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SPECIALIZATION OF THE HUMAN SPEECH APPARATUS

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Language, as defined in Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, is system of

sounds, words, patterns, etc. used by humans to communicate thoughts and feelings

in a particular group or nation. System in this definition, according to Dardjowidjojo

(2003), refers to the existence of elements related to one another which at last form a

hierarchy constituent. In phonology, for example, those elements are the sounds

existing in a language. Those sounds, then, form a system.

Referring to the above definition, especially sounds, we may not realize that

using a language is a completely difficult skill. The speech acts which are produced in

the form of sounds through the air are actually very complex. We, then, will feel the

difficulty if we hear someone talking in a foreign language and we do not know or

understand the language well. In fact we have to try to analyze the speech acts

produced in order that we can understand the meaning.

One difficulty is that when someone talks, he will produce many words. It is

estimated that in using English, a speaker will produce about 125-180 words per

minute (Gleason and Ratner in Dardjowidjojo), while an Indonesian speaker will

produce around 80-110 words per minute (Dardjowidjojo, 2003). Viewed from the

the amounts of sounds speeched, it is found that when someone speaks he will speech

out between 1500-1800 sounds per minute. The problem is how we can catch, and

then analyze the sounds speeched out in the so called speedy.

Another difficulty is that sounds in a speech act are not speeched one by one

or separately, but they seem speeched out unitedly with other sounds. We, the

listeners, are hoped to be able to separate which one follows which one. When the

sentence Ed had edited it is pronounced normally, it will sound strange and funny,

/ƐdhædƐditidit/, but the native speakers still can interprete it well.

Specialization of The Human Speech Apparatus 1

The voice of a woman, a man, and a child is also different. A man’s voice will

be ‘hard’, while a woman’s will be ‘high’. The differences, of course, will arise

different voices, eventhough they pronounce the same word. The word sleep, which is

pronounced by a man, a woman, and a child, will sound differently. However, we as

the listeners still can interprete it as the same word. How can we do it? To answer the

question, we, then, need to know how the speech acts are produced.

CHAPTER II

DISCUSSION


A. Human and Animal Language

All creatures have a communication system that may make them live in a

group, in a subgroup, and make them cooperate among others (Nababan, 1992). Not

only humans, the animals also have the communication system, called language. It is,

then, questioned whether the languages used by the humans and animals are the same

or not.

Dardjowidjojo (2003) states that there are some special characteristics which

differentiate the humans language from the animals one, namely:

1. Human language has structure-dependence. One cluster of words in a sentence

is not forming an unordered sequence, but one is dependent on the others.

2. Both the language and the users are creative. The users of the language are

creative because they have ability to understand and produce new speech.

While, the language is creative because its structure allows the users to

manipulate the language in accordance with the existing rules.

3. The language can be used to express past phenomenon, future phenomenon,

even imaginary phenomenon.

4. Language has double structure, namely: deep structure and surface structure.

5. The language is acquired continually, passing on from one generation to the

others.

6. The relationship between the words and the thing, action, or situation they

refer to is arbitrary.

7. Language has double pattern. It means the speeches mean nothing unless they

are linked together.

8. The language has semantic concept. When a name is given, the name will

always refers to the concept of the thing.

B. Human of Speech Apparatus


The source of the sound is from the lungs. The air, pumped by the lungs

through the larynx, goes out through the mouth or the nose. During the process, the

air sometimes is blocked by one of the mouth parts until it is released out. The

blocked air, then, produces sound.

The air pumped out by the lungs passes through a place called glottis. This air,

then, goes through a tube called pharynx. There are two ways in the pharynx: first,

through the nasal cavity and second, through the oral cavity. The sound produced

through the nose termed nasal, while the sound produced through the mouth termed

oral. For the detail, it is shown in the following pictures.

If the human head were cut in half down the midline, the organs of speech would

appear like this:


http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_7BQBXIFrUm8/SFbm0VQK41I/AAAAAAAAAA4/cbl52Fnq1EY/s1600-h/midsagittal.gif


http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_7BQBXIFrUm8/SFbnzSxRElI/AAAAAAAAABA/PVoZsA8aKZk/s1600-h/organs.jpg

There are two parts in oral cavity: the upper part and lower part. Those parts

are described as the followings.

1. Lips: upper lip and lower lip. These lips can be joined to produce sound called

labial, for example [p], [b], [m].

2. Teeth: the upper teeth can touch the lower lip to produce labiodentals sound,

like [f], [v]. The upper teeth can also touch the tip of the tongue to produce

dental sound, like [t], [d] in Indonesian.

3. Alveolar: this part is at the back of upper teeth ridge. The tip of the tongue can

be put on the alveolar to produce alveolar sound, like [t], [d] in English.

4. Hard palate: a part in the upper mouth cavity, in backside of the alveolar. The

front tongue can be put on this part to produce alveopalatal sound, like [c], [j]

in Indonesian.

5. Soft palate or velum: this part is at the back side of the upper mouth cavity.

The back part of the tongue can be put on this part to produce velar sound,

like [k], [g] in Indonesian.

6. Uvula: a soft bone existing on the tip of the upper jaw. Uvula can move to

block or open the tract to the nose. When uvula does not touch the upper part

of the larynx, the air expelled through the nose and it produces nasal sound.

On the other hand, when uvula touches the larynx, the air expelled through the

mouth and it produces oral sound.

7. Tongue: a part which is located in the lower jaw, next to the lips and the teeth.

There are some parts of tongue, namely: tip of the tongue, front tongue, and

back tongue. These parts can be moved forward, backward, upward, or

downward to produce certain sounds.

8. Vocal cords: a couple of membranes on the larynx. These membranes can be

joined, spaced, or widely opened.

9. Pharynx: an air tract to the mouth cavity or the nose cavity.


10. Nose cavity: a cavity for nasal sounds.

11. Mouth cavity: a cavity for oral sounds.

Figure : The upper part of the larynx

C. How Speech Sounds are Produced

As stated above that the sounds produced are grouped into nasal and oral

sounds. As an addition, the sounds can also be grouped into consonant and vocal

sounds. The differences are on the way of producing them.

1. Consonant sounds

The sounds are produced by using the mouth parts like tongue, lips, and teeth.

These parts are called articulators. There three things should be considered in

producing consonant sounds. First, places of articulation, places on which the


http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_7BQBXIFrUm8/SFbpfzdMY5I/AAAAAAAAABQ/U_CDdVYIfgM/s1600-h/larynx_coronal.gif

articulators are located, joined, or put. When the upper lip and lower lip are joined,

they will produce bilabial sounds. Sounds [p], [b], and [m] are the examples. The

difference between the two first sounds and the last sound is on the sound tract they

pass through: [p] and [b] pass through the mouth and they are called oral sounds,

while [m] passes through the nose and it is called nasal sound. Below are the

diagrams showing the processes.


Second factor is the way of articulation, how the air is expelled from the

lungs. When the air is blocked in the mouth tightly, then it is expelled wholly, the

sound will result plosive sound or stop sound. Sounds [p], [b], [t], and [d] are the

examples.

The third factor is the vocal cords status. As stated above that the vocal cords

can be joined, spaced, or widely opened. When we are not speaking, the vocal cords

will be widely open. When we produce sounds [p], [t], and [k], the vocal cords are

quite open, but they are not voiced. Because the vocal cords are voiceless, the so-

called sounds belong to voiceless sounds. However, when the vocal cords are quite

closed and the air pushes them to get open, then there will be voice on the vocal

cords. Therefore, the sounds produced with the vibrating vocal cords are called

voiced sounds.


Figure : Places of articulation

2. Vocal sounds

It is different from consonant sounds, the vocal sounds are produced based on

the following criterion: (1) low or high tongue, (2) the tongue position, (3) the tongue

tension, (4) the lips form. The upward and downward moves of the tongue will

change the size of mouth cavity. When the tongue is high, the space through which

the air passes will be narrow. The sound produced will also be high. When the tongue


is low, the mouth cavity will be wider, the lower the tongue, the wider the mouth

cavity will be. The diagram below shows sounds /i/, /e/, and /Ɛ/.

The tongue can also be folded forward or backward. The front and back

positions of the tongue will also play an important role in producing vocal sounds.

When it is combined with the high and the low tongue, the positions will produce

certain vocals. The following diagram will show the production of sounds /u/, /o/, /ɔ/.


As an addition of the two criterion mentioned above, the tension of nerve

when sound is produced will also affect the vocal sounds production. When we

pronounce /i/ in beat, we can feel the tension of the nerve on our neck, but we will

not feel the same tension if we pronounce bit.

The fourth criterion is the form of the tongue. Certain vocals are produced by

making the lips rounded or spread. Generally, the front vocal sounds like /i/ in tiba

and /e/ in kare are pronounced with rounded lips, while the back vocal sounds like /u/

in buku and /o/ in ruko are pronounced with rounded lips.

Figure : Vocal sounds


CHAPTER III

CONCLUSION

Based on the explanation in the previous discussion part, the writers put

forwards several conclusions, namely:

1. The human language is different from the animal language.

2. The human speech apparatus are: lips, teeth, alveolar, hard palate, soft palate

or velum, uvula, tongue, vocal cords, pharynx, mouth cavity, nose cavity.

3. The kinds of apparatus and the position of apparatus when sounds are

produced will determine the kinds of the sounds themselves.

4. Nasal sounds, oral sounds, consonant sounds, and vocal sounds are the result

of sounds production due to the kinds and position of the apparatus when they

are produced.


REFERENCES

Dardjowidjojo, Soenjono. 2003. Psikolinguistik: Pengantar Pemahaman BahasaManusia. Jakarta: Yayasan Obor Indonesia.

Hornby, A.S. 1989. Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (New Edition). Oxford:Oxford University Press.

Hussain, Sarmad. 2009. Phonetics and Phonology: An Introduction. Online(www.PANL10n.net). Accessed on February 23, 2009.

Nababan, Sri Utari subyakto. 1992. Psikolinguistik: Suatu Pengantar. Jakarta: PTGramedia Pustaka Utama.

Philips, Colin. 1999. Phonetics I. Online (http://www.ling.udel.edu/heycock).Accessed on February 22, 2009.

Unanimi. 2008. The Human Speech Apparatus. Online(http://letstalkofphonetics.blogspot.com/2008/06/human-speech-apparatus_16.html). Accessed on February 22, 2009.


http://letstalkofphonetics.blogspot.com/2008/06/human-speech-apparatus_16.html

http://letstalkofphonetics.blogspot.com/2008/06/human-speech-apparatus_16.html

http://www.ling.udel.edu/heycock

http://www.PANL10n.net/

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