Week 3a. Categories, features, natural classes, and morphology. CAS LX 522 Syntax I.

Week 3a. Categories, Week 3a. Categories, features, natural classes, and features, natural classes, and

morphology.morphology.

CAS LX 522CAS LX 522Syntax ISyntax I

Previously, in LX522…Previously, in LX522…

So, here’s where we were.So, here’s where we were. We’re trying to characterize our We’re trying to characterize our

knowledge of syntax, using English knowledge of syntax, using English speaker’s knowledge of English as a speaker’s knowledge of English as a window to the kinds of things we need to window to the kinds of things we need to describe language.describe language.

Words seem to come in categories (N, V, Words seem to come in categories (N, V, A, P, C, I, PRN, D, …). English treats these A, P, C, I, PRN, D, …). English treats these differently, so to describe English, our differently, so to describe English, our theory needs to treat them differently.theory needs to treat them differently.

Previously, in LX522…Previously, in LX522…

We’ve collected a number of features We’ve collected a number of features that seem to make a difference in that seem to make a difference in various ways.various ways.

We have the category, e.g., [+N], [+V].We have the category, e.g., [+N], [+V]. But we seem to have subcategories too, But we seem to have subcategories too,

e.g., [+Pl], [+Common], [+Count].e.g., [+Pl], [+Common], [+Count]. These features These features mattermatter to how we can to how we can

combine words. Language cares, and combine words. Language cares, and so, therefore, do we.so, therefore, do we.

The surfaceThe surface

Before going on, let’s take a detour, Before going on, let’s take a detour, because if we don’t, things are just because if we don’t, things are just going to get confusing.going to get confusing.

So far, we have looked at a So far, we have looked at a wordword, , and tried to determine what its and tried to determine what its relevant features are.relevant features are.

BooksBooks [+N, +Count, +Common +Pl]. [+N, +Count, +Common +Pl]. WrittenWritten [+V, +Participle, +Perfect] [+V, +Participle, +Perfect]

Where’s the feature?Where’s the feature?

This is useful in that we get a hint as to This is useful in that we get a hint as to what features are required. But consider:what features are required. But consider: Bill ate lunch.Bill ate lunch. Bill will eat lunch.Bill will eat lunch. Bill did not eat lunch.Bill did not eat lunch. Bill does not eat lunch.Bill does not eat lunch. You do not eat lunch.You do not eat lunch. We do not eat lunch.We do not eat lunch.

What are the features of What are the features of ateate? ? eateat? ? diddid? ? doesdoes? ? dodo??

Why is this so confusing?Why is this so confusing? So, So, dodo seems to be: seems to be:

[+Pres], and[+Pres], and not [+3, +Sg], andnot [+3, +Sg], and only shows up in the negative.only shows up in the negative.

Ouch.Ouch. That’s rather inelegant.That’s rather inelegant. Here’s the problem: Here’s the problem: I sat on the bank. I I sat on the bank. I

saw the candidate with the binoculars. saw the candidate with the binoculars. Visiting relatives can be tedious.Visiting relatives can be tedious.

See?See?

We’re going the wrong We’re going the wrong wayway

There are two different There are two different intentsintents underlying underlying Visiting relatives can be Visiting relatives can be tedious (so I do it as little as possible)tedious (so I do it as little as possible), , and and Visiting relatives can be tedious (so I Visiting relatives can be tedious (so I avoid them as often as possible)avoid them as often as possible)..

They happen to They happen to soundsound the same, but they the same, but they have a different have a different underlyingunderlying structure. structure.

In general, what’s unique is the In general, what’s unique is the underlying intent/structure, underlying intent/structure, notnot the the pronounced form.pronounced form.

Generative grammarGenerative grammar The syntactic system we are going to The syntactic system we are going to

build is a build is a generative grammargenerative grammar.. It builds up an It builds up an underlyingunderlying structure, structure,

which is then pronounced.which is then pronounced. The two versions of The two versions of Visiting relatives can Visiting relatives can

be tediousbe tedious are are differentdifferent sentences. sentences.

……But wasn’t our goal to explain how But wasn’t our goal to explain how people could tell if sentences they hear people could tell if sentences they hear are part of their language or not?are part of their language or not?

Judging sentencesJudging sentences

The view of sentence judgment we’ll The view of sentence judgment we’ll adopt here is basically one of asking adopt here is basically one of asking oneself: oneself: Could I say that sentence?Could I say that sentence?

When listening to somebody, you of When listening to somebody, you of course need to decode what that course need to decode what that person meant, but it is a process of person meant, but it is a process of recovering the recovering the underlying formunderlying form of of their utterance.their utterance.

A very, very little bit of A very, very little bit of FrenchFrench

If you’ve tried to learn any French at all, If you’ve tried to learn any French at all, you’ve come across this phenomenon:you’ve come across this phenomenon: dede ‘of’ ‘of’ lele ‘the (masculine)’ ‘the (masculine)’ àà ‘at’ ‘at’ lala ‘the (feminine)’ ‘the (feminine)’ à la à la biblioteque biblioteque ‘to the library (fem)’‘to the library (fem)’ **à leà le cinéma cinéma ‘to the movies (masc)’‘to the movies (masc)’ auau cinema cinema ‘to the movies (masc)’‘to the movies (masc)’ de la de la mayonnaisemayonnaise ‘of mayonnaise (fem)’‘of mayonnaise (fem)’ de le de le laitlait of milk (masc)of milk (masc) du du laitlait ‘of milk’ (masc)‘of milk’ (masc)

A very, very little bit of A very, very little bit of FrenchFrench

This is usually taught as:This is usually taught as: au = à + leau = à + le du = de + ledu = de + le

If your underlying intent is If your underlying intent is àà ‘at’ + ‘at’ + le le ‘the’, you pronounce it like ‘the’, you pronounce it like auau..

So is So is auau a preposition or an article? a preposition or an article?

What does this have to What does this have to do with eating lunch?do with eating lunch?

And now we can return to the point:And now we can return to the point: Bill ate lunch.Bill ate lunch. Bill eats lunch.Bill eats lunch. Bill does not eat lunch.Bill does not eat lunch. Bill will (not) eat lunch.Bill will (not) eat lunch.

What generalizations can we come up What generalizations can we come up with here? How are the features with here? How are the features organized in these simple sentences?organized in these simple sentences? Why did I juxtapose Why did I juxtapose àà++lele==au au from French from French

with with Bill ate lunchBill ate lunch? Where is tense? Where is ? Where is tense? Where is the verb? What is the verb? What is ateate? What does ? What does dodo mean? mean?

Falling into placeFalling into place If we suppose that these sentences all have the If we suppose that these sentences all have the

same form…same form…

Subject Tense/Agreement (Not) Verb Subject Tense/Agreement (Not) Verb ObjectObject

…things start to look a lot more regular, …things start to look a lot more regular, describable. This is the structure of a sentence.describable. This is the structure of a sentence. That Tense+Verb comes out as “Tensed Verb” is a That Tense+Verb comes out as “Tensed Verb” is a

matter of matter of pronunciationpronunciation. If you separate Tense from . If you separate Tense from the Verb with the Verb with notnot, they no longer can combine. In , they no longer can combine. In order to pronounce Tense, you insert order to pronounce Tense, you insert dodo..

Falling into placeFalling into place

Moving one step closer to syntactic Moving one step closer to syntactic structure:structure:

[[NPNP Subject] I (not) V [ Subject] I (not) V [NPNP Object] Object]

So [±Past, ±1, ±2, ±Pl] are features of So [±Past, ±1, ±2, ±Pl] are features of I.I.

[±1, ±2, ±Pl, ±Common, ±Count, …] [±1, ±2, ±Pl, ±Common, ±Count, …] are features of N.are features of N.

[+V] is a feature of V.[+V] is a feature of V.

Those pesky participlesThose pesky participles Bill will have been eating lunchBill will have been eating lunch

[[NPNP Bill] [ Bill] [II will] [ will] [VV have] [ have] [VV been] [ been] [VV eating] eating] [[NPNP lunch] lunch]

will [+Fut]will [+Fut] have [+Vaux]have [+Vaux] been [+Vaux, +Participle +Perf]been [+Vaux, +Participle +Perf] eating [+V, +Participle, -Perf]eating [+V, +Participle, -Perf]

Crosscategorial featuresCrosscategorial features

Consider what Consider what unun can attach to. can attach to. untie, unfold, unwrap, unpackuntie, unfold, unwrap, unpack unhappy, unfriendly, undeadunhappy, unfriendly, undead *uncity, *uncola, *unconvention*uncity, *uncola, *unconvention *unupon, *unalongside, *unat*unupon, *unalongside, *unat

Basically, it applies to reversible Basically, it applies to reversible verbs and adjectives, but not to nouns verbs and adjectives, but not to nouns or prepositions. How can we state or prepositions. How can we state that?that?


Suppose that nouns and verbs are the most Suppose that nouns and verbs are the most basic categories. A noun is a noun and not a basic categories. A noun is a noun and not a verb, and verb is a verb and not a noun.verb, and verb is a verb and not a noun. Noun: [+N, -V].Noun: [+N, -V]. Verb: [-N, +V].Verb: [-N, +V].

A possible conceptual reason to separate A possible conceptual reason to separate nouns and verbs is that verbs are basically nouns and verbs is that verbs are basically predicatespredicates— they attribute some property — they attribute some property to the noun. Nouns are basically to the noun. Nouns are basically argumentsarguments, , to be assigned properties by verbs.to be assigned properties by verbs.


Looked at this way, adjectives are Looked at this way, adjectives are kind of “verby” in that they are also kind of “verby” in that they are also attributing properties.attributing properties.

It’s It’s hardhard to make that really precise, to make that really precise, but we have a more concrete syntactic but we have a more concrete syntactic similarity between verbs and adjectives similarity between verbs and adjectives too: both can take too: both can take un-un-, while nouns and , while nouns and prepositions cannot. prepositions cannot.

SupercategoriesSupercategories

Chomsky (1970) proposed that we Chomsky (1970) proposed that we explain this by supposing that [±N] explain this by supposing that [±N] and [±V] are the two basic features and [±V] are the two basic features that determine the four lexical that determine the four lexical categories (N, V, A, P).categories (N, V, A, P). N: [+N, -V]N: [+N, -V] V: [-N, +V]V: [-N, +V] P: [-N, -V]P: [-N, -V] A: [+N, +V]A: [+N, +V]

Given that, what does Given that, what does un un attach to?attach to?

SupercategoriesSupercategories

So, So, un aun attaches to a [+V] category. It ttaches to a [+V] category. It doesn’t care about [±N]. [+V] defines a doesn’t care about [±N]. [+V] defines a natural classnatural class that language refers to. that language refers to.

Why is A [+V, +N] and P [-V, -N]?Why is A [+V, +N] and P [-V, -N]? Suppose we had a morpheme that attaches Suppose we had a morpheme that attaches

just to V and P, how could we state that?just to V and P, how could we state that? Do V and P form a natural class too?Do V and P form a natural class too?

Russian CaseRussian Case Other languages can give us evidence of Other languages can give us evidence of

natural classes as well. E.g., Russian nouns natural classes as well. E.g., Russian nouns (all nouns) are marked for Case (like English (all nouns) are marked for Case (like English pronouns are: pronouns are: me me vs. vs. II), but when they are ), but when they are modified by an adjective, the adjective is also modified by an adjective, the adjective is also marked for case.marked for case.

What gets marked for Case in Russian?What gets marked for Case in Russian?

