongly disagree were combined for the presentation of the data.

The content of the scale has five facets: balance of nature, limits to growth,

antianthropocentrism, „human exemptionalism‟ and the likelihood of „ecocrisis‟. Statements 27,

32 and 37 are related to the reality of the limits to growth. The results show that the great

majority of the respondents (73.73%) agreed to statement 27 which says „we are approaching the

limit of the number of people the earth can support.‟ More than half of them (52.54%) disagreed

to the unfavorable statement (Statement No 32) which says „the earth has plenty of natural

resources if we just learn how to develop them.‟ To the statement which says „the earth is like a

spaceship with very limited room and resources (Statement No 37), 66.10% of the respondents

agreed. These results indicate that the majority of teachers have a strong belief in the inevitability

of „limits to growth‟.

80

Table 11 Frequency Distributions of the Respondents for NEP Scale items

Code* Statements Agree Unsure Disagree

No % No % No %

27 We are approaching the limit of the number

of people the earth can support

87 73.73 24 20.34 7 5.93

28 Humans have the right to modify the natural

environment to suit their needs

12 10.17 21 17.80 85 72.03

29 When humans interfere with nature it often

produces disastrous consequences

89 75.42 20 16.95 9 7.63

30 Human ingenuity will insure that we do Not

make the earth unlivable

23 19.50 26 22.03 69 58.47

31 Humans are severely abusing the environment

61 51.70 40 33.90 17 14.41

32 The earth has plenty of natural resources if we just learn how to develop them

26 22.03 30 25.42 62 52.54

33 Plants and animals have as much right as

humans to exist

55 46.61 35 29.66 28 23.73

34 The balance of nature is strong enough to

cope with modern industrial nations

16 13.56 27 22.88 75 63.56

35 Despite our special abilities humans are still

subject to the laws of nature

72 61.02 31 26.27 15 12.71

36 The so-called “ecological crisis” facing

human kind has been greatly exaggerated

16 13.56 24 20.34 78 66.10

37 The earth is like a spaceship with very

limited room and resources

78 66.10 26 22.03 14 11.86

38 Humans were meant to rule over the rest of nature

25 21.19 24 20.34 69 58.47

39 The balance of nature is very delicate and

easily upset

69 58.47 28 23.73 21 17.80

40 Humans will eventually learn enough about

how nature works to be able to control it

21 17.80 27 22.88 70 59.32

41 If things continue on their present course,

we will soon experience a major ecological

catastrophe

85 72.03 21 17.80 12 10.17

*The items are coded as numbered in the questionnaire

81

Anti-anthropocentric views are also reflected in the teachers‟ responses. The three statements

that are related to this view are statements 28, 33 and 38. For the anthropocentric worldview

which says „humans have the right to modify the natural environment‟ (No 28), 72.5% of the

respondents disagreed. For the eco-centric view that „plants and animals have as much right as

humans‟ (statement No 33) only 23.73% of them disagreed. For the other anthropocentric view

that „humans were meant to rule over the rest of nature‟ (statement No 38), 58.47 % of the

respondents disagreed.

Teachers‟ beliefs on the fragility of the balance of nature were tested by statements 29, 34 and

39. The majority of the respondents believed that human interference with nature often produces

disastrous consequences as 75.42% of them agreed to statement No 29. This belief of the

respondents is reassured by the responses given to the unfavorable statements (Statement No 34)

which says „the balance of nature is strong enough to cope with the impacts of nature‟ to which

only 13.56 % agreed. Their belief on the fragility of the balance of nature is further strengthened

by the responses given to statement 39 which states that „the balance of nature is very delicate

and easily up set‟ to which 58.47 % of them agreed and only 17.80 % disagreed.

In addition, teachers believe that humans, like other species, are not exempted from the

constraints of nature. This is evidenced by the responses given to the statements related to

„rejection of exemptionalism‟ (statements 30, 35 and 40). For the unfavorable statements

„human‟s ingenuity will insure that we do not make the earth unlivable (statements No 30) and

„humans will eventually learn enough about how nature works to be able to control it‟ (statement

No 40), 58.47 % and 59.32 % of the respondents disagreed, respectively. For the favorable one

which says „despite our special abilities humans are still subject to the laws of nature‟ (statement

No 35 the majority of the respondents (61.02 %) agreed.

82

Unless appropriate measures are taken, teachers believe, there is a possibility of an ecological

crisis as the responses given to the statements related to this issue (statements 31, 36 and 41)

confirmed. For the statement which says „humans are severely abusing the environment‟

(statement No 31), more than half (51.70 %) agreed. However, it is also important to note that

33.90 % are unsure about the issue. For statement No 36 which states „the so-called “ecological

crisis” facing human kind has been greatly exaggerated‟ 66.10 % disagreed. The possibility of an

eco-crisis in the future is well stated by statement No 41. It says „if things continue on their

present course, we will soon experience a major ecological catastrophe‟ to which 72.03% agreed.

Generally, the percentage distributions of the respondents indicate that there is a tendency on the

part of teachers to support pro-environmental beliefs. As can be seen in Table 12 below, 62.37%

supported pro-environmental beliefs. It is even higher than those found elsewhere in Asia where

most country responses were in a range of 51-61% indicating a pro-environmental behavior

(Barett, Kuruda and Miyamoto, 2002). One concern here is that a considerable number of

participants have held a neutral stance about each of the 15 statements which range from 16.95%

to 33.90 %.

Table 12 Frequency of Percentage Responses of Pro and Anti NEP

No Category Percentage responses

1 Pro-NEP 62.37%

2 Anti-NEP 14.80%

3 Neutral 22.82%

83

Table 13 Mean Scores and SD of Environmental Attitude Scores by the Independent Variables

Independent

variable

Category N Mean SD SE 95% C.I for mean Min. Max.

Lower

bound

Upper

bound

Sex Male 95 56.14 5.21 0.54 55.13 57.17 40 67

Female 23 51.57 4.47 0.93 49.64 53.50 41 61

Age <26 35 58.86 4.44 0.75 57.33 60.39 43 67

26-35 38 56.92 4.07 0.66 55.58 58.26 47 64

36-45 27 50.93 4.14 0.80 49.28 52.58 40 60

>45 18 51.17 4.11 0.97 49.12 53.22 40 61

School

location

Rural 65 58.05 4.54 0.49 57.07 59.03 43 67

Urban 53 51.81 4.66 0.67 50.46 53.16 40 65

Years of

teaching

experience

<6 28 59.21 3.07 0.58 58.02 60.40 55 65

6-10 32 57.63 4.26 0.78 56.10 59.16 43 67

11-20 30 53.37 4.45 0.81 51.71 55.02 45 63

21-30 17 48.94 5.33 1.29 46.18 51.70 40 61

>30 11 53.09 2.88 0.87 51.15 55.09 48 60

Subject

taught

Language 27 53.59 6.02 1.16 51.20 55.98 40 65

Natural

science

33 58.06 4.12 0.72 56.59 59.52 43 65

Maths 18 50.83 4.17 0.98 48.76 52.90 42 60

Social

science

27 58.07 3.85 0.74 56.55 59.57 48 67

HPE 13 51.77 3.65 1.01 49.57 53.97 43 61

Level

taught

Grade 5 33 55.12 4.93 0.86 53.37 56.87 42 64

Grade 6 26 55.19 4.20 0.82 53.50 56.88 43 61

Grade 7 34 54.47 5.76 0.99 52.45 56.49 40 67

Grade 8 25 56.52 6.48 1.30 53.84 59.20 41 66

Total 118 55.25 5.38 0.50 54.26 56.24 40 67

For all the teachers participated in this study, the mean score of the summated ratings was 55.25

in the range of 15-75 which is 3.68 (above average) in the range of 1-5. Thus, as in past studies

(Melaku, 1994; Aklilu, 1998), teachers endorsed pro-environmental views. It is also consistent

with the study done by Larijiani and Yeshodhara (2008) who reported that Iranian and Indian

teachers possessed favorable attitudes towards environment and sustainable development.

84

Independent sample t-test calculated for the independent variable sex revealed that male and

female teachers differed significantly in their environmental attitudes in favor of male teachers.

The mean score of males (56.14) is higher than females (51.57). The „t‟ value calculated for this

group difference is 3.87 which is significant at 0.001 level. This finding is inconsistent with

Larijianii and Yeshodhara‟s study who reported that female and male teachers didn‟t differ

significantly in their attitudes. It also deviates from the findings of Yenice, Saracaloglu and

Karacaoglu (2008) who observed similar approaches between male and female teacher

candidates towards environmental sensibility. The methods employed and the number of

samples taken might have been the factors for these variations.

Table 14 Independent Sample t-test for Environmental Attitude Scores

** Significant at 0.001 level

The mean environmental attitude score of teachers in rural schools (58.05) is much higher than in

urban schools (51.81). The „t‟ value calculated for this group difference is 6.65 which is

significant at 0.001 level. Hence, rural teachers have possessed better environmental attitude than

their urban counterparts.

Independent

Variables

category N Mean SD d.f

T

Sex Male 95 56.14 5.21 116 3.87**

Female 23 51.57 4.47

School

location

Rural 65 58.05 4.54 116 6.65**

Urban 53 51.81 4.66

85

One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed with the attitude scores as the

dependent variable against the four independent variables (age, years of teaching experience,

subject taught and level taught). Table 15 shows the F-statistics and level of significance derived

from the analysis. Statistically significant differences were found in all of the variables except

for level taught. Teachers with less than 35 years of age scored higher than those with more than

35 years of age. Similarly, teachers with less than 20 years of teaching experience have scored

better in the environmental attitude measurement than those teachers with more than 20 years of

teaching experience. This indicates that younger teachers with lower years of teaching

experience have better feelings towards the environment than „experienced‟ older teachers.

The statistically significant difference in environmental attitude scores among the teachers

teaching different subjects shows that the subjects they teach affects the teachers‟ orientations

towards the environment. Hence, teachers of the social sciences and natural science subjects

have possessed much more positive environmental attitude than their colleagues teaching other

subjects.

86

Table 15 One–way ANOVA for Environmental Attitude Scores

Independent

variable

Source of variation D.F Sum of

squares

Mean square

(variance)

F

Age Between groups

Within groups l

Total

3

114

117

115.772

2266.101

3381.873

37.924

19.878

18.710**

Years of

teaching

experience

Between groups

Within groups

Total

4

113

117

1331.908

2050.865

3381.873

332.752

18.149

18.334**

Subject

taught

Between groups

Within groups

Total

4

113

117

1058.816

2323.057

3381.873

264.704

20.558

12.876**

Level taught Between groups

Within groups

Total

3

114

117

61.609

3320.264

3381.873

20.536

29.125

0.705NS

NS-not significant

**Significant at 0.001 level

4.4 Teachers’ Attitudes towards Environmental Education

Teachers‟ views about the importance of environmental education in solving environmental

problems, the role of schools in general and the roles of their students and themselves in

implementing environmental education programs were assessed by self made 12 Likert scale

items. For presentation of data strongly agree and agree; and strongly disagree and disagree

responses are combined and the frequencies of percentage distributions are presented in Table 16

below.

87

Table 16 Frequency of Percentage Distributions of Responses to EE Attitude Statements

Code* Statements Agree Unsure Disagree

No % No % No %

42 There is a pressing need for teachers to

become better informed so that their

students are given the most up-to-date

information about environmental trends.

64 53.33 31 25.83 25 20.83

43 The methods teachers use to convey

environmental content are less important

than the curriculum as far as effective

environmental education program is

concerned.

30 25.00 33 27.50 57 47.50

44 Since environmental degradation is

sometimes due to the absence of options for

engaging in environmentally friendly

activities, the role of environmental

education for the solution of environmental

problems is insignificant.

45 37.50 34 28.33 41 34.17

45 Since many people do not know the full

consequences of their environmental

actions, environmental education is

important.

64 53.33 28 23.33 28 23.33

46 As information and communication

technologies are developing faster, the role

of schools in realizing the goals of

environmental education is insignificant.

35 29.17 33 27.50 52 43.33

47 Environmental education should be

delivered across the curriculum (should be

part of all the subjects taught).

48 40.00 38 31.67 34 28.33

48 Environmental Education in schools should

be left to interested teachers so that its

implementation will become effective.

20 16.67 35 29.17 65 54.17

49 The focus of environmental education

should be to promote the belief in the rights

of humans to control nature and the capacity

of science and technology to manage the

effects of environmental degradation.

29 24.17 42 35.00 49 40.83

50 The focus of environmental education

should be on how humans can live in

harmony with nature.

62 51.67 33 27.50 25 20.83

88

51 Environmental knowledge should be

constructed, generated and initiated by the

students themselves.

72 60.00 31 25.83 17 14.17

52 Environmental teaching and learning should

be based on standardized outcomes

(predetermined knowledge and attitudes of

the students).

33 27.50 30 25.00 57 47.50

53 Teaching about the possibility of a major

ecological catastrophe in the future will

alert students for a responsible

environmental action.

64 53.33 36 30.00 20 16.67

*The items are coded as numbered in the questionnaire

The study observed inconsistencies regarding respondents‟ views about the importance of

environmental education in solving environmental problems. For the unfavorable statement

which says „since environmental degradation is sometimes due to the absence of options for

engaging in environmental friendly activities, the role of environmental education for the

solution of environmental problems is insignificant‟ (statement No 44), only 34.17 % disagreed

and quite a considerable number of respondents (37.57%) agreed. This may lead to an

interpretation that teachers believed that it is not lack of awareness through environmental

education but it is due to the „absence of options‟ that the environment is deteriorating. In

contrast, more than half of the respondents (53.30 %) believed that since so many people are

ignorant of the environmental consequences of their actions, environmental education is

important (statements No 45). The majority of the respondents also believed that responsible

environmental action comes after successful environmental education programs as 53.33 % of

them agreed to the statement which says „teaching about the possibility of a major ecological

catastrophe in the future will alert students for a responsible environmental action (statement No

53) .

89

The anti-anthropocentric environmental belief of teachers is reflected in their environmental

education attitude. For the statement which promotes the anthropocentric environmental

worldview (statement No 49) which states that „the focus of environmental education should be

to promote the belief in the rights of humans to control nature and the capacity of science and

technology to manage the effects of environmental degradation‟ only 24.70 % of the respondents

agreed and the majority of them (40.83%) disagreed though still a considerable number of them

(35 %) had a neutral position. Their anti-anthropocentric view is further reflected in their

responses given to statement No 50 which says „the focus of environmental education should be

on how humans can live in harmony with nature‟ to which more than half (51.67 %) agreed. This

shows the majority of teachers believe that environmental education should not be underpinned

by anthropocentric environmental worldview but on eco-centric views so that environmental

education can promote how humans can live in harmony with nature.

The percentage frequency distribution of the responses showed that belief in the role of teachers

in the implementation of environmental education programs is encouraging. For the statement

which emphasizes on the pressing need for teacher to become better informed so that their

students are given the most up to date information about environmental trends (statement No 42)

more than half (53.33%) agreed. Similar attitudes are reflected in the responses given to

statement No 43 which says „the methods teachers use to convey environmental content is less

important than the curriculum as far as effective environmental education program is concerned‟.

Only 25% of the respondents gave responses in favor of the statement which implies that the

majority of them believed that the role of the teacher is very important besides effective

curriculum and other inputs in place.

90

Although it is much lower than in other studies, respondents‟ showed support for the inclusion

of environmental education in all the subjects taught as 40 % agreed , 28.33 % disagreed and

31.67 % could not decide for statement No 47 which says „ environmental education should be

delivered across the curriculum.‟ For the sake of comparison the result of an international survey

conducted by Ballantayne (1999) is reproduced below.

Table 17 Acceptance that EE should be Taught Across the Curriculum by Country (% of Respondents)

Country Agreed Undecided Disagreed

Australia 65% 9% 26%

Canada 80% - 20%

Denmark 68% - 14%

Finland 93% - 7%

Germany 77% 13% 10%

Hong Kong 62% 19% 19%

Japan 80% 10% 10%

Korea 57% 10% 33%

Namibia 80% 20% -

New Zealand 86% - 14%

Poland 71% 21% 7%

South Africa 87% 9% 4%

Saudi Arabia 73% - 27%

Singapore 92% - 8%

Sweden 75% - 25%

Switzerland 91% - 9%

UK 61% 15% 24%

USA 59% 17% 24%

Ethiopia (Oromo Nationality

Administration, Amhara Region

40% 32% 28%

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Divided views are also notable with regard to the role of schools in realizing the goals of

environmental education as evidenced by the responses given to statement No 46 which states

that „as information and communication technologies are developing faster, the role of schools in

realizing the goals of environmental education is insignificant‟ to which 29.17%, 27.50% and

43.33% agreed, undecided and disagreed to the statement, respectively. This could imply that

there are considerable numbers of teachers who believe that information sources other than

schools are more important for environmental awareness.

The study also revealed that the majority of the respondents have a strong support for action

oriented strategy for environmental education as 60 % of them agreed to the statement which

says „environmental knowledge should be constructed, generated and initiated by the students

themselves‟ (statement No 51) whereas only 27 % agreed to the statement which says

„environmental teaching and learning should be based on standardized outcomes‟ (statement No

52), a strategy which limits students to passive recipients.

The mean environmental education attitude score for the 120 participants is 40.38 in the range of

12-60. This is equal to 3.37(above average) in the range of 1-5. The result is similar to science

teachers of England who scored 4.98 in the range of 1-7 (Littledyke, 1997). This indicates that

respondents generally have positive attitudes towards environmental education which confirms

the findings of Melaku (1994). The table below shows means and standard deviations of

teachers‟ EE attitude scores according to the six independent variables and the total sample.

92

Table 18 Mean Scores and SD of EE Attitude Scores

Independent

variable

category N Mean SD SE 95% C.I for mean Min. Max.

Lower

bound

Upper

bound

Sex Male 97 41.13 4.09 0.42 40.29 41.96 30 51

Female 23 37.17 3.35 0.70 35.72 38.62 31 44

Age <26 37 42.78 2.83 0.47 41.83 43.73 36 49

26-35 38 42.47 3.58 0.58 41.29 43.65 34 51

36-45 27 37.00 2.59 0.50 35.99 38.02 32 44

>45 18 36.06 3.32 0.78 34.41 37.71 30 44

School

location

Rural 67 42.76 3.02 0.37 42.02 43.50 36 51

Urban 53 37.36 3.62 0.50 36.36 38.36 30 47

Years of

teaching

experience

<6 30 42.53 3.05 0.56 41.39 43.67 40 51

6-10 32 43.25 2.93 0.52 42.19 44.31 36 49

11-20 30 38.53 3.93 0.72 37.06 40.00 32 48

21-30 17 36.35 3.39 0.82 34.60 38.10 30 44

>30 11 37.36 3.17 0.96 35.22 39.50 32 44

Subject

taught

Language 27 39.11 4.34 0.83 37.40 40.82 32 47

Natural

science

33 42.70 3.34 0.57 41.54 43.86 36 51

Maths 18 36.28 3.41 0.80 34.57 38.99 30 44

Social

science

29 42.79 2.50 0.46 41.85 43.73 37 49

HPE 13 37.38 3.12 0.87 35.48 39.28 32 44

Level

taught

Grade 5 33 39.70 4.22 0.74 38.19 41.21 32 47

Grade 6 28 42.12 4.23 0.80 40.48 43.76 35 50

Grade 7 34 40.03 3.81 0.65 38.70 41.36 30 49

Grade 8 25 39.80 4.41 0.88 37.99 41.61 31 51

Total 120 40.38 4.28 0.39 39.61 41.15 30 51

The mean environmental education attitude score of male teachers (41.13) is higher than female

teachers (37.17). The unrelated sample t-test calculated to analyze this group showed statistically

significant difference (t=4.31, d.f. =118, p< 0.001).

93

Table 19 Independent Sample t-test for EE Attitude Scores

** Significant at 0.001 level

The mean score of teachers in rural schools (42.76) is also higher than their urban counterparts

(37.36). The independent sample t-test calculated for this group showed statistically significant

difference too (t=8.91, d.f=118, p<0.001). Hence both sex and school locations have affected

teachers‟ environmental education attitudes.

The results of this study showed that the arithmetic mean score of younger teachers is higher

than that of older ones. Teachers with shorter years of teaching experience and teachers of social

studies and natural science subjects scored higher than teachers in other fields; where as teachers

teaching in the different grade levels had similar mean scores.

One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was calculated with environmental education scores as

the dependent variable against the independent variables age, years of teaching experience,

subject taught and level taught. The F-statistics derived from this analysis is shown in Table 20.

Independent

variables

category N Mean SD d.f. t

Sex Male 97 41.13 4.09 118 4.31**

Female 23 37.17 3.35

School

location

Rural 67 42.76 3.02 118 8.91**

Urban 53 37.36 3.62

94

Table 20 One-way ANOVA for EE Attitude Scores

Independent

variable

Source of variation D.F Sum of

squares

Mean square

(variance)

F

Age Between groups

Within groups

Total

3

116

119

1025.437

1122.688

2148.125

341.812

9.678

35.317**

Years of

teaching

experience

Between groups

Within groups

Total

4

115

119

880.764

1267.361

2148.125

220.191

11.021

19.980**

Subject

taught

Between groups

Within groups

Total

4

115

119

809.042

1339.083

2148.13

202.260

11.044

17.370**

Level taught Between groups

Within groups

Total

3

116

119

111.506

2036.619

2148.125

37.169

17.557

2.117 NS

NS – Not significant

** Significant at 0.001 level

Except for level taught, statistically significant differences were observed among the various

groups. So, younger teachers, teachers with shorter years of teaching experience and teachers of

social studies and natural science subjects are more enthusiastic to environmental education than

older teachers, teachers with longer years of teaching experience and teachers of languages,

mathematics and HPE. Thus we can say that variables like age, subject taught and years of

teaching experience affect the environmental education attitude of teachers.

95

4.5 Teachers’ Actual Practice of Environmental Education

One section of the survey asked respondents to rate how often they practice various

environmental education activities related to three areas; 1) teaching of environmental education

(items 54-60); 2) involvement in extracurricular activities in schools (items 61-67); and 3)

involvement in community activities (items 68-74) (See Appendix A).

The mean score of the 120 participants for all the 21 items is generally low which is 2.50

(between seldom and sometimes) in the range of 1 (never) to 5 (usually). The average response

for each item ranged from 1.13 for item No 64 which says „I gather posters concerning

environmental issues that students can learn‟ to 4.23 for item No 55 which says „I guide students

to explore local environmental problems and solutions consciously‟.

EE should aim primarily at influencing student decision making and teaching approach should

incorporate, beside classroom activities, action at home, school and community levels

(Ballantyne and Packer, 1996; Ballantyne, 1999). Even though teachers‟ practice of

environmental education is generally inadequate, the rank order of items based on mean

responses revealed that teachers emphasize most on class room activities. The result also showed

that respondents are more reluctant to extracurricular activities related to environmental

education than engagement in community based environmental actions. One concern here is that

extracurricular activities in schools which are very important strategies to support environmental

education are neglected by the teachers which undermine the successful implementation of

environmental education programs in schools.

96

Table 21 Rankings of EE Practices

Code* Activities Modal

response

Mean

response

Rank

55 I guide students to explore local

environmental problems and solutions

consciously

4 4.23 1

54 I present environmental knowledge/concepts

in class

5 4.21 2

56 I introduce my students to some general ways

of solving certain environmental problems

and guide them to apply such methods to

other problems

4 4.12 3

57 I assign students to bring some materials

from the local environment to be used for

teaching

4 3.86 4

58 I read in class interesting articles about

environmental issues that I get from books,

newspapers, magazines etc.

4 3.70 5

59 I bring interesting pictures on environmental

issues and show to my students

3 2.97 6

60 I evaluate the curriculum and text book of the

subject I teach with regard to environmental

issues

3 2.88 7

74 With regard to environmental behavior, I

attempt to be a role model for the community

in my lifestyles

2 2.44 8

68 I contribute articles concerning

environmental issues to regional and/or

national mass media

2 2.36 9

71 I give quick and positive response when I am

asked to contribute money for environmental

protection

2 2.21 10

72 I teach the local community about

environmental issues

2 2.18 11

67 I plant trees in the school compound 2 2.13 12

97

70 I actively participate in local community

organizations working for the environment

2 2.12 13

73 I use the religious institution to which I

belong to promote the desirable

environmental ethic

2 2.02 14

66 I conduct local researches concerning

environmental issues

3 1.84 15

69 I actively participate in environmental actions

of the community of which I am a member

2 1.75 16

61 I organize and lead environmental clubs in

school

1 1.71 17

65 I write articles about the environment to be

read during the flag ceremony

1 1.55 18

62 I organize question and answer program on

environmental issues

1 1.46 19

63 I create links between my school and NGOs

and government offices which work for the

protection of the environment

1 1.23 20

64 I gather posters concerning environmental

issues and stick them in the school campus so

that students can learn

1 1.13 21

*The items are coded as numbered in the questionnaire

Activities that are most frequently practiced by the teachers include presenting environmental

concepts in class, guiding students to explore local environmental problems and solutions,

introducing students to some general ways of solving certain environmental problems and

guiding them to apply such methods to other problems, assigning students to bring some

materials from the local environment to be used for teaching and reading interesting articles

about environmental issues in class. The least frequently practiced activities include organizing

and leading environmental clubs, writing articles on environmental issues to be read during flag

ceremonies, organizing questions and answer programs, creating links between schools and

98

environmental NGOs or government offices and gathering posters concerning environmental

issues and sticking them in the school campus. Mean of the sum of the ratings were also

calculated for the whole sample and for each of the categories of the six independent variables.

Table 22 Mean and SD of EE Practice Scores

Independent

variable

Category N Mean SD SE 95%C.I for mean Min. Max.

Lower

bound

Upper

bound

Sex Male 97 52.41 5.57 0.57 51.28 53.54 40 66

Female 23 53.30 5.55 1.16 50.90 55.70 43 67

Age <26 37 53.03 5.97 0.98 51.04 55.02 41 66

26-35 38 52.45 5.43 0.88 50.66 54.24 42 65

36-45 27 52.85 5.42 1.04 50.71 54.99 43 67

>45 18 51.56 5.45 1.29 48.84 54.28 40 64

School

location

Rural 67 52.67 5.36 0.65 51.37 53.97 41 66

Urban 53 52.47 5.66 0.78 50.90 54.04 40 67

Years of

teaching

experience

<6 30 52.83 5.77 1.05 50.69 54.97 41 65

6-10 32 53.34 5.67 1.01 51.28 55.40 43 66

11-20 30 51.57 5.99 1.09 49.35 53.79 42 67

21-30 17 52.65 5.27 1.28 49.91 55.39 40 64

>30 11 52.36 4.20 1.27 49.53 55.19 45 60

Subject

taught

Language 27 53.07 5.96 1.15 50.70 55.44 43 67

Natural

science

33 51.82 6.24 0.84 50.11 53.53 41 64

Maths 18 53.17 5.81 1.37 50.28 56.06 40 64

Social

science

29 53.59 4.51 0.84 51.88 55.30 44 66

HPE 13 50.46 4.45 1.23 47.78 53.14 43 57

Level

taught

Grade 5 33 52.76 6.33 1.10 50.52 55.00 43 67

Grade 6 28 52.04 5.33 1.02 49.94 54.14 44 65

Grade 7 34 52.79 4.68 0.80 51.16 54.42 40 63

Grade 8 25 52.68 6.02 1.20 50.21 55.15 43 66

Total 120 52.58 5.55 0.99 51.59 53.57 40 67

The mean score of the 120 participants is 52.58 in the range of 21-105. The mean score of male

teachers (54.41) is slightly lower than female teachers (53.30). The mean environmental

education practice score of teachers in rural schools (52.67) is slightly higher than their urban

counterparts (52.47) with a mean difference of only 0.20. Independent sample t-test calculated

99

for these groups confirmed no statistically significant differences. This implies that neither of

these variables affects the environmental education activities of teachers.

Table 23 Independent Sample t-test for EE Practice Scores

NS- Not significant

The mean environmental education practice score of the various age groups ranged from 51.56

for teachers with over 45 years old to 53.03 for teachers with less than 26 years old. Similar

computations for teachers with different years of teaching experiences showed that the mean

score ranged from 51.57 for teachers with 11-20 years of teaching experience to 53.34 for

teachers with 6-10 years of teaching experience. The mean score of teachers teaching different

subjects ranged from 51.82 for natural science subject teachers to 53.59 for social science

teachers. This value is between 52.04 and 52.79, a mean difference of only 0.75, for teachers

teaching in different grade levels.

One-way analysis of variance performed using environmental education practice scores as the

dependent variable against the four independent variables (age, years of teaching experience,

subject taught and level taught) revealed no significant differences in all of the variables. This

implies that none of these variables affect the teachers‟ environmental education activities. The

F-statistics derived from ANOVA is presented in Table 24.

Independent

variables

Category N Mean SD D.F T

Sex Male 97 52.41 5.57 118 0.72 NS

Female 23 53.30 5.55

School

location

Rural 67 53.67 5.36 118 0.21 NS

Urban 53 52.47 5.66

100

Table 24 One-way ANOVA for EE Practice Scores

Independent

variable

Source of variation D.F Sum of

squares

Mean square

(variance)

F

Age Between groups

Within groups

Total

3

116

119

28.947

3642.220

3671.167

9.649

31.998

0.307 NS

Years of

teaching

experience

Between groups

Within groups

Total

4

115

119

51.987

3619.1180

3671.167

12.997

31.471

0.413 NS

Subject

taught

Between groups

Within groups

Total

4

115

119

119.640

3551.526

3671.167

29.910

30.883

0.969 NS

Level taught Between groups

Within groups

Total

3

116

119

5.187

3665.980

3671.167

1.729

31.603

0.055NS

NS- Not Significant

4.6 Awareness-Attitude-Practice Nexus

Conventional thinking in the field of EE suggests a liner model for changing behavior – as

individuals become more knowledgeable, they become more aware of environmental problems

and, thus become more motivated to act towards the environment in more responsible ways (Lee

and Williams, 2001). An analysis of the relationships among the teachers‟ awareness, attitudes

and practice of environmental issues and environmental education showed a moderate positive

correlation between awareness and attitudes. Teachers with better knowledge and understanding

have also possessed pro environmental beliefs and interest in environmental education. However,

101

their awareness and attitudes didn‟t provide the platform for their actual practice as it is

associated with neither of them.

Table 25 Pearson‟s Product Moment Correlation

4.7 Teachers’ Information Sources on Environmental Issues and

Environmental Education

Given six important sources of information for environmental issues and environmental

education, teachers were asked to rate the degree to which each has been useful for their

knowledge, attitude and skills. The five response options were greatly useful, considerably

useful, somewhat useful, little useful and not useful with pints 5, 4, 3, 2 and 1, respectively. The

responses were used to rank the different experiences. The results are summarized in Table 27

(See Appendix B).

Awareness

Scores

Env. attitude

Score

Env. educ

attitude

score

Env.

educ.practic

e scores

Awareness

Score

Pearson Correlation 1 .612**

.663**

.022

Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .812

N 120 118 120 120

Env. attitude

Score

Pearson Correlation .612**

1 .594**

.033

Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .720

N 118 118 118 118

Env. educ attitude

score

Pearson Correlation .663**

.594**

1 .088

Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .342

N 120 118 120 120

Env. educ.practice

scores

Pearson Correlation .022 .033 .088 1

Sig. (2-tailed) .812 .720 .342

N 120 118 120 120

**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

102

The overall rank showed that electronics media was the most important source of information

followed by personal reading and print media. However, personal reading was ranked highest by

teachers aged 26-35, teachers with less than 6 years of teaching experience, teachers with > 30

years of teaching experience and grade 8 teachers showing that it is their most important source

of information.

For environmental education program to succeed in schools, the fundamental ideas and practical

procedures underpinning it should be incorporated into wider pre-service and in service teachers‟

professional learning (Kennelly, Taylor and Jenkins, 2008). Against this idea, training (both pre-

service and in-service) and workshops (conferences) were ranked low in the list of information

sources. This suggests that teachers lack sufficient training to implement environmental

education programs in schools.

The low rank of pre-service training is particularly important because it indicates that teachers‟

college studies insufficiently prepared them for their environmental teaching. This result agrees

with the result of the studies done by Ballantyne (1999), Tarabula et. al. (2004) and Cutter-

Mackenzie and Smith (2003) who reported that per-service training has inadequately prepared

teachers for teaching environmental education. When in-service trainings and workshops were

important to fill this gap (Ham, Rellergert Taylor and Krumpe, 1987/88; Aklilu, 2009) it is

unfortunate that they are not serving this purpose as they were ranked low too.

4.8 Teachers’ Feelings about their Competence to Teach

Environmental Education

Participants were also asked to rate whether they feel competent to teach five different aspects

which are related to the general aims of environmental education. The alternatives provided were

103

excellent, very good, good, fair and poor with points 5, 4, 3, 2 and 1, respectively. The mean

scores of each item were calculated by dividing the summated ratings by the number of

participants (120). Table 26 below shows the mean scores.

Table 26 Mean Scores of Responses for the Various Aspects of EE

*The items are coded as numbered in the questionnaire

The overall average is 2.58 (below good) showing that respondents generally felt less competent

to teach environmental education. This could be due to, as reported above, the teachers‟ lack of

adequate training about the issue. This might also be one of the causes for the overall inadequate

environmental education practice of teachers.

Even though teachers generally felt that they are less competent in teaching environmental

education, they felt relatively most competent in developing knowledge and understanding about

the environment and least competent in developing a sense of responsibility through participation

and action.

The ratings were also used to determine the rank order of the various aspects of environmental

education in accordance with the teachers‟ feelings of their competence to teach them. The

results are shown in Table 28 (See Appendix C).

Code* Aspects of environmental education Mean

82 Developing awareness and sensitivity to the environment 3.19

83 Developing knowledge and understanding about the environment 3.28

84 Developing attitudes and values towards the environment 2.55

85 Teaching skills in identifying and solving environmental problems 2.12

86 Developing a sense of responsibility through participation and action 1.73

Total 2.58

104

The analysis of the ranks by the various categories of the independent variables further showed

that there are similarities in their feelings among the different groups of teachers. The only

difference observed is that female teachers, teachers with ages less than 26 years, teachers with

21-30 years of teaching experience, teachers in the language area and grade 7 teachers felt

competent in developing awareness and sensitivity to the environment than developing

knowledge and understanding about it.

4.9 Teaching Environmental Education: Opportunities and

Constraints

In order to ascertain the extent to which teachers benefited from various factors for

environmental education, they were given a list of four facilitating factors for which they were

asked to rate against five options (greatly important, considerably important, somewhat

important, little important and not important, coded 5, 4, 3, 2 and 1, respectively). The responses

given to the items were used to rank these factors and are presented in Table 29 (Appendix D).

The result indicated that the textbooks are the most important enhancing factors followed by the

curriculum, government policy and the school management. It is not surprising that textbooks are

ranked highest because, obviously, they are the most immediate and easily accessed and readily

available sources for teachers. What is surprising is that school management was ranked last

almost unanimously by all the various categories of teachers. This is a major concern because

without the full support of the school management cross-curricular themes like environmental

education cannot be implemented successfully.

A similar analysis done to investigate the extent to which the different obstacles hinder the

respondents‟ environmental education activities revealed that heavy workload, lack of teaching

105

resources, lack of training and time constraints were the first four factors that constrained their

activities. Whereas lack of school support, lack of teachers‟ commitment, lack of funding and the

low emphasis given to environmental education in the curriculum were the last four factors.

Time constraints which were taken as the most serious in other studies (Ham and Swing,

1987/88; Ballantyne, 1999) were ranked 4th in this study.

It is paradoxical that lack of school support is ranked low among the obstacles despite school

management support is considered least important in enhancing environmental education efforts.

It is possible to say that teachers‟ positive attitudes towards environmental education have to a

certain degree contributed to their commitment for environmental education as lack of

commitment as an obstacle is ranked low.

Efforts to integrate environmental education into various curricula seem to have been achieved

as teachers had little complaints about the emphasis given to environmental education into the

curriculum. Environmental education practices require resources which include funds to buy

equipments, pay off site transport etc. if it has to be successfully implemented. Because the

teachers‟ EE activities are limited to classroom activities, it is not surprising that teachers didn‟t

consider lack of funding as their serious problem.

As training was considered less important than other sources of information for environmental

issues and environmental education for teachers, it is not surprising that lack of training is also

considered one of the top three problems facing them in their environmental education activit ies.

It is even rated as the most serious by teachers aged 36-45, those teachers with 11-30 years of

teaching experience, teachers of HPE and teachers of grades 6 and 7 (See Table 30, Appendix

E).

106

CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Conclusions

The following conclusions are drawn from the findings of the study:

1. Environmental issues conceptually related to citizenship education are adequately

integrated in the civics and ethical education of Upper Primary level. Even though global

environmental issues are given less emphasis, most of the environmental issues of

Ethiopia are included in the textbooks of the English subject. In spite of this the three

strands of environmental literacy are not well balanced. The civics and ethical education

subject emphasized on the affective strand whereas the English textbook over

emphasized the knowledge strand. The skills strand is given less emphasis in both

subjects.

2. Even though there are indications that teachers were deficient in their awareness and

understanding of several issues related to environment and environmental education, they

held pro-environmental beliefs and positive attitudes towards environmental education. In

spite of this they felt that they are incompetent to teach environmental education

especially in influencing students‟ attitudes and behavior and in teaching environmental

problem solving skills. Some of the explanations for this shortcomings are that teacher‟s

pre-service training inadequately prepared them for teaching environmental education

and not less importantly they haven‟t received sufficient in-service training which have

also limited their overall environmental education practices.

107

3. It is evident that teachers‟ actual practice of environmental education is generally low

though they are not ignorant of their roles to promote environmental education and do not

lack any commitment to it. Most of their practices are limited to routine class room

activities. Extracurricular activities in schools and out of school activities are neglected.

4. Statistically significant differences were observed in the teachers‟ environmental and

environmental education awareness and attitudes in accordance with the variables sex,

age, school location, years of teaching experience and subject taught. Male teachers,

younger teachers, rural teachers, teachers with shorter years of teaching experience and

teachers of natural science and social studies are more aware and held more positive

attitudes to both the environment and environmental education indicating that these

variables affect the teachers‟ awareness and attitudes. However, no statistically

significant differences were evident in the environmental education practice of teachers

with regard to any of these variables.

5. Teachers with better knowledge and understanding have also possessed pro-

environmental beliefs and interest in environmental education. However, their awareness

and attitudes didn‟t provide the platform for their actual practice as it is associated with

neither of them.

6. It is evident that the mass media (both electronics and print) and personal reading are the

main information sources of teachers on environmental issues and environmental

education.

7. The study also showed that teachers haven‟t used all the opportunities that help to

enhance their environmental education efforts.

8. The major obstacles that are hindering teachers‟ environmental education activities

include heavy work load, lack of teaching resources, lack of training and time constraints.

108

5.2 Recommendations

The following are the recommendations suggested on the basis of the findings of the study:

1. Integrating environmental issues into lessons shouldn‟t be limited to those issues raised in

the curriculum or textbooks but it should be more of an effort for teachers to include

more issues that have conceptual links with the subject matter they are teaching.

2. Pre-service teacher training programs should be reviewed in the context of environmental

education so that they would adequately prepare teachers for environmental education

teaching.

3. Short-term training on contemporary environmental issues and environmental education

should be organized for teachers. Such training should focus on older teachers, female

teachers, urban teachers and teachers in academic areas other than natural sciences and

social studies. The contents should emphasize on extracurricular activities and

community based environmental actions.

4. Environmental education programs should be widely disseminated through the mass

media in which teachers are target audiences.

5. Teachers should be encouraged to use all the opportunities available to improve their

environmental education.

6. The school management should play its coordinating role in enhancing environmental

education.

7. All the necessary measures have to be taken to reduce the barriers for effective

environmental education. These include, besides training, provision of good quality

teaching resources and funding.

109

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APPENNDICES

Appendix A Questionnaire

Addis Ababa University School of Graduate Studies

Department of Geography and Environmental Education

Dear Teachers,

This questionnaire is prepared to study the teachers‟ awareness, attitudes and practice of

environmental education with particular reference to Oromo Nationality Administration of the

Amhara Region. I would appreciate it if you make it convenient for me by completing the

questionnaire carefully.

Thank you in advance!

Gebre Tafere

I. General Information: Please circle the letter that applies to you.

1. Sex: Male A

Female B

2. Age: Under 26 A

26 – 35 B

36 – 45 C

Over 45 D

3. Years of teaching experience: 1- 5 A

6 – 10 B

11 – 20 C

21 – 30 D

More than 30 E

4. School Location Rural A

Urban B

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5. Subject taught this year : Language (Amharic, English, Afan Oromo) A

Natural Science (Biology, Chemistry,

Physics) B

Mathematics C

Social Studies (Geography, History, Civics) D

Health & Physical Education E

6. Level taught this year (If you teach in more than one grade level,

take the level that you have the highest load): Grade 5 A

Grade 6 B

Grade 7 C

Grade 8 D

II. For the following 20 questions choose the best answer and circle the letter of your

choice.

7. Human wellbeing encompasses personal and environmental security, access to

materials for a good life, good health and good social relations and it is closely linked

to environmental quality. Which of the following statements justify this link?

A. All food ultimately comes from the environment.

B. Environmental degradation is adversely affecting human health in many ways.

C. Unequal access to environmental resources remains an important source of

inequality among individuals.

D. All of the above.

8. The overall consequence of rapid population growth is:

A. disputes over access to resources

B. limited quality of life

C. increased social costs of food production

D. malnutrition

9. Water security like food security will become a major national and regional priority in

the future. This is likely because:

A. The world supply of fresh water cannot be increased.

B. More and more people depend on the already fixed supply of water.

C. More and more of the fixed supply of water is being polluted.

D. All of the above.

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10. Climate change from human influences results in all of the following except:

A. A shifting of climate zones.

B. An increase in species diversity and the productivity of ecosystems.

C. An increase in extreme weather events.

D. Negative impacts on human health.

11. Which of the following sources of energy is environmentally unfriendly?

A. Fossil fuels

B. Wind power

C. Hydroelectric power

D. Solar energy

12. Which of the following is wrong?

A. Adoption of new technologies is not necessarily a cause of environmental damage.

B. Market changes always promote the sustainable use of resources.

C. Human migration causes considerable damage to the environment.

D. Demographic changes tend to increase pressure on the environment.

13. Which of the following is wrong about economic growth in relation to the

environment?

A. Economic growth intensifies over appropriation of resources.

B. Economic growth can bring investments in environmental improvement and

cleaner technologies.

C. Economic growth reduces land cover change.

D. Economic growth results changes in production and consumption patterns.

14. One of the recommended strategies for a global sustainable environment is

discontinuing deforestation. This is because:

A. Loss of trees results in a reduction in the earth‟s capacity to absorb carbon dioxide

which eventually causes global warming.

B. Destruction of forests results in the depletion of the ozone layer which leads to an

increase in dangerous ultraviolet rays reaching the ground.

C. Firewood and charcoal are alternative energy sources of the future.

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D. All of the above.

15. Which of the following is true about sustainable development?

A. It is a process of change with the future in mind.

B. It is similar to sustainable economic growth.

C. It is preserving the earth‟s resources for the use of future generations.

D. It is a development model which can only be practiced by the developed nations of

the world.

16. Which of the following is not an appropriate action in order to correct the continuing

disastrous trend of the Ethiopian environment?

A. Transforming the agricultural sector to make it more productive.

B. Utilizing the renewable resources without fear of exhaustion.

C. Pursuing accelerated economic development to provide basic needs and alternative

economic opportunities.

D. Reducing the high rate of population growth.

17. Which of the following is the logical sequence for the rise of environmental

education?

A. Environmental concern Industrialization and urbanization

Environmental crisis Environmental education

B. Industrialization and urbanization Environmental crisis

Environmental concern Environmental education

C. Environmental crisis Industrialization and urbanization

Environmental concern Environmental education

D. Environmental crisis Environmental concern

Industrialization and urbanization Environmental education

18. The ultimate goal of environmental education is:

A. Awareness about environmental problems.

B. Knowing how to improve environmental quality.

C. Possessing the necessary skills to protect the environment.

D. Taking decisions and actions in favor of the environment.

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19. The achievement of a learner after an environmental education program on global

warming was to the extent that he/she could believe that reduction in carbon dioxide

would reduce global warming. To which level of the environmental education

objectives is his/her achievement categorized?

A. Awareness

B. Knowledge

C. Attitude

D. Skill

20. Decisions and actions by the different countries of the world can have international

repercussions. This idea gave environmental education to have the following

characteristics:

A. Interdisciplinarity

B. Totality

C. Global views

D. Cultural and gender perspectives

21. Environmental education is :

A. less important to females than males.

B. equally important to all citizens regardless of any variables.

C. more important to farmers than engineers.

D. equally important to all students of the developing world but not in the developed

world.

22. Which of the following is not the characteristic of environmental education?

A. It focuses on past environmental situations and historical perspectives.

B. It is a right of every citizen.

C. It is interdisciplinary in its approach (should be part of every subject taught).

D. It considers the environment in its totality (natural, cultural, aesthetic and ethical).

23. Which of the following is a relatively wrong combination as far as the integration of

environmental issues and curriculum subjects of primary schools of Ethiopia are

concerned?

A. Constitutional rights and responsibilities of citizens concerning the environment -

Civics and Ethical Education

126

B. Letter writing to manufacturers about packaging – English

C. Measuring and recording the number and size of trees in a school compound –

Social studies

D. Solid waste disposal – Chemistry

24. Which of the following contents of environmental education can be considered as

irrelevant in the Ethiopian context?

A. The impacts of rapid population growth.

B. Environmental refuges of Bangladesh.

C. Food habits and cultural taboos.

D. Problems of poverty.

25. Environmental sustainability through environmental education is maintained best if

one of the following approaches of teaching is applied.

A. Teachers transmit knowledge and students are passive recipients

B. Teachers act as facilitators and students participate actively

C. Teachers play a collaborative inquirer role and students as active generators of new

ideas

D. Students are active participants and teachers as passive listeners to the students

views

26. As far as environmental education is concerned which of the following is the best

instructional resource?

A. Video

B. The environment itself

C. Written materials

D. Museums

127

III. Please indicate the degree to which you agree or disagree with each statement below

by putting a “√” mark in the appropriate box.

No Statements

Str

ongly

Agre

e

Mil

dly

Agre

e

Unsu

re

Mil

dly

Dis

agre

e

Str

ongly

Dis

agre

e

27 We are approaching the limit of the number of people

the earth can support

28 Humans have the right to modify the natural

environment to suit their needs

29 When humans interfere with nature it often produces

disastrous consequences

30 Human ingenuity will insure that we do Not make the

earth unlivable

31 Humans are severely abusing the environment

32 The earth has plenty of natural resources if we just

learn how to develop them

33 Plants and animals have as much right as humans to

exist

34 The balance of nature is strong enough to cope with

modern industrial nations

35 Despite our special abilities humans are still subject to

the laws of nature

36 The so-called “ecological crisis” facing human kind

has been greatly exaggerated

37 The earth is like a spaceship with very limited room

and resources

38 Humans were meant to rule over the rest of nature

39 The balance of nature is very delicate and easily upset

40 Humans will eventually learn enough about how

nature works to be able to control it

41 If things continue on their present course, we will

soon experience a major ecological catastrophe

128

IV. Please indicate the degree to which you agree or disagree with each statement below

by putting a “√‟‟ mark in the appropriate box.

No Statements

Str

ongly

Agre

e

Agre

e

Undec

ided

Dis

agre

e

Str

ongly

Dis

agre

e

42 There is a pressing need for teachers to become better

informed so that their students are given the most up-

to-date information about environmental trends

43 The methods teachers use to convey environmental

content are less important than the curriculum as far as

effective environmental education program is

concerned

44 Since environmental degradation is sometimes due to

the absence of options for engaging in

environmentally friendly activities, the role of

environmental education for the solution of

environmental problems is insignificant

45 Since many people do not know the full consequences

of their environmental actions, environmental

education is important

46 As information and communication technologies are

developing faster, the role of schools in realizing the

goals of environmental education is insignificant

47 Environmental education should be delivered across

the curriculum (should be part of all the subjects

taught)

48 Environmental Education in schools should be left to

interested teachers so that its implementation will

become effective

49 The focus of environmental education should be to

promote the belief in the rights of humans to control

nature and the capacity of science and technology to

manage the effects of environmental degradation

50 The focus of environmental education should be on

how humans can live in harmony with nature

129

51 Environmental knowledge should be constructed,

generated and initiated by the students themselves

52 Environmental teaching and learning should be based

on standardized outcomes (predetermined knowledge

and attitudes of the students)

53 Teaching about the possibility of a major ecological

catastrophe in the future will alert students for a

responsible environmental action

V. Please indicate how often you practice the following activities by putting a “√” mark

in the appropriate box.

No Activities

Usu

ally

Oft

en

Som

etim

es

Sel

dom

Nev

er

54 I present environmental knowledge/concepts in class

55 I guide students to explore local environmental

problems and solutions consciously

56 I introduce my students to some general ways of

solving certain environmental problems and guide

them to apply such methods to other problems

57 I assign students to bring some materials from the

local environment to be used for teaching

58 I read in class interesting articles about environmental

issues that I get from books, newspapers, magazines

etc.

59 I bring interesting pictures on environmental issues

and show to my students

60 I evaluate the curriculum and text book of the subject I

teach with regard to environmental issues

61 I organize and lead environmental clubs in school

62 I organize question and answer program on

environmental issues

130

63 I create links between my school and NGOs and

government offices which work for the protection of

the environment

64 I gather posters concerning environmental issues and

stick them in the school campus so that students can

learn

65 I write articles about the environment to be read

during the flag ceremony

66 I conduct local researches concerning environmental

issues

67 I plant trees in the school compound

68 I contribute articles concerning environmental issues

to regional and/or national mass media

69 I actively participate in environmental actions of the

community of which I am a member

70 I actively participate in local community organizations

working for the environment

71 I give quick and positive response when I am asked to

contribute money for environmental protection

72 I teach the local community about environmental

issues

73 I use the religious institution to which I belong to

promote the desirable environmental ethic

74 With regard to environmental behavior, I attempt to be

a role model for the community in my lifestyles

VI. To what extent do you think have the following experiences been useful to your

environmental & environmental education knowledge, attitude and skills? Put a “√”

mark in the appropriate box.

No Experiences

Gre

atly

Use

ful

Con

sid

erab

ly

Use

ful

Som

ewh

at

Use

ful

Lit

tle

Use

ful

Not

Use

ful

75 Pre-service training

131

76 In-service training

77 Workshops/Conferences

78 Personal reading

79 Electronics media

80 Print media

81 Others (please specify)

VII. How do you rate your competence to teach the following aspects of

environmental education? Put a “√” mark in the appropriate box.

No Aspects of Environmental Education

Exce

llen

t

Ver

y G

ood

Good

Fai

r

Poor

82 Developing awareness and sensitivity to the

environment

83 Developing knowledge and understanding about

the environment

84 Developing attitudes and values towards the

environment

85 Teaching skills in identifying and solving

environmental problems

86 Developing a sense of responsibility through

participation and action

132

VIII. How important are the following in enhancing your environmental education

activities? Put a “√” mark in the appropriate box.

No Items

Gre

atly

Import

ant

Consi

der

ably

Import

ant

Som

ewhat

Import

ant

Lit

tle

Import

ant

Not

Import

ant

87 Government policy

88 The curriculum

89 The textbooks

90 The school management

91 Others (please specify)

IX. To what extent do the following obstacles hinder your environmental education

activities? Put a “√” mark in the appropriate box.

No Obstacles

Gre

atly

Consi

de

rably

Som

ewh

at

Lit

tle

Not

at

all

92 Time constraints

93 Lack of teaching resource materials

94 Lack of training

95 Heavy workload

96 Lack of school support

97 Lack of commitment

98 The less emphasis given to environmental

education in the curriculum

99 Lack of funding

100 Others (please specify)

133

Appendix B Table 27: Rankings of the different experiences that have been useful for the teachers‟ knowledge, attitudes

and skills about environmental issues and environmental education.

No Rank by independent variables

Experiences (sources of

information)

Ov

er a

ll r

ank

sex Age (in

years)

School

location

Years of teaching

experiences

Subject taught Level

taught

Mal

e

Fem

ale

<2

6

26-3

5

36

-45

>4

5

Ru

ral

Urb

an

<6

6-1

0

11-2

0

21-3

0

>3

0

Lan

gu

age

Nat

ura

l sc

ience

s

Mat

hem

atic

s

So

cial

sci

ence

s

HP

E

Gra

de

5

Gra

de

6

Gra

de

7

Gra

de

8

79 Electronics media 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 2 1 3 1 1 1 1 1 2 2

78 Personal reading 2 2 2 2 1 2 3 2 2 1 3 2 2 1 2 1 2 2 2 2 2 3 1

80 Print media 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 3 3 4 3 3 3 3 4 3 3 3 3 3 4 3

76 In-service training 4 4 6 4 5 4 2 3 5 4 1 6 4 5 5 2 4 4 4 4 5 1 4

75 Pre-service training 5 5 4 5 4 5 5 5 4 5 5 4 5 6 4 5 5 5 5 5 4 5 5

77 Workshops/ conferences 6 6 5 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 5 6 5 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6

134

Appendix C Table 28 : Rank of teachers‟ competence to teach the various aspects of environmental education

No Rank by independent variables

Aspects of

environmental

education

Over

all

ran

k

sex Age (in

years)

School

location

Years of teaching

experiences

Subject taught Level

taught

Mal

e

Fem

ale

<2

6

26-3

5

36-4

5

>4

5

Ru

ral

Urb

an

<6

6-1

0

11-2

0

21-3

0

>3

0

Lan

gu

age

Nat

ura

l sc

ience

s

Mat

hem

atic

s

So

cial

sci

ence

s

HP

E

Gra

de

5

Gra

de

6

Gra

de

7

Gra

de

8

83 Developing

knowledge and

understanding about

the environment

1 1 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1

82 Developing awareness

and sensitivity to the

environment

2 2 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 2 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 2

84 Developing attitude

and values towards the

environment

3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3

85 Teaching skills in

identifying and

solving environmental

problems

4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 5 4 4

86 Developing a sense of

responsibility through

participation action

5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 4 5 5

135

Appendix D Table 29 : Rankings of the various opportunities for EE

No Rank by independent variables

Factors O

ver

all

ran

k

sex Age (in

years)

School

location

Years of teaching

experiences

Subject taught Level

taught

Mal

e

Fem

ale

<26

26-3

5

36-4

5

>45

Rura

l

Urb

an

<6

6-1

0

11-2

0

21-3

0

>30

Lan

guag

e

Nat

ura

l sc

ience

s

Mat

hem

atic

s

Soci

al s

cien

ces

HP

E

Gra

de

5

Gra

de

6

Gra

de

7

Gra

de

8

89 The textbooks 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 2 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 2 1 1 1 1 1

88 The curriculum 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 1 2 1 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 1 2 2 2 2 2

87 Government policy 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3

90 The school management 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4

136

Appendix E Table 30: Rank order of the various obstacles that hinder teachers‟ environmental education activities

No Rank by independent variables

Obstacles O

ver

all

ran

k

sex Age (in

years)

School

location

Years of teaching

experiences

Subject taught Level

taught

Mal

e

Fem

ale

<2

6

26

-35

36

-45

>4

5

Ru

ral

Urb

an

<6

6-1

0

11

-20

21

-30

>3

0

Lan

gu

age

Nat

ura

l sc

ience

s

Mat

hem

atic

s

So

cial

sci

ence

s

HP

E

Gra

de

5

Gra

de

6

Gra

de

7

Gra

de

8

95 Heavy workload 1 1 1 2 1 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 5 1 2 4 1 1 1 3 1 3

93 Lack of teaching

resources materials

2 2 3 1 2 2 2 2 3 2 2 2 3 1 2 1 1 3 4 2 2 3 1

94 Lack of training 3 3 2 3 3 1 3 3 2 3 2 1 1 2 2 3 2 2 1 3 1 2 1

92 Time constraints 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 4 4 3 4 3 4 4 4 4

96 Lack of school support 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5

97 Lack of commitment 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6

99 Lack of funding 7 7 7 7 7 7 8 7 7 7 8 7 8 8 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 8

98 The less emphasis given

to EE in the curriculum

8 8 8 8 8 8 7 8 8 8 7 8 7 7 8 8 8 8 7 8 8 8 7

137

Appendix F The New Ecological Paradigm Scale Items (Dunlap et al., 2000, p. 433)

No Statements

Str

ongly

Agre

e

Mil

dly

Agre

e

Unsu

re

Mil

dly

Dis

agre

e

Str

ongly

Dis

agre

e

1 We are approaching the limit of the number of people

the earth can support

2 Humans have the right to modify the natural

environment to suit their needs

3 When humans interfere with nature it often produces

disastrous consequences

4 Human ingenuity will insure that we do Not make the

earth unlivable

5 Humans are severely abusing the environment

6 The earth has plenty of natural resources if we just

learn how to develop them

7 Plants and animals have as much right as humans to

exist

8 The balance of nature is strong enough to cope with

modern industrial nations

9 Despite our special abilities humans are still subject to

the laws of nature

10 The so-called “ecological crisis” facing human kind

has been greatly exaggerated

11 The earth is like a spaceship with very limited room

and resources

12 Humans were meant to rule over the rest of nature

13 The balance of nature is very delicate and easily upset

14 Humans will eventually learn enough about how

nature works to be able to control it

15 If things continue on their present course, we will

soon experience a major ecological catastrophe

138

Appendix G Map of the Study Area

Source: ANRS Finance & Economic Development Bureau