Week 2

The Nature of Research in Psychology

Figure 2.3 Process of theory development

Figure 2.4 Normal distribution

The Scientific Method, cont.• If results are interesting, scientists try to PUBLISH

findings

• In published accounts, psychologists include the METHOD (How the experiment was run) so …

• Others may REPLICATE or run the same study

• If the study is run again and the same findings are obtained more sure that the information is reliable and valid

Diversity of Perspectives

• Many perspectives used to study the breadth of psychology’s content

• Different perspectives that can be brought to bear on a single phenomena such as EATING

To study EATING, we can look at:

• Biological Basis for eating• Eating and the social world• Eating Disorders• Cognitive Control over eating• The Development of Food Preferences• Cultural Influences on eating

Formulating a Testable Hypothesis• Dependent Variable: the variable of interest;

defined clearly and easily measurable

• Independent Variable: the factor whose effects we wish to examine

• Intervening Variable: a factor that is used to explain relationship between observed variables, such as independent and dependent variables, in empirical research.– motivation, intelligence, intention, expectation

• Some arousal is necessary for work performance.

• High arousal is helpful on easy tasks.

• As level of arousal increases, quality of performance decreases with task difficulty.

Degree of arousal

Qu

alit

y o

f p

erfo

rman

ce

Very difficult task

Moderatelydifficult task

Easy task

Are there differences between gender stereotypes and ‘reality’ ?

Are men or women more ... ?independent

assertivecompetitiveaffectionatesympathetic

sensitive to others

13:1-1

13:1-2

Work Psychology

What is work?

• Work provides opportunities through training for individuals to become more competent in their skill-base, to learn completely new skills, to discover potential abilities and to pursue and develop personal goals.

What is work psychology?• Work psychology is an expanding and important

discipline and threats almost every aspect of organizational life.

• Understanding the ways in which individuals are selected, recruited, trained and developed is fundamental to getting the right people to right organization and more importantly, keeping them there.

• How did you get recruited for this Department?

Why should future managers and employees study work psychology?

• How managers build, shape, motivate, communicate with their teams will certainly impact on the success of their organization.

• On the other side, for employees learning how to work with others, how to manage your boss, how to minimize conflict, and how to recognize stress in ourselves and others is an important part of work psychology .

Why ‘work’ psychology?

• Applied, organizational, vocational, industrial, occupational often used interchangeably with reference to work psychology.– Europeans prefer ‘work psychology’– Americans ‘industrial and organizational’ – British tends to use ‘occupational’– ‘Occupational psychology is the science of people at work.

Rigor and methods of psychology are applied to issues of critical relevance to business, including talent management, coaching, assessment, selection, training, organizational development, performance, well-being, and work-life balance.’ (The British Psychological Society)

The Evolution of Work Psychology• Adam Smith

– Published The Wealth of Nations in 1776• Advocated the division of labor (job specialization) to

increase the productivity of workers

• Industrial Revolution– Substituted machine power for human labor– Created large organizations which engaged in

mass production and needed management structures.

Classical Approaches• F.W. Taylor with his book “Principles of

Scientific Management” (1911) popularized the use of scientific methods

• Search for the “one best way” for a job to be done. Some of these techniques:– the analysis of work, – time-and-motion studies – documentation of optimum performances– skills training– incentive schemes to reward workers

Copyright ©2011 Pearson Education

The Hawthorne Studies

• Conducted (1924-1932) at the Western Electric Company Works these studies: – Provided new insights into

individual and group behaviorin the behavior of people at work.

– Concluded that group pressures can significantly impact individual productivity

– This studies paved the way for the human relations movement.

Copyright ©2011 Pearson Education 1-19

What do the work psychologists do?• How people perform at work ?• How they learn best ?• How individuals and groups interact and function effectively

in organizations ?• How organizations can be as effective as possible for their

employees; such as what are the best leadership styles, team management and ways of strategic planning?

• …

• As a bottom line, work psychologists help companies to achieve the best, from both an organizational and individual perspective.

Social Influence: Obedience

• Why do people obey doctors prescriptions or traffic polices orders?

• Some obedience obviously necessary for life in a complex society.

• Should an employee obey the orders of a manager? What if the orders are against conscience or immoral?

Milgram’s experiments

• Participants: told they would be delivering shocks in a learning experiment – No shocks were ever actually delivered: confederates

were actors– Shock level: dials labeled mild to deadly: 15 to 450+ mv

• “Teacher” (participant) and “Learner” (confederate) separated into 2 cubicles, but could hear each other

• “Teacher” instructed to shock “learner” in increasing amounts of voltage, whenever learner made a mistake

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0f/Milgram_Experiment_v2.png

• Scripted errors by “learner” resulted in “teacher” being “required” to administer lethal shock

• How many “teachers” obeyed?– 65% of all participants, equal percentage for

male and female, obeyed to the end– Displayed many moral qualms, became

distressed, clearly did NOT want to obey – but did so anyway

– Variations: reading the list 90%

Overview of Milgram’s experiments:

• The situation (“working” for a prestigious labratory) is more powerful than anyone at the time had predicted.

• Although 65% obeyed, 35% did not: what factors were important for those who refused?

Variables that influence obedience:

• Decreased sense of personal responsibility• Increased psychological distance from actions

and results• Dehumanization of victim• Progressive escalation of requests – the

“slippery slope” of obedience

Simplistic Moral Advice

• Adopt moral values

• Have integrity

• Exercise willpower