KrasivayKrasivayaa

dyevushkdyevushkaa

vsunulvsunulaa

chornuychornuyuu

koshkkoshkuu

vv pustuypustuyuu

korobkkorobkuu

beautifulbeautiful girlgirl putput blackblack catcat inin emptyempty boxbox

‘‘The beautiful girl put the black cat in the empty box’The beautiful girl put the black cat in the empty box’

Functional and lexicalFunctional and lexical That takes care of N, V, A, P, but what about That takes care of N, V, A, P, but what about

our functional categories?our functional categories? In fact, the functional categories (C, I, D, In fact, the functional categories (C, I, D,

PRN) each seem a little like a lexical PRN) each seem a little like a lexical category.category. Auxiliaries seem a lot like verbs (Auxiliaries seem a lot like verbs (have, be, dohave, be, do), ),

and inflect like verbs do. and inflect like verbs do. CouldCould and and cancan, , WouldWould and and willwill might be supposed to differ in tense. might be supposed to differ in tense.

Complementizers and infinitival Complementizers and infinitival toto seem a bit seem a bit like prepositions (e.g., like prepositions (e.g., for, tofor, to).).

Pronouns are kind of nouny.Pronouns are kind of nouny. Determiners are a bit adjectivey.Determiners are a bit adjectivey.

Auxiliary verbs and verbsAuxiliary verbs and verbs Verbs and auxiliary verbs are subject to Verbs and auxiliary verbs are subject to

some of the same processes.some of the same processes. They inflect for tense, they inflect for subject They inflect for tense, they inflect for subject

agreement.agreement. Suggests: They form a Suggests: They form a natural class.natural class. Suppose there’s a feature (say [+F] for Suppose there’s a feature (say [+F] for

“functional”) that differentiates them.“functional”) that differentiates them. Both are [+V, -N], but Both are [+V, -N], but bebe is [+F], and is [+F], and eateat

is [-F].is [-F]. Thus: [+V, -N] inflects for tense and Thus: [+V, -N] inflects for tense and

subject agreement.subject agreement.

Auxiliary verbs and IAuxiliary verbs and I

On the other hand, auxiliary verbs act like On the other hand, auxiliary verbs act like elements of category I, appearing in that elements of category I, appearing in that spot between the Subject and (Not) V.spot between the Subject and (Not) V.

Auxiliary verbs are [+V, -N, +F].Auxiliary verbs are [+V, -N, +F]. Other elements of category I might be like Other elements of category I might be like

prepositions, e.g., prepositions, e.g., toto. If these are “functional . If these are “functional prepositions”, then they are [-V, -N, +F].prepositions”, then they are [-V, -N, +F].

Do Auxiliary verbs and Do Auxiliary verbs and toto form a natural form a natural class?class?

““Grammatical category”Grammatical category” So what, then is a grammatical category?So what, then is a grammatical category?

A A grammatical categorygrammatical category is a set of elements is a set of elements which have the same value(s) for a given set of which have the same value(s) for a given set of grammatical features. It’s really a grammatical features. It’s really a natural natural classclass..

Category labels like “N”, or “Aux” are really Category labels like “N”, or “Aux” are really just shorthand for feature matrices like [+N, -just shorthand for feature matrices like [+N, -V, -F], or [-N, +V, +F]. Notationally V, -F], or [-N, +V, +F]. Notationally convenient, but only respected as such by convenient, but only respected as such by some parts of the grammar.some parts of the grammar.

Sentences are made of Sentences are made of words?words?

Bill kicked the pail.Bill kicked the pail. Bill mailed the letter.Bill mailed the letter. Bill did not kick the pail.Bill did not kick the pail. Bill did not mail the letter.Bill did not mail the letter.

Remembering that Remembering that àà++lele==au au in French, we in French, we said that underlyingly, these are:said that underlyingly, these are:

Bill Tense (Not) Verb ObjectBill Tense (Not) Verb Object Is Tense a word? Is Tense a word?

Tense is not a wordTense is not a word In English, past tense is not really a word.In English, past tense is not really a word. It’s a It’s a morphememorpheme. It’s a . It’s a suffixsuffix. Regularly, . Regularly, -ed-ed..

Of course there are lots of special cases (Of course there are lots of special cases (wrotewrote, , fed, drewfed, drew), but these at least all seem to be ), but these at least all seem to be modifications of the end of the word.modifications of the end of the word.

Suppose then, that we have:Suppose then, that we have:Bill -ed (not) kick the pail.Bill -ed (not) kick the pail.

Of course, you can’t pronounce an affix. An Of course, you can’t pronounce an affix. An definitional property of an affix is that it definitional property of an affix is that it attaches to a wordattaches to a word (of a particular category: (of a particular category: past tense -past tense -ed ed is a is a verbalverbal affixaffix). If forced to ). If forced to pronounce pronounce -ed-ed, you insert a meaningless verb , you insert a meaningless verb to attach it to (to attach it to (dodo).).

Bill will kick the pailBill will kick the pail Actually, tense Actually, tense cancan be a word, if it’s the future be a word, if it’s the future

tense tense willwill..

Note: If Note: If would would is the past tense of is the past tense of willwill, then it , then it is probably not correct to think of is probably not correct to think of willwill as as being simply a future marker. Rather, it’s one being simply a future marker. Rather, it’s one of the modals, an “unrealized” marker, which of the modals, an “unrealized” marker, which makes sense as long as time goes invariably makes sense as long as time goes invariably forward, as it seems to. Many people forward, as it seems to. Many people nevertheless consider nevertheless consider willwill to be the same to be the same category of thing as category of thing as -ed-ed, so we will for now , so we will for now ignore this complication, since it matters little ignore this complication, since it matters little to what we’re going to do.to what we’re going to do.

Sentences are made of Sentences are made of morphemesmorphemes

We will have more success if we We will have more success if we assume that sentences are made of assume that sentences are made of things that can be smaller than words.things that can be smaller than words.

Here’s another example: Here’s another example: Bill’s pailBill’s pail..

What is that What is that ‘s‘s there? What does it there? What does it mean?mean?

Possessive Possessive ’s’s

Is Is ’s’s a suffix? a suffix? The man from Australia’s hat.The man from Australia’s hat. The man who left’s hat.The man who left’s hat.

What does What does ’s’s attach to? attach to? The possessive The possessive ’s’s is not really an is not really an

affix, but it’s not really a word either.affix, but it’s not really a word either. These things usually go by the name These things usually go by the name

cliticclitic. They’re like a little word that . They’re like a little word that leansleans on a nearby word. on a nearby word.

CliticsClitics Plenty of languages have clitics. English Plenty of languages have clitics. English

has a few.has a few. Isn’t that Bill’s hat?Isn’t that Bill’s hat? Yes, that’s Bill’s hat.Yes, that’s Bill’s hat. Wouldn’t you like a hat like Bill’s?Wouldn’t you like a hat like Bill’s?

French (again) has them: French (again) has them: je parsje pars, , *je*je, , moimoi..

Essentially, we want to treat clitics, Essentially, we want to treat clitics, affixes, and words on a par in the affixes, and words on a par in the underlying structure— they differ in underlying structure— they differ in pronunciationpronunciation..

Moral: Underlying ≠ Moral: Underlying ≠ SurfaceSurface

The larger point here is that sentences have The larger point here is that sentences have two forms: the two forms: the underlyingunderlying form (which is our form (which is our primary concern) and the primary concern) and the surfacesurface form form (which is really where our data comes from).(which is really where our data comes from).

We can deduce things about the structure of the We can deduce things about the structure of the underlying form from the surface form, and by underlying form from the surface form, and by positing abstract elements like affixes, clitics, positing abstract elements like affixes, clitics, features, we can describe in a concise (and features, we can describe in a concise (and predictive) manner what things Language allows.predictive) manner what things Language allows.

The morphology of The morphology of bebe

I was sleepy.I was sleepy. You are sleepy.You are sleepy. We are sleepy.We are sleepy.

What features does the auxiliary What features does the auxiliary be be have (among [±1, ±2, ±Pl, ±Past])?have (among [±1, ±2, ±Pl, ±Past])?

If If bebe has [-1, -2, -Pl, -Past], how is it has [-1, -2, -Pl, -Past], how is it pronounced? And [-1, -2, +Pl, +Past]?pronounced? And [-1, -2, +Pl, +Past]?

The morphology of The morphology of bebe Consider the whole set. There are only five different Consider the whole set. There are only five different

pronunciations: pronunciations: amam, , areare, , isis, , waswas, , werewere. How can we write . How can we write a set of feature-based pronunciation rules to describe a set of feature-based pronunciation rules to describe this?this?

[-Past][-Past] [+Past][+Past]

[-Pl][-Pl] [+Pl][+Pl] [-Pl][-Pl] [+Pl][+Pl]

[+1][+1] 11 amam areare waswas werewere

[-1, [-1, +2]+2]

22 areare areare werewere werewere

[-1, -2][-1, -2] 33 isis areare waswas werewere

The morphology of The morphology of bebe Try it in words first. When is the [-Past] Try it in words first. When is the [-Past]

pronounced pronounced IsIs? ? AmAm? ? AreAre??




[-1, [-1, +2]+2]



The morphology of The morphology of bebe [-Past, -1, -2, -Pl] = [-Past, -1, -2, -Pl] = isis.. [-Past, +1, -Pl] = [-Past, +1, -Pl] = amam.. [-Past] = [-Past] = areare..




[-1, [-1, +2]+2]







[-1, [-1, +2]+2]



Morphology often has thischaracter, where the pronunciationrules have a “specific case” and a“general case” if the specific case

does not apply.





[-1, [-1, +2]+2]



Ok, your turn.What’s the rest?

The morphology of The morphology of bebe [-Past, -1, -2, -Pl] = [-Past, -1, -2, -Pl] = isis.. [+Past] = [+Past] =

werewere [-Past, +1, -Pl] = [-Past, +1, -Pl] = amam.. [ ] = [ ] = areare [+Past, -2, -Pl] = [+Past, -2, -Pl] = waswas..




[-1, [-1, +2]+2]



The morphology of The morphology of bebe

Ok, let’s test it out.Ok, let’s test it out.

[-Past, -1, -2, -Pl] = [-Past, -1, -2, -Pl] = isis.. [+Past] = [+Past] = werewere

[-Past, +1, -Pl] = [-Past, +1, -Pl] = amam.. [ ] = [ ] = areare [+Past, -2, -Pl] = [+Past, -2, -Pl] = waswas..

II [+1, -2, -Pl, -Past, -N, +V, +F] [+1, -2, -Pl, -Past, -N, +V, +F] ecstatic.ecstatic. TheyThey [-1, -2, +Pl, +Past, -N, +V, +F] [-1, -2, +Pl, +Past, -N, +V, +F] leaving.leaving. Y’allY’all [-1, +2, +Pl, -Past, -N, +V, +F] [-1, +2, +Pl, -Past, -N, +V, +F] late.late.

Separating the Separating the underlying from the underlying from the

pronouncedpronounced This is a worthwhile point to remember. There is This is a worthwhile point to remember. There is an underlying feature bundle, the auxiliary is an an underlying feature bundle, the auxiliary is an auxiliary auxiliary bebe, with a tense, and some agreement , with a tense, and some agreement features. We know the rules about pronouncing features. We know the rules about pronouncing those features. Sometimes two feature bundles those features. Sometimes two feature bundles end up being pronounced in the same way.end up being pronounced in the same way.

In a real sense, the In a real sense, the areare in in You are happy You are happy and the and the areare in in We are happyWe are happy are are different wordsdifferent words, that , that just happen to be pronounced the same way. But just happen to be pronounced the same way. But they they could havecould have been pronounced distinctly. been pronounced distinctly.

Week 3a. Categories, features, natural classes, and morphology. CAS LX 522 Syntax I.

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Transcript of Week 3a. Categories, features, natural classes, and morphology. CAS LX 522 Syntax I.