INFLUENCEKNOW RHETORIC OR FALL VICTIM TO IT

“One thing only I know, and that is that I know nothing.” Socrates

“A foolish consistency is the hobgoblin of little minds.” Emerson

“Bad information is worse than no information.” Taleb

“If you want to change the world, change the metaphor.” Joseph Campbell

“If one used rhetoric well one might do the greatest possible good, and if badly, the greatest possi-ble harm.” Aristotle

“One cannot fool all the people all the time.” Aristotle

“A conclusion is only as plausible as its weakest premise.” Maxim

“You can't win an argument. You can't because if you lose it, you lose it; and if you win it, you lose it.” Carnegie

“Men must be taught as if you taught them notAnd things unknown proposed as things forgot.” Alexander Pope

“A drop of honey catches more flies than a gallon of gall.” Lincoln

“What Socrates used to say, that all men are sufficiently eloquent in that which they understand, is very plausible, but not true. It would have been nearer the truth to say, that no man can be elo-

quent on a subject that he does not understand; and that if he understands a subject ever so well, but is ignorant how to form and polish his language, he cannot express himself eloquently even

about that which he understands.” Cicero

PART 1: REASONING AND UNDERSTANDING: Be aware the belly - more bacteria in the belly than human cells in the body. Beware the intellect (intellectual-yet-idiot). Beware the limits of knowledge, if there is such a limit to its limits. Be philosophi-cally skeptical and spiritually (I mean totally) empirical.

I. WE LIVE IN A NON-LINEAR/ASSYMETRICAL REALITY: The real world is asym-metrical. It is not a win/loss or black/white world. It is skewed. A win is not equal to a loss. X is not f(X). The facts are unimportant. Only the consequences/interactions matter and they are often asymmetrical to the fact. A.Time (in short-med term) is asymmetrical leading to an inability to

learn from the past. We don't understand the asymmetry b/w the past and the future. They are asymmetrical (yet cyclical in the longterm). When we think of tomorrow, we just project it as another yesterday. The relationship from the past and the future is asymmetrical to the relationship b/w the past and the past previous to it. We thus do not learn recursively from our mistakes easily. We cyclically make them over and over and over again (individually and collec-tively).

B.We have difficulty perceiving non-linearity in one moment. Our brains are not fit for non-linearity. In fact, we can only be in one linear state at a time.

You are focused either on the upside or the downside; the pessimist vs. the opti-mist. Thus, you must focus on each state separately.

C. Cause/effect in complexity is nearly impossible to discern. It is near im-possible to isolate a single cause in a complex system or understand the conse-quences. To deal with this, look at large % changes and know that any interpre-tation is bound to be non-linear, e.g., 2% rise may not be twice as significant as a 1% rise, but rather, 4-10x more significant.

D.The variability and the extremes matter, NOT the average. Begin with the consequences then move to the probabilities. In a non-linear world, the ex-tremes matter more than the average. Don't walk cross a river with a four foot AVERAGE. You will likely drown. Also, you don't pack for the average weather conditions but the extremes.

E. Over-reaction is “rational” when dealing with uncertainty and non-lin-earity. You will never know how long the tail will become. Over-react 1000 times and face a few small losses (or none). Under-react once, and you exit the gene pool.

II.BLACK SWANS: A Black Swan event is 1) an extreme outlier and thus highly un-predictable, 2) has an extreme impact, and 3) is prone to hindsight bias after it oc-curs. A.The Black Swan changes the game. The rare event changes reality in an ex-

ponential and non-linear way. (or at least our perception of it). B. Impossibility of predicting the course of history. The fact that the ex-

treme events are hard to predict implies the inability to predict the course of history.

C. Black Swan's occur relative to our expressed expectations. We can cre-ate Black Swan's by giving people confidence that the Black Swan can't happen, e.g., by labeling banks as Too Big to Fail, or expressing confidence that we know what will happen.

D.Asymmetry of acceleration between positive and negative Black Swans. Positive Black Swans (development of Internet or the Smart Phones) can take time to develop but negative Black Swans normally occur suddenly. Both are unexpected with unexpected consequences. However, in the former, our perception of the changes lag, but in the latter, our perception doesn't have time to catch up.

E. White Swans vs. Gray Swans vs. Black Swans. The White Swans are the known knowns, e.g., pandemics are inevitable. The Gray Swans are the “known unknowns,” e.g., we don't know what will happen with the Amazon but scien-tists are pointing to a tipping point. The Black Swans are the “Unknown Un-knowns,” e.g., 9/11.

F. Asymmetry in perception of the known and the unknown. We overesti-mate the probability of known potential Black Swans (Gray Swans) in present discourse but underestimate the possibility of an unknown one (and their con-sequences). We underestimate the low probability but high impact events. The rarer the event, the higher the estimation error of its probability and its level of impact.

G.Post-hoc asymmetry in perception of the probabilities of unrepeatable events. Events that are (essentially) non-repeatable are ignored before their occurrence, and their potential to repeat afterwards is often overestimated (for a time), e.g., over-estimated probability of more terrorist attacks in planes after 9/11. This is not necessarily a bad thing and can be justified by the precaution-ary principle.

H. Underestimation of the effects/consequences of rare events. We DRAS-TICALLY underestimate the effects and impacts of both positive and negative rare events. This cannot be emphasized enough. Always plan for a rare signifi-cant disruption in life. Create a plan B.

“No amount of observations of white swans can allow the inference that all swans are white, but the observation of a single black swan is sufficient to refute that conclusion.” John Stuart Mill

III. HEURISTICS AND EMOTIONS GOVERN DECISION-MAKING: We take mental shortcuts but our shortcuts often come with biases and these shortcuts are called heuristics. A.Satisficing. We make decisions for emotional satisfaction with sufficient ease.

Thus we “satisfice.” If we were to optimize at every step it would cost an infinite amount of time and energy (Herbert Simon's “bounded rationality”). One man who lost the emotional apparatus of his brain. He couldn't even get out of bed some mornings b/c he couldn't decide if it was worth it or not.

B. Emotions/circumstances change who we are in each moment. Our brains react differently and we make different choices depending on circumstance and emotion. “You are only as good as your last trade.” I'm only as good as the last thing I wrote. I may choose a run or I may choose to get drunk depending on my “performance.”

“Feelings are not free of thoughts, thoughts are not free of feelings.” Taleb

C. Positive vs. negative emotions affect perception of probability. What emotions are elicited by events determine their perceived probability. Positive feelings/emotions will lead to less perception of risk, even when logically not warranted; negative feelings/emotions lead to a higher perception of risk.

D.Domain specificity. Our reactions, mode of thinking, and intuitions depend upon the context we are presented with information. One may be rational in a classroom (on a test or something) but not in the real world (even for the aca-demics who study these phenomenon). The sophist/marketer understands this all too well.

E. The narrative changes the probability. The experiential mind (emotional/unconscious) as opposed to the analytic mind (rational/thinking) relies on im-ages, metaphors, and narratives, which are then used to estimate the probabil-ity/importance/impressions of hazards/events.

F. Loss amplification. We tend to fear (and are more emotionally affected by) loss more than gains, e.g., start from nothing, make $16 million, lose $15 mil-lion and perception is that you've lost everything, even though you're still left with a million dollars.

IV. COMPLEXITY/ABSTRACTION BIAS AND SIMPLIFICATION: People attach more likeliness to things less abstract. The more abstract, the less likely we expect something to occur. A single large hurricane convinces people that dangerous cli-mate change could be happening MORE than an abstract climate model. A.Availability heuristic and levels of abstraction/specificity/sensational-

ity. We estimate the frequency or probability of an event according to the ease with which instances of that event can be mentally recalled. The more vivid/sensational an event is, the more ease with which we can recall or imagine an event occurring. Choose words carefully.

B. People react to concrete, visible risks and ignore abstract risks. For ex-ample, studies show that people are more likely to take out travel insurance for

deadly fire in California than for natural disaster ANYWHERE in the United States (more abstract and people readily are aware of Cali fires). Studies also show that people are willing pay more for life insurance against a terrorist threat than they will for the more abstract notion of death by any cause.

“One death is a tragedy, a million is a statistic.” Stalin

C. Platonicity and categorization/simplification problems. We innately have a tendency to categorize everything to simplify our world in order to make sense of it. The more complicated/abstract, the more our minds are trained for simplification.

D. Platonicity can generate black swans. This oversimplification leads to a misunderstanding of reality which in turn can become a Black Swan generator (failure to perceive what is going on w/confidence in our understanding/simplifi-cation of reality).

V. THE EFFECTS OF HIGH SCALABILITY: Scalability refers to the size and/or the number of connections within system. Globalization creates high scalability by in-terconnecting markets and capital flows. The printing press created high scalability by increasing the reach and market for knowledge. The Internet is the printing press on steroids. So, higher scalability is essentially a more interconnected and complex network. A. Inequalities increase with scalability. Someone perceived as marginally

better (often due to chance/randomness) now gets the whole pie (a larger pie in a larger network). Facebook gets the whole global market. If there was no such global scale, each country would perhaps have their own Facebook. Recorded music allowed a few select musicians to capture the nation, eliminating many professional local musicians, and leading to more inequality within the music in-dustry.

B.A single instance can now disproportionately affect the aggregate. One new idea can quickly change the world dramatically with high scalability, like an invasive species rapidly alters the entire ecosystem.

C. The law of large numbers only applies to the low scale linear bell curve world. You reach certainties as you add up many small uncertainties in the lin-ear game world. For example, the mean of batting averages (ensemble of all the individual batting averages) each season is remarkably consistent from one season to the next, but individual players deviate unpredictably each season. Not in the real world. One event changes the aggregate.

D.The linear game world has low scalability and the impacts of rare events do not alter the aggregate. No single instance will significantly change the aggregate (average of the ensemble) when the sample is large. Mike Trout may be greatest since Babe Ruth but he's insignificant to the sum of averages. The averages are not connected to one another. The average of the ensemble of batting averages won't change much even if a player randomly showed up and hit .500 on the season.

E. Correlation, standard deviations, and regressions do not exist in the highly scalable real world over time. If you measure correlation of variables in different sub-periods, you will find wide divergences. You won't notice this in-stability looking at a single measurement within a given sub-period. Traders de-velop models for the boom period based on what seems to be working. They delude themselves into thinking that they have created a new “stable economic

model.” Then the bust happens. The whole market changes and all the models are thrown out.

VI. FRACTALITY IN NATURE AND SOCIAL PHENOMENON: Fractal geometry is the geometry of the rough and broken (fractured), the repetition of geometric patters at different scales in nature. The small resembles the whole/large, e.g., a rock appears as mountain. A.Ratios are preserved across scales. Numerical or statistical measures are

(roughly) preserved across scales throughout nature from the big to the small. The ratios of the small rock shapes are similar to the ratios of a large mountain. Each branch is a small tree. The patterns will repeat and repeat even as you zoom in on a surface microscopically down to the very small. Nature is self-simi-lar like this across every scale.

B.Social phenomena work the same way as physical/natural phenomena. If 90% of wealth is owned by the top 20% of people, 90% of the total wealth among the top 20% will “roughly” be owned by the top 4% (20% of top 20% = 4% of total). And among the top 4%, 90% of the wealth will again be “roughly” owned by the top .8%, etc., etc. You can roughly determine how many books will sell over a million copies from knowing the number of books that sold 250,000 copies using the ratio. There's no strong negative feedback between the scales. We call this a power law distribution. The probabilists call it the 80/20 rule but the ratio is different depending on the subject (roughly 80/20), e.g., 20% of the population owns 80% of the land. 20% of writers make 80% of the profits.

C. Extreme events operate exponentially with power law distributions. The features of the distribution are the SAME as with the 80/20 rule. An extreme event's impact grows exponentially and the tail can go on and on until it is (so to speak) cut. You notice that the world is practically turned on its side after turning the corner (with the same ratios). The world appears extremely stable for a time with very little variability until an extreme event occurs. Then the dis-tribution takes a sharp turn to the right and the impacts grow exponentially with a “roughly” equal probability/ratio of continual growth as in the old stable nor-mal world (just way faster) until it stops and a new normality/stability arises. Or-der (slow) to chaos (fast) to a new order (slow again) until chaos arises once more (fast again) – done in an asymmetrically symmetrical way.

D. We don't live in a bell curve world. You have irresistibly strong negative feedback with the standard distribution. The bell curve faces high resistance as it moves to the extremes which makes the probabilities (ratios) drop at faster and faster rates as you move away from the mean, until there's a near impossi-bility of the improbable occurring. It is not self similar along different scales. Mike Trout is anomaly in baseball but he's not hitting .900 and changing the whole game. The “average” of the ensemble of players will not appear differ-ently.

VII. THE FALLACIES OF INDUCTION: Induction, the basis of modern science, is fundamentally and necessarily fallacious. We jump to general conclusions far too quickly in a variety of ways based on past data. A.Error of confirmation. We focus on preselected segments of the seen and

generalize from it to the unseen, , e.g., the Thanksgiving Turkey - 1000 days im-proving well-being and trust in humans but then slaughtered on day 1001.

B.Consistent results bias. The general assumption is that consistent past re-sults will lead to a stronger inference. The more data, the more likely we draw such a conclusion. The turkey's trust grows each passing day.

C. Absence of evidence is not the same as an evidence of absence! Not having evidence (YET) that something helps/harms/is/isn't is not the same as having evidence that it DOES NOT help/harm/is/isn't. You can confirm that all swans are white over thousands of years until you discover a new land of black swans. True science is DEDUCTION not INDUCTION.

D.Epiphenomenon. Secondary effect or byproduct that arises but does not causally influence a process, e.g., the risk manager only gives the appearance that the bank is carefully managing their risk. Academics exist AFTER a society becomes wealthy/successful, not before. Theory exists AFTER experience not before.

E. The ludic fallacy. The attributes of the uncertainty we face in real life have lit-tle connection to the sterilized ones we encounter in exams and games. Life is a casino when the house changes the odds at its pleasure without the awareness of the players. We under-estimate the role of luck in life in general and overesti-mate it in games of chance.

VIII. NARRATIVE FALLACIES: We have a limited ability to look at sequences of facts w/o weaving an explanation into them, or forcing a logical link/relationship upon them. A. Tunneling effects. Tunneling effects lead to us only seeing a tiny part of the

narrative. We focus on a few well defined sources of uncertainty, giving us too specific of a list to adequately calculate probabilities of events, especially the unexpected Black Swan events.

B.An infinite number of stories can be told based on past data and none of them grasp the whole reality. You can take an infinite number of courses through the data. There's no straight line. All narratives are fallacious in that they cannot grasp the whole thing/story, e.g., perhaps Cleopatra's beauty felled Rome and the library of Alexandria more than the ambition Mark Anthony or Caesar. More data leads to more possible stories leads to more possible false in-ferences and distortion (with more confidence in the conclusion). So, perhaps we should not fear “big data” as much as we do. Facebook knows less and less about us the more it collects yet is more and more confident in its knowing.

C. Data snooping also distorts the story. We play with past data to find a hy-pothetical “winner” or story we want to tell/confirm. We WANT to confirm our expectations either consciously (unethical) or unconsciously. Lawyers are the best data snoopers.

D. Simulating alternative narratives to form a narrative of what went right or wrong. The “What if” heuristic refers to the ease of mentally undoing an event and playing the alternative (and the more positively confirming) sce-nario. People experience more regret from near misses because the “miss” was readily available/observable to them and the result turned out negative. We al-ways blame the player who missed the last free throw attempt in blowing the game.

E. Levels of specificity vs. abstract notions. We look for specific/sensational instances to focus on and attribute causes/importance to them. We don't see the complexity of randomness and it doesn't become part of the narrative. We don't see that a "good" result may lead to a "bad" result, e.g., the Chinese Farmer Fable. “Our attention flows effortlessly to the sensational – not the rele-vant so much as the sensation.”

F. Iterated expectations and making predictions. To predict the future you have to predict future ideas/understanding and technological innovation (with the karma) which is fundamentally unpredictable. You would need to incorpo-

rate elements from the future itself. However, one innovation/idea leads to many unforeseen (and often multiplicative) others.

We don't know what we will know. Taleb

G.Hindsight bias. Overestimation of what one knew at the time of the event due to subsequent information. Things are always obvious after the fact.

H. Hindsight bias hides Black Swan events from history. Post-hoc we get a mistaken idea about the odds of the event having occurred at the time, e.g., narratives about the predictability of the stock market crash of 1929. The event was unpredictable at the time due to complexity/randomness and our limited perception. We only trick ourselves if we don't interpret mistakes solely in light of what was known at the time.

IX. HISTORICAL DELUSIONS: History did not occur as it seems to us today. A.History was not pre-determined contrary to our illusions about it. We

look at the past as if it was deterministic and not successive events of chance one after another. We take this and assume we know that major events will oc-cur just as those in the past did. But the past came about due to a surprise from the previous past and so to will our future. We cannot assume that our future will resemble the current past. For example, the past allowed humans to thrive yet we have radically changed the entire planet, changing the current past/real-ity. We are thus foolish to assume that the new circumstances will allow us to continually thrive.

B.Our confidence in historical data is foolish and blinding. The problem w/the confidence interval in the real world is that it is based on historical data. We begin to assume our course is determined and things will continue to be consis-tent with the perceived current course, and thus our confidence blinds us from invisible changes in the present reality/circumstance.

C. Stability does not mean stability. Sometimes the largest historical stability is most prone to crashes. Suppress small healthy fires for 100 years and you create an enormous fire that destroys the whole forest. Mono-crop tree harvest-ing may give you stable timber for two generations but the soil will be too de-pleted for a 3rd. Nuclear weapons are not safer just because they explode less often. The peace is very fragile.

D. History/nature change abruptly contrary to our assumption of gradual historical change. In hindsight, we assume that things (systems, nature, his-tory, etc.) continually and gradually converge towards betterment or its oppo-site. However, long stable periods are generally followed by short chaotic peri-ods of change. History jumps into new states. Spring and fall are short and (rel-atively) unstable periods in between the longer and (relatively) stable periods of summer and winter.

X.CHAOS THEORY AND PREDICTION: Two planets in a solar system are in stable rotation, but add a 3rd, and however small it is, the effect may become explosive when every additional effect is further magnified. A.Deterministic chaos vs. randomness. The 3 body problem is in the realm of

deterministic chaos in that it has entirely predictable properties that are simply hard to know. In a random system (like our reality) we have perfectly incom-plete information and thus we cannot predict the future. It doesn't matter if re-ality is deterministic chaos or complete randomness for human purposes due to the limits of our perception.

B.Compounding depredations make predicting the future impossible. Depredations compound rapidly. As you project into the future, you need an in-creasing amount of precision about the dynamics of the process that you are modeling, since your error rate grows rapidly with compounding effects. Climate models are all wrong.

C. We cannot possibly know the algorithm (CAUSE) of the events unfold-ing. For example, one can make a simple algorithm using a computer, run it, and know where the data will plot. But another person unaware of the exact al-gorithm cannot take that data and go back in time to discover the algorithm. The data for all effective purposes is random. If this cannot be done with a sim-ple computer algorithm, how will we do it in our complex reality? Can we trust big bang theory?

D. The butterfly effect. A small input can lead to a disproportionate response, e.g., the butterfly in India can cause a hurricane in America. In another exam-ple, population models can lead to a path of explosive growth or extinction based on a small difference in where they began.

“If Celopatra's nose had been shorter, the world's fate would be changed.” Pascal

E. Centralized planning failures and missing information. There's too much input to be understood centrally. One single institution cannot aggregate all the knowledge – many important pieces of information will be missing, e.g., all in-digenous knowledge. We underestimate our ability to understand subtle changes. Scanning all the reporters on Twitter will give you a clearer picture of reality than the heavily edited 700 word version on the NYTimes. Because of this phenomenon, beware of precise policy plans and predictions into the fu-ture.

F. There are deeper more chaotic crisis with larger human systems. The more concentrated the power and the more centralized the control is (big banks, big government), the less crisis experienced (with an illusion that there will be NO crisis), but the larger the crisis. Also, people tend to find things lower in magnitude, e.g., lower prices, as more volatile (or unstable) than things in higher magnitude, e.g, higher prices (amplification illusion). So we perceive the big to be more stable than it is.

XI.OPT-IN/OPT-OUT BIAS (ALLOW/BAN): People are far more likely to accept NOT “opting out” of something than they are “to opt in,” even if the result is the same, e.g., opt in/out form for organ donation on drivers license. Likewise, people are more likely to accept NOT banning something than they are to allow it.

PART 2: INVENTION: Discover the nature of the subject matter, audience, and circumstances.

QUESTION 1: WHAT IS THE NATURE OF THE SUBJECT MATTER (LOGOS)? Learn ev-erything there is to know regarding the subject matter. Essentially, do your due diligence regarding research paying careful attention to subtle biases.

I. THREE QUESTION TYPES: Pretty much every issue can be categorized into these types. A.Question of interpretation. Ambiguities, e.g., “Waters of the United States?”

B.Question of quality. The just/unjust, the necessary/unnecessary, the suffi-cient/insufficient, the good/bad/right/wrong, and the expedient/inexpedient.

C. Question of fact. Objective truth in the past, present, or future.

II. UNDERSTAND UNIVERSALLY: Full and complete understanding of the subject matter is required. Consider both the UNIVERSAL and the SPECIFIC. You must know intimately every side of the issue. You must understand in light of the limits of rea-son.

III. ON DELIBERATION: Make sure the following questions are considered from the outset. Aristotle asserted that deliberation is a question of expediency towards happiness. One can never seek happiness and actually be happy, however. Thus, all questions regard expediency towards creating the best conditions for which all can be happy. A.What is the end? B.How do we define the end? C. Is the end attainable? D.What ought be done and what ought NOT be done (means) to reach

that end? E. What unforeseen consequence could arise from chosen means? The

precautionary principle requires us to begin with extremes/consequences AND ONLY THEN move to the probability. Consequences are far more important than the probability (largely unknowable). If chosen means have a 99% chance of at-taining the desired but also brings a 1% chance of total annihilation, you do not take that risk.

QUESTION 2: WHAT IS THE NATURE OF THE CIRCUMSTANCES/PEOPLE (PATHOS)? Consider everything there is to know regarding the circumstances and the characteristics/emotions of the audience at the present moment.

I. THE NATURE OF THE PEOPLE: “You must be completely familiar with the struc-ture, prejudice, and the whims of the general public.” The public must be distin-guished from the individual. A.Begin with current mores and beliefs. “You may modify the [standards and

demands] of the public, but you do not run counter to them.” B.Education level. You obviously write differently for the general public than you

would to academics. C. Group impulses, habits, emotions, and their triggers. “The mass are

largely motivated by reasons they conceal from themselves.” “The group doesn’t think - it has impulses, habits, and emotions.”

D.Understand tribes and loyalties. “Where specific allegiances and loyalties exist…these loyalties will operate to nullify the free will of the voter.” The effect increases with the strength of the loyalties, i.e., more group polarization leads to stronger loyalty.

E. People trust the leaders of their group. They don't trust outsiders. Deter-mine whether you can reach out to leaders of groups involved with your issue and determine how you can overlap their interests with what you want.

II. THE PRESENT EMOTIONAL STATE OF THE PEOPLE: Consider initially whether the audience is already primed to the desired emotional state. If yes, then push the proper buttons.

A. State of anger. Aristotle defines anger as “desire, accompanied by pain (real or imagined), for revenge against P (specific non-abstract individual/group) for a belittlement (real or perceived), the belittlement being uncalled for.” i. S feels belittlement (you don't think I’m important). ii. S feels contempt (I’m more important than you), e.g., someone angry at a

fast food worker for taking too long. iii. S feels spite (block my wishes for the advantage of your selfish self). iv. S suffered an insult (you’ve shamed me). v. S feels pain (craving: sick, hungry, poor, lust).

B. State of calm. Calm is “the suspension of anger.” Perhaps there was anger previously in the public but one of the following has come to pass. i. S is free from pain (state of pleasure, laughter, prosperity). ii. Sufficient time has passed since S was angered (time stills anger). iii. S was given a scapegoat to spend anger on. iv. S’s revenge has been fulfilled. v. The offender suffered a greater harm than S (poetic justice).

C. State of fear. Aristotle defines as “Imagined pain or disturbance of imminent possible danger, either greatly destructive or painful.” i. People who feel fear are afraid they will be harmed in a certain way (must be

serious and unambiguous/not abstract), by certain people/things (again un-ambiguous/not abstract), at a certain time (unambiguous and close at hand).

ii. People do NOT feel fear who believe they are prosperous/divinely favored and are thus insolent and reckless (the kind of character produced by wealth, strength, and abundance) towards their fate and the fate of others;

iii. People do NOT feel fear who have suffered so much that they no longer care or have hope for an alternative (must have hope to fear).

D. State of hope/confidence and/or w/o fear. “The hope/confidence of safety is accompanied by the imagination of its proximity and of the non-existence or remoteness of fearsome things.” i. Many things have already happened to S and there’s been no suffering; so S

has hope/confidence and no fear. ii. S has frequently escaped danger; so S has hope/confidence and no fear. iii. S hasn’t yet been tested by any dangers; so S has hope/confidence and no

fear. iv. X is not feared by others (real and perceived equals and inferiors); so S has

hope/confidence and no fear. v. S thinks they have abundant strength, resources, money, friends/allies, land,

weapons, etc. to escape the danger; so S has hope/confidence and no fear. vi.S believes divine providence to be on one’s side; so S has hope/confidence

and no fear. vii. S thinks S will succeed in the undertaking; so S has hope/confidence

and no fear. E. State of shame. Aristotle defines shame as “Pain or disturbance in regard to

bad things, whether present, past, or future, which seem likely to involve us in discredit.” i. We feel shame at such bad things as we think are disgraceful to ourselves or

to those we care for. See premises on which things people feel shame for. ii. We only care what opinion is held of us by those whose opinions of us mat-

ter. See premises on whom people shame in front of. F. People primed for pity/compassion. Aristotle defines pity as “A feeling of

pain at an apparent evil, destructive or painful, which befalls one who does not deserve it, and which we might expect to befall ourselves or someone or some

being close to us.” People with the following characteristics are primed for mov-ing towards pity. i. Those who spiritually value all life are more likely to feel pity/compassion. ii. Those who have already had some similar evil befallen them are more likely

to feel pity/compassion. iii. Those who have lots of experience and good sense (elders) are more likely

to feel pity/compassion. iv. Those who are educated and able to hold wider views of things are more

likely to feel pity/compassion. v. Those who have parents, spouses, or children that could suffer the apparent

evil are more likely to feel pity/compassion. i. Those completely ruined or have suffered pretty much the worst are less

likely to feel pity/compassion. ii. Those who imagine themselves immensely fortunate (via divine power or

other) or uniquely genius/skilled (total arrogance), and feel it impossible for evil to befall them are less likely to feel pity/compassion.

iii. Those presently struck by great fear or panic are less likely to feel pity/com-passion.

iv. Those who don’t believe in the goodness of people at all are less likely to feel pity/compassion.

B. People primed for indignation. Pain at unmerited good fortune/prosperity to-wards undeserving “superiors,” e.g., “the elites.” The converse feeling is satis-faction at the misfortune of the undeserving superiors. The same concept ap-plies to envy. i. S feels deserving of the greatest possible goods. ii. S is good and honest with sound judgement and loathes injustice. iii. S is ambitious and eager to obtain particular ends (servile and unambitious

people won’t feel indignation). iv. S feels deserving of things that others do not deserve.

C. People primed for envy. Aristotle claims envy to be “The most violent of all emotions.” Similar to indignation except that equals/inferiors are the targets of the emotion. People envy their equals or inferiors if they feel left behind. Equals are equal in birth, relationship, age, disposition, distinction, wealth, etc., and/or are neighbors/competitors. i. S feels a bit short of having everything, i.e., greed (especially the wealthy to-

wards the other slightly more wealthy). ii. S is ambitious or professes to be wise (ambitious to be thought wise). iii. S is small minded (everything seems great to them so are envious of it). iv. S feels entitled.

B. People primed for emulation. Aristotle defines emulation as the “Feeling caused by the presence, in persons whose nature is like our own, of good things highly valued and possible for ourselves to acquire; but is felt not b/c others have these goods, but because we have not got them ourselves.” i. S is young and/or of high-minded disposition (wealthy and capable of acquir-

ing). ii. S feels deserving or capable of certain good things/characteristics.

III. THE NATURE OF THE CIRCUMSTANCES: A.Use and conform to all possible communication mediums widely in use.

“The message must conform to the media of the distribution of ideas,” e.g., you must conform to the norms of Reddit if reaching an audience on its platform.

B.Take note of the focus illusion and media attention. We assign undo weight to what happens to be salient at the time. See FOCUS ILLUSION for more.

C. Consider positive vs. negative perceptions. If positive opinion exists of the idea or aspect, take note. However, if the opinion or idea is poor or disliked, drawing attention to it actually increases negative impression (thus polariza-tion).

D.Take note of events/issues to high-spot/dramatize. Events/issues that trigger the strongest emotions for your purposes are the best candidates for high-spotting.

E. Consider ripeness. Determine what conditions need to exist for the timing to be right. Release of anything for persuasive effect must maximally align with level of attention and emotion for maximum impact.

“The revolution better be staged Monday rather than Sunday.”

QUESTION 3: DO ANY TERMS NEED TO BE DEFINED?

I. DEFINE BY FUNDAMENTAL ESSENCE OR NATURE (DICTIONARY/ARISTOTLE METHOD): 1) The subject must be equivalent to the predicate, not too ambiguous and not too limiting, 2) stated positively UNLESS a) too ambiguous otherwise, b) you are defining a negative term, or c) it creates a rhetorical advantage to define the term negatively; 3) without repeating the term; and 4) should be clear and fa-miliar. A.What is its Genus, e.g., Animal? B.Made by what? C. Made of what? D.What distinguishes it from others in the genus? E. What is the end or purpose?

II. DEFINE BY ANALOGY: Make use of comparison, analogy, metaphor, simile, exam-ple.

III.DEFINE BY EXAMPLE: Fable, exemplum, anecdote, short tale, moral.

IV.DEFINE BY SYNONYMS: Not very effective but could be useful if defining a strange or unusual word.

V. DEFINE BY REFERENCE TO ETYMOLOGY: Best used when creating a new term or redefining a misused term.

QUESTION 4: WHAT ARGUMENTS CAN BE MADE REGARDING THE SUBJECT MAT-TER (LOGOS)? All arguments are deductive, inductive, or enthymemic. Almost all argu-ments are fallacious. Always bring arguments back to the Universal. We care about the specific but what the specific instance means for the bigger picture.

I. FROM LOGICALLY VALID SYLLOGISMS: Most argument forms are loosely based on the following valid forms. A.MODUS PONENS: P —> Q. P. Thus, Q. B.MODUS TOLLENS: P —> Q. Q. Thus, P. C. HYPOTHETICAL SYLLOGISM: P —> Q. Q —> R. Thus, P —> R. D.DISJUNCTIVE SYLLOGISM: P or Q (exclusive sense). P. Thus, Q.

E. DILEMMA (ARGUE FROM CONSEQUENCES): P or Q. P —> R. Q —> S. Thus, R or S.

F. REDUCTIO AD ABURDUM: Form of Modus Tollens. To prove P, assume P. Argue from the assumption that we’d have to conclude P. P is false (absurd, silly, con-tradictory). Thus, P must be true.

II. FROM NULL HYPOTHESIS: Proof by contradiction; not ad absurdum (which is log-ically sound), but ad unlikeliness (not logically sound). 1) run experiment; 2) as-sume X; 3) P (P-value) is probability of getting results as extreme as those ob-served; and 4) If P is small (under .05 generally), then it is considered statistically significant to researchers. Both of the following questions must be asked when reading about studies based on null hypothesis reasoning. A.Question one. What is the probability that the observed experimental result

would occur, given that the null hypothesis is correct, e.g., what is the chance that a person gets put on a possible terrorist list assuming that they are NOT X (not a terrorist)?

B. Question two (the really important one). What is the chance that the null hypothesis is correct, given that we observed a certain experimental result, e.g., what's the chance that a person's NOT X (not terrorist), given that they're on the terrorist list?

III.FROM THE SEEMINGLY CORRELATED: Argue for or against (mostly against) a causal conclusion based on a statistical correlation between two X and Y. A. The conditions and/or circumstances were such that X could or could not oper-

ate. B. X, a probable and adequate cause, does not always produce Y. C. X and Y are not even correlated b/c # of positive correlations b/w two events is

too small to rule out noise. D. X and Y are not generally representative so they are meaningless. E. Other causes can produce X. F. X and Y are common effects of a different cause. G. X was created to affect Y but only does so in appearance, e.g., risk manager. H. X is possibly the cause of Y (or the relationship is reinforcing). I. There is no proximate causal relationship, i.e., a complex chain of linkage in a

causal sequence was overlooked. J. X may be one of many causes (oversimplification). K. Just because X occurred before Y does not make it the cause (POST HOC BIAS). L. Changes in meaning over time in how X and Y were studied has rendered the

correlation meaningless, e.g., “cancer survivors.” Changes in meaning can be caused by i. earlier or later detection of a phenomenon from then and now, ii. slower or faster rates of a phenomenon from then and now, iii. over-diagnosis or under-diagnosis between then and now.

IV. FROM BEYOND THE RANGE OF EXPECTED UTILITY: X was extrapolated beyond a range of cases (benefits only to a point). A. Jumping from high up is good for bone density but not from too high. B. Rain may be good for crops but not too much. C. Money is good and useful only beyond a certain point at which point it becomes

useless, or worse, enslaving.

V. FROM CAUSE TO EFFECT (OR VICE VERSA): A. X (the cause) is present/absent; so must be Y (the effect).

B. X (the effect) is present/absent; so must be Y (the cause).

VI.FROM X TO SLIPPERY SLOPE: X causes a slippery slope of nearly certain causes and effects leading to an extremely undesired result of Y.

VII. FROM ANTECEDENT OR CONSEQUENT: Given this situation X, what fol-lows from this is Y. Given this situation Y, what proceeds this is X. A. “If this man is a naturally born citizen, he must have the right to vote.” B. “Thunder implies lightning and lightning brings thunder.”

VIII. FROM SIMILARITY/DISSIMILARITY: X is similar/dissimilar to like case Y. A.FROM EXAMPLE: Likeness of two or more similar things in the past, present,

or future. B.FROM HYPOTHETICAL: Create your own like example for rhetorical effect. C. FROM ANALOGY: The likeness between two or more dissimilar things. Particu-

larly effective when explaining something unfamiliar or trying to stir emotions. “If analogous A (or not), analogous B (or not), and analogous C (or not), then X (or not).” i. “Public officials ought not be selected by lot. That is like using lot to select

athletes, instead of choosing those who are fit to contest.” D. FROM FICTION/FABLE: Same but with a made up story, e.g., don’t give a

demagogue control of your party for the story of the horse and the human, etc.

IX.FROM MUTUALLY RELATED IDEAS: If right to have Y done, then it is right to do X (opposite mutually related action) UNLESS NOT right for S specifically to do X. A. “If it is right to give, then it is right to receive.” “If it is right to command, then it

is right to obey.” “If it is right to be done, then it is right to do.” B. “If it is not shameful for you to sell them, then, it is not so for us to buy them.” C. Contra, “It may be right for one to be punished but wrong for me to be the one

to give it.”

X. FROM OPPOSITES/CONTRARIES: X is good/true; for Y is bad/false. But if Y turns out good/true, then we can refute “X is good/true” and/or must provide further proof. A. “Liberty is contrary to slavery.” B. “Temperance is beneficial; for licentiousness is harmful.” C. “If not even evil-doers should anger us if they meant not what they did, then we

owe no gratitude to such that were forced to do the good they did us.” D. “If war is responsible for our present ills, then we should right them by peace.” E. “If the system is the cause of the ecocrisis, then the system must change.”

XI.FROM INCONSISTENCIES/CONTRADICTIONS: Refute an argument by pointing out inconsistencies/contradictions in the claim (or act). A thing cannot BE and NOT BE at the same time, past and present. Aristotle wrote that the cat is on the mat or the cat is not on the mat. Contra Schrodinger's cat (The cat is and is not in the box at the same time.). Electrons are and aren't, appearing and disappearing. A. “He says he loves you, yet he conspired with the thirty.” B. “They say fracking doesn’t affect the water but the tap is on fire.” C. “Republicans claim to be champions of democracy, yet they suppress the vote

for their own gain.”

XII. FROM OPPOSITE OR HIDDEN MOTIVES: The motive is either hidden or opposite as it seems.

A. "In public, the president cites virtue but in private the motive is greed.” B. “The gift was given to cause pain of its withdrawal (trojan horse).” C. “Iran’s attack on Saudi Oil fields was intended as a message to Israel rather

than to disrupt the supply of oil”

XIII. FROM PARADOXICAL RESULTS: Argue that choosing X in the present case leads to a paradoxically undesired result in a like analogy or historical example. So, don't choose X. A. “If you count tall boys as men for the army, you will next be voting short men

as boys.” B. “You reward S for good deeds, so you should punish P for the oppositely equal

bad deeds.” C. “Given that in exile we were fighting to return, are we, now that we have been

restored, to flee so that we need not fight?”

XIV. FROM GOOD/BAD CONSEQUENCES: X has both good and bad conse-quences. We should do (or not do) X because the good/bad consequences out-weigh the bad/good.

XV. FROM TWO OPPOSITE WAYS (POSITIVELY/NEGATIVELY STATED) AND TWO RELATED BUT OPPOSITE CONSEQUENCES: X can be done in one of two opposite ways AND has opposite consequences from each of those two ways, de-pending on whether it is phrased positively or negatively. A.X^1 or X^2. X^1 —> A (bad). X^2 —> B (bad). So, X. (Catch 22)

i. “If you speak truthfully, men will harm you. If you don’t speak truthfully, the Gods will hate you. So, don’t speak at all.”

B. X^1 or X^2. X^1 —> B (good). X^2 —> A (neutral/good). So, X. i. “On the contrary, you ought to speak. For if you say what is right, the gods

will love you; if you say what is wrong, men will love you. So, speak.”

XVI. FROM DEFINITIONS AND TERMS: A. FROM DEFINITION: Define the term and then deduce from its meaning/results

the subject at hand. i. “What is the divine? Surely it is either a God or a work of God. Well, anyone

who believes that the work of a God exists, cannot help also believing that God exists.”

B. FROM GENUS TO SPECIES: What is true of genus is true of the species. S is X. X is A or B. So, S is A or B. i. “Soul is process. There are two kinds of processes K and E. The soul then

must be K or E.” C. FROM SPECIES TO GENUS: S is A and B. X is A and B (or X is A or B). So, S is

X. i. “To be impious is to blaspheme a holy place or to not honor the Gods.

Socrates does neither. So, he’s pious.” ii. “Human life can be divided into four powers. The humanities alone accounts

for them all. Thus, education (the genus) cannot exclusively be defined by the natural sciences,” I.e., the humanities (a species) must be part of educa-tion (the genus).

D. FROM A RELATIVE TERM: X is not always A; for it would be X to be A in B. i. “‘Just’ does not always mean ‘beneficial,’ or ‘justly’ would always mean ‘ben-

eficially,’ and it is NOT desirable to be justly put to death.” ii. “Noise is not always bad for in sport the home team prefers it.”

E. FROM DIFFERENT SENSES IN A TERM: X in this sense is different in another. You're essentially pointing out ambiguity in the use of a term. i. “One may have a sharp mind but his/her words need not be sharp.”

XVII. FROM DIVISION: X is either A, B, or C. X is not A or B. Thus, X is C.

XVIII. FROM THE STRONGER (A FORTIORI): If a property is lacking in X more likely to have it, then Y, which is less likely to have it, also must be lacking. A. “If not even the Gods know everything, so too for man.” B. “If the man is dead, then we can equally or w/greater certainty say that the

man is not breathing.”

XIX. FROM THE EQUAL: What is equally true (or should be done) for X (in like circumstance with Y), must also be equally true (or should be done) for Y. A. “If Hector did well to slay Petroclus, Paris did well to slay Achilles.” B. “If you care for your own land, care for others' land.” C. “Do unto others as you would like done unto you.” (Golden Rule)

XX. FROM ADVERSARIAL COMMITMENT: If S (the perceived worse or equal) won’t do X, then P (the perceived better or equal) won’t do X either. A. “You are urging others to do what you would not do yourself.”

XXI. FROM PRIOR/EQUAL TRUTH: What was true or would have been done be-fore, ought to be true or should be done now or in the future. A. “Don’t make a promise you can’t keep.”

XXII. FROM PREVIOUS ACTS/MISTAKES: If X was done, S wouldn’t have made the mistake of Y; so, X was not done.

XXIII. FROM HINDSIGHT: X would/wouldn’t have taken course A because course B is far better/worse/likely/unlikely.

XXIV. FROM (LACK OF)MOTIVES OR (DIS)INCENTIVES: Weighing the hypothet-ical incentives/disincentives and motives/lack of motives for doing or avoiding ac-tion (past or future), e.g., prosecution vs. defense on mental state.

XXV. FROM EARLIER JUDGEMENT (PRECEDENT): The judgement was already pronounced and the present issue is the same, similar, or contrary. A. “Socrates never spoke like that.” (Responding to Plato when sounding dog-

matic). B. “Paris was a good man b/c the Goddesses chose him above all others.” C. “The Founding Fathers foresaw this in X.” D. “This situation X is on point with John v. Smith where the Court held A.”

XXVI. FROM THE POSSIBLE AND THE IMPOSSIBLE: The following are Aristotle's argumentative forms for the possible/impossible. A. X is possible; so must its opposite Y, e.g., “I can get sick so I can get well.” B. X is desirable and possible. C. X may be desirable but it is impossible. D. This X like thing is possible/impossible; so must be this Y like thing. E. X, the harder/easier like thing is possible/impossible; so must be Y, the easier/

harder like thing.

F. One of a pair of similar things is possible; so is the other, e.g., “I can play an or-gan so I can play a piano.”

G. X has a beginning/end; so it must also have a beginning/end. Every beginning implies an end and every end implies a beginning.

H. X, former/later in essence, has come about; so can Y come about, being former/later in essence, e.g., Child <—> Man

I. We have/don’t have the science/skill to produce X, so therefore it is possible/im-possible.

J. X is possible without skill (via luck, etc.), certainly it is possible with skill/art. K. The parts are possible/impossible; so the whole is also possible/impossible,

e.g., “The confederation of states is possible b/c the components of such al-ready exist.”

L. The whole is possible/impossible, the parts are usually possible/impossible. M. The whole genus of X is possible/impossible; so the species Y can be possible/

impossible. N. X is possible/impossible and depends on Y (which also depends on X), so Y

must also be possible/impossible, e.g., Half <—> double. O. X has been done before so it is possible now (not necessarily the other way

around). P. X is possible for inferior/weaker people; so it is more so for the superior/

stronger. Q. X is impossible for the stronger/superior; so it is less so for the inferior/weaker.

XXVII. FROM THE PROBABLE/IMPROBABLE (PAST): A. S desired X to come about; so it is probable that it came about. B. S desired X to come about AND there's no obstacle; so X more probably came

about. C. S desired X to come about AND is passionate/angry AND there's no obstacle; so

X even more probably came about. D. S desired X to come about AND is passionate/angry AND there's no obstacle

AND it is capable; so X most probably came about. E. S desired X to come about AND is passionate/angry AND there's no obstacle

AND it is capable AND S had opportunity, so X most certainly came about. F. S intended to do/not do X; so S likely acted/didn’t act on X. G. S did/didn’t do X; so S likely intended to do/not do X. H. The less probable has occurred; so it is likely that the more probable has also

(or is/will not). I. The more probable has not occurred; so the less probable likely has not either

(or is/will not). XXVIII. FROM PROBABLE/IMPROBABLE (PRESENT/FUTURE):

A. If a thing does not exist where it is more likely to exist, it will more probably not exist where it is less likely to exist, and vice versa.

B. Something that naturally follows X has occurred; so X likely has occurred. C. Something that naturally proceeds X has occurred/not occurred; so X likely has

occurred/not occurred, e.g., “Dark clouds have gathered so it likely will rain.” D. The means for X were available/not available; so likely X has occurred/not oc-

curred. E. S has power and desire for X to come about; so X will likely come about. F. S has power/desire/anger/passion/calculation/no obstacle for X to come about;

so X will likely come about (increasingly depending on how many conditions can be met).

G. A thing which naturally happens before X has come about; so X will come about.

H. The means for X has occurred; so X will likely occur, e.g., “If there’s a founda-tion, there will be a house.”

I. X is probable to bring about Y. J. X is both probable and adequate to bring about Y.

XXIX. FROM THE SEEMINGLY IRRATIONAL OR HIGHLY IMPROBABLE: X must happen (or be true, etc.) even though it seems insane b/c people wouldn’t believe it otherwise. People believe facts or probabilities. If something is so wild, it is not believed due to its probability; it must be an observed or foretold fact. For exam-ple, just because a thing is a source of something, it doesn’t mean it doesn’t need it, e.g., “The laws need a law to set them right like fish need salt.”

XXX. FROM EXPEDIENCY/GOODNESS: X being a means or an end depending on the circumstance. A. X is self evident. B. X is sought after by all things, e.g., water. C. X is sought by all things with understanding, e.g., virtue. D. X is good b/c its contrary Y is bad. E. X is good b/c it disadvantages enemies. F. X is good b/c it is contrary to that which our enemies desire, e.g., “surely Priam

would exult.” G. X is good b/c we share a common destiny (or interest with enemies/neighbors/

allies). H. X, the end, is good b/c many resources have already been invested in a long

chain of means for it. I. X is good b/c many seek it (object of contention). J. X is good b/c it is praised. K. X is good b/c it is praised by those who suffer. L. X is good b/c it helps friend or allies. M.X is good b/c it is not in excess of what is needed N. X is bad b/c it is excessive. O. X is uniquely good for the individual or community in a achieving the chosen

ends. P. X is good b/c it brings an end into a self-sufficient condition. Q. X is good b/c it produces, maintains, or entails characteristics of the chosen

end. R. X is good b/c it furthers the means towards a given end. S. X is good b/c destroys the opposite of what is sought.

XXXI. FROM UNIVERSAL RELATIVE EXPEDIENCY/GOODNESS: Again, talking about means/ends. A. X is a greater good or the lesser evil. B. X is the best or largest in one class so it surpasses Y in the class average, e.g.,

the tallest man surpasses the tallest woman and men are taller than women on average.

C. X is a greater good b/c X always accompanies Y but Y does not always accom-pany X.

D. X is a production of a greater good than Y. E. X is chosen by those with practical wisdom (“experts”) vs. the ignorant. But be

weary of “experts!” F. X is produced by a greater good than Y so it’s a greater good itself, e.g., health

is produced by organic food but pleasure is produced by processed food. G. X is desirable in itself and/or pursued for its own sake.

H. X is an end that is a greater good itself; Y is only a means, e.g., health > exer-cise // quality of life > capitalism.

I. X stands less in need of others (more efficient) than Y. J. X can exist w/o Y but Y cannot exist without X (more self-sufficient). K. X is more of an origin of other good things than Y, which is not an origin of other

good things or is the origin of lesser good things. L. X is rarer and harder to get than Y so it is more worth getting. M.X is more plentiful and we can make more use of it, e.g., “the best of thing is

water.” N. X is harder and thus better than the easy (and vice versa). O. X’s loss is greater than Y’s loss. P. The function of X is better so X is greater than Y. It is not X that matters but f(x)! Q. X is more honorable than Y, e.g., more friends is more honorable than more

money. R. X is more desirable, e.g. sight > smell. S. X is greater to the wise and noble. T. X better corresponds to reality or science. U. X is better for allies. V. X is more pleasant. W.X is longer lasting. X. X is chosen by the majority.

i. “The better candidate is the one the people elect.” Y. X is preferred by competitors or enemies. Z. X is shared by all. AA. X is greater when divided into its parts than Y is. BB. X leads more directly to the end. CC. X is better for the individual so therefore better for the community (not the

other way around). DD. X aims at reality and Y aims at appearance. EE. X added to other parts increases the whole more than Y added to those

parts. FF.X leads to suffering but Y leads to harming (relatively equally); so X is better b/c

it is better to suffer than to do harm.

XXXII. FROM A MYSTERY NARRATIVE: 1) Pose mystery, 2) deepen mystery, 3) hone in on the proper explanation by considering (and offering evidence against) alternative explanations, 4) Provide a clue (reader likes anticipation), 5) resolve the mystery, and 6) draw the implication for the phenomenon under study.

XXXIII. FROM A MAXIM: Statements, not about particular matters, but about uni-versal matters, human actions, and things to be chosen or avoided. Use when: 1) hitting the high note of a crescendo, 2) attempting to pointedly contradict a re-mark, and/or 3) the maxim cannot be attacked in any way (must be universally ac-cepted by audience). A. “Life is the sum of choices.”

XXXIV. FROM METAPHORICAL LABELS: Making a point with the aid of metaphor or labels from different contexts. Much more on this under STYLE and EMOTIONAL APPEALS. A. “Your laws are not from man but from dragons.” (The origin of Draconian law) B. “O steel in heart as thou art steel in name.”

XXXV. FROM EXPERT OPINION: Arguments based on the opinions of experts. Use with extreme caution (unless attacking of course). A. S’s opinion is reliable/unreliable b/c opinion is/ins’t accepted by other or more

authoritative experts. B. S’s opinion is reliable/unreliable b/c there is/isn’t anything inconsistent, contra-

dictory, or illogical in the expression itself. C. S’s opinion is reliable/unreliable b/c it is/isn’t recent. D. S’s opinion is reliable/unreliable b/c the assumptions are reasonable/unreason-

able. E. S’s opinion is unreliable b/c it is based on heresy. F. S is reliable/unreliable b/c S has/doesn’t have a clear advantage to gain or score

to settle. G. S is reliable/unreliable b/c S is with/without prejudice that may be influencing or

coloring the opinion (not truly independent). H. S is reliable/unreliable b/c S is/isn’t an expert in the field related to the issue,

e.g., “Einstein was not a political theorist.”

XXXVI. FROM THE UNIVERSAL LAW OF REGRESSION: X is excellent and unique under the circumstances; so X will regress to the mean. Excellence/uniqueness doesn't persist; time passes, and mediocracy asserts itself. This universal law oper-ates under all circumstances with a combination of stable factors and randomness. A.Economic performance is driven much by randomness. Successful and

unsuccessful businesses regress to the mean. The stable perhaps could be skill but chance overpowers skill over time. “Even Warren Buffet will go bust if he lives long enough.”

B. Genes interact with a random environment. Heredity intermingles with chance (the environment), e.g., two parents in 99th percentile in height will have a child in a lower percentile.

QUESTION 5: WHAT IS THE CONCISE THESIS STATEMENT? One concise statement is necessary. Must speak in UNIVERSAL terms diverting from the individual person or occa-sion.

QUESTION 6: WHAT DEVICES/ARGUMENTS NEED TO BE EMPLOYED TO TRIGGER THE DESIRED EMOTIONAL/UNCONSCIOUS EFFECT (PATHOS)? “Create the circum-stances and the environment. Then make your pitch. But rather than pushing it down their throats, she is expressing the emotional demands of the public, already keyed to a certain pitch.”

I. CONSIDER WHETHER TO APPEAL: If the subject is trivial/unimportant or the minds are too far gone on the issue, more harm is done appealing to emotions. If they are too far gone, you must avoid and deflect w/an equally emotional issue; change the narrative.

II. EMOTIONAL WORD/METAPHORICAL ASSOCIATION: Use words associated with the desired emotional state. A.Prime emotions associated w/the subject matter. The emotion must be

associated with the subject matter and the subject matter must be persuasive when primed. “Attention to the first concept (the emotional appeal) readies the second (subject matter) for influence only in proportion to the degree of associ-ation b/w the two.” The second MUST still be persuasive or you will have the op-posite effect, like a movie that fucks up the climax.

B. Imagery and metaphorical terms work across senses. Thoughts of warm coffee make people kinder towards those around them. Fluffy cloud imagery as-sociated with warmth and safety. German music makes one more likely to choose German beer at the liquor store. Anything violent is associated with fear (fear of death). Sex is associated with life. i. “the noise of his feet were heard blocks away.” vs. “he stamped his feet.” ii. “lapping up the beer” vs. “drinking the beer.”

C. Even sound/pronunciation can have cross-sensory impact. For example, alliteration and ANDx figures, and collection of words with short quick syllables help create a sense of urgency.

D.Always use words positively associated with the reality you wish to es-tablish. Don't use words with dual senses (when one is negative). For example, airlines strategically use the word “gate” rather than “terminal” as that is asso-ciated with fear of death and thus fear of planes. “Execution,” likewise, may be associated with achievement but it is also associated with death.

E. Like blood through the body. Diffuse associative words and emotional ap-peals throughout the essay/work “as blood flows through a body.” Cicero.

F. People react more strongly with the negative emotions. For example, the “fright” of unhealthy habits is more effective than the “good” of healthy habits (think imagery on Cigarettes).

G. Must be subtle and to its perfect limit. People are affected best when un-conscious of it. If the audience is conscious, it will lead to a burnout effect and they may reject it. You can take this very far. For example, “But one frail timber shields them from their doom.” Using the word “shield” perhaps is not a sound choice because it signals a fixed limit on the terror/fear.

“He who wants to persuade should put his trust not in the right argument, but in the right word.”

“For good or positive, change the word.”

III. APPEAL TO SCARCITY/LOSS: The idea of potential loss plays a large roll in human decision-making. People fear loss (perhaps b/c it is unconsciously associ-ated with death). A.Increase suddenness of loss. The more sudden, recent, surprising, or more

imminent the loss, the stronger the effect, e.g., violence is more likely when economic loss is sudden.

B.News from exclusive source. Pre-information of scarcity of X comes from an “exclusive” source. This increases the effect.

C. Increase perceived scarcity. The more scarce something is perceived, the more people want it.

D.Potential loss of freedom is powerful. The potential loss of freedom has a powerful effect. Unless you do X, these freedoms will be lost. One condones racism when arguing that silencing a racist on a campus cannot be tolerated lest we accept a loss of freedom of speech.

E. Competition increases the effect. The effect increases in proportion to not only scarcity but also the level of competition. Throw down a challenge. “We choose to go to the moon not because it is easy but because it is hard.” JFK. The mood at the time was full of the fear of loss. Winning seemed the only way to prevent the loss of freedom in the world. JFK was trying to amplify the appeal to loss.

F. Use the deadline tactic. People respond to deadlines. Deadlines give a sense of urgency. “X will not be available after the deadline.”

G. Gain and abundance imagery/association has opposite effect. Appeal-ing to a sense of abundance or gain can likewise have the opposite effect of an appeal to loss. It can make people fear less.

IV. APPEAL TO INDEPENDENCE/INDIVIDUALITY/FREEDOM: Appeal to peo-ple's desire for freedom, independence, and individuality, e.g., If you buy this car, you will have freedom and independence. A.Works better on the western mind. An appeal to independence or freedom

works better on the Western mind where individuality is valued. In the East, in-dividuality can come off as cold. You will find more advertisers appealing to no-tions of the collective and of the family in the East. Know thy audience.

B. Word association. Use words like “you” rather than “we” for that subtle ef-fect.

V. APPEAL TO THE COLLECTIVE: See also “appeal to unity.” Much the same applies (as well as the opposites of the appeal to individuality). A.Works best on Eastern mind. Again, know the characteristics and the culture

of your audience. This is not a one sized fits all notion. B.Word associations. Use “we” rather than “you,” etc. Focus on notions of fam-

ily and togetherness. Use words associated with those qualities. C. Group solidarity or Patriotism. You want X. X is (un)American. You’re

(un)American.

VI. APPEAL TO RECIPROCATION: People feel an obligation to reciprocate if something is done for them. The force is so strong that studies show it overpowers how much someone likes someone or something. Even unwanted “gifts” trigger re-payment. A.Begin with high demand. Begin with an extremely high demand (w/o being

too unreasonable) and create the appearance of a concession. If you make a concession in your argument, the audience may then make a concession to-wards yours. Studies even show that the “victim” actually feels responsible for the concession.

B. Unexpected and meaningful concession. The gift/concession should be meaningful, unexpected, and/or customized for an increase in the effect.

VII. APPEAL TO COMMITMENTS/CONSISTENCE: Ask for some kind of com-mitment from the audience and watch them engage in behavior consistent with that commitment. Studies have found that even signing a petition can change one's self image, which can lead to much larger future commitments due to the de-sire for consistency in their changed image. A.Start small. Start small and scale up. Once agreeing with a smaller inconse-

quential statement, people are more likely to scale up. B.The strengths of commitments depends on the level. The more active,

voluntary, effortful, and public a commitment is, the stronger the commitment will be. More difficult and costly commitments increase loyalty and shared iden-tity with the issue. People stick to their guns in the following order: 1) public commitment (written declaration or spoken statement), 2) private written com-mitment (signing a petition), and 3) private thoughts.

C. Begin with already anchored beliefs. We fool ourselves in order to keep our thoughts and beliefs consistent with what we have already thought or decided. Thus, begin argument from the point of view of the audience.

D. People desire to believe rather than think. People WANT TO BELIEVE something; they DON'T WANT TO THINK about it b/c their expectations may be crushed. THINK ABOUT THAT.

VIII. APPEAL TO SENSE OF IMPORTANCE: Make the audience feel important and appreciated. A.Be honest and sincere about it. Give honest and sincere appreciation. B.Show a genuine interest in others. Appeal to their interests. We are inter-

ested in others when they are interested in us. Know what the audience is inter-ested in. Frame the questions and issues from the point of view of the audience. Talk and write in terms of the audience's interests, e.g., popular culture.

C. Show interest in culture. People's identities are connected to their culture and react in an emotionally negative or positive way depending on the trigger. Show respect and appreciation for the audience's culture.

D.Play on cultural clichés. Play on old (perhaps even historical) cliches and ma-nipulate new ones. That can show you are connected to their culture/tribe.

E. Be weary of flattery. Flattery will often lead to the opposite rather than in-tended effect unless the recipient himself is a narcissistic flatterer. Flattery works on a narcissist.

IX. APPEAL TO DESIRE: Create a sense of desire in the audience. A.Make it the audience's choice. The audience should feel that are not being

sold something but that they are buying it on their own accord. B.Use of rounded periods and foreshadowing. A rounded period was fa-

vored by the Greeks because it provided foreshadowing where the reader can fill in the blanks of the argument prior to the completion of it. This creates a sense of excitement, i.e., desire as well as leaves the reader satisfied that they came up with the argument themselves. The writer was just filling in the blanks.

C. Make more expensive. People have an automatic response that the more ex-pensive something is the better, e.g., perhaps charge more for a subscription service than a dollar.

X. APPEAL TO HONESTY: If unaware of an audience's desires and ideas, appeal to their sense honesty, e.g., “I know you want to do the right thing...”

XI. APPEAL TO FEAR: First create the haunted house but always provide an exit. A.Tell what is to be feared. If X does not bring about A, D will occur. D is a very

bad outcome from X’s immediate point of view. D is so bad it is likely to evoke fear in X. Therefore, X should bring about A.

B. Provide a positive step to prevent it. X is to be greatly feared and Y is a positive step you can take to prevent it. Without providing a way out, people go into self delusion and either give up entirely or ignore the seriousness of the fear.

XII. MOVE TO AWE: Awe is a very powerful emotion. The emotion creates the tingling/goosebump feeling you get when struck with a sense of wonder and amazement. A.Create mystery and adventure. A sense of mystery and adventure can cre-

ate awe. X is adventurous/mysterious. B. Scatter memorable quotes with the figures of speech. The figures of

speech create a sense of awe and wonder in the words.

XIII. MOVE TO ANGER: Move to anger from a state of calm by playing upon the following premises. A. S is angry at those that laugh, jeer, scoff, insult. B. S is angry at those that speak ill of or despise the things about which they are

especially serious (guns, trucks, etc.) ESPECIALLY if insecure in those things. C. S is angry at those that don't show respect for a custom S values. D. S is angry at those that do not return a favor. E. S is angry at those (seeming) inferiors whom oppose or belittle them. F. S is angry at those who rejoice or show delight in one’s misfortune. G. S is angry at those who are unaware that they are causing pain. H. S is angry at those that relay bad news. I. S is angry at those who show disregard towards 1) those S emulates, 2) those S

admires, 3) those S respects 4) those of whom S wants to admire, or 5) those who respect S.

J. S is angry at those who do well by others but not S. K. S is angry at those forgetful of something important to S. L. S is angry at those ungrateful for S.

XIV. MOVE TO CALM: Remove anger by considering the following premises. A. S is made to believe S deserves suffering. B. S is calmed towards those who seem to have disregarded him but did so unwill-

ingly (or not at all). C. S is calmed towards those who intended the opposite. D. S is calmed towards those that behave the same way regarding themselves. E. S is calmed towards those who confess and repent. F. S is calmed towards those who humble themselves before S. G. S is calmed towards those who are serious about the same things when S is se-

rious about those things. H. S is calmed towards those who go the extra mile than merely return a favor. I. S is calmed towards those who beg for forgiveness. J. S is calmed towards those whom they come to learn are not insulting or mock-

ing them. K. S is calmed towards those whom they fear or respect. L. S is calmed towards those that acted from anger or passion (believed to me not

of the right mind).

XV. MOVE TO FEAR: X can be specific individual/group or natural phenomenon, etc. A. X is hostile/angry and very capable; so X is feared by S. B. X is unjust and powerful with unjust purposes or intent to harm; so X is feared. C. X is in the power of another, being a profiteer and/or under fear of said other;

so X is feared. D. X is able to wrong the weak and will harm when can; so X is feared. E. X believes X has been wronged and is powerful and capable to retaliate; so X is

feared. F. X is fearful, has power, and will take steps to protect self; so X is feared. G. X is powerful and capable and believes in zero sum games; so X is feared. H. X has a history of defeating superiors and attacking inferiors; so X is feared. I. X is injured/hostile/antipathetic and it is unclear if and when action will be

taken, e.g., Mother Earth is injured and antipathetic; so Earth is feared. J. The fearsome thing is even more so b/c the error cannot be rectified or the

power is out of our hands (precautionary principle suggests action). K. X has happened to people already (perhaps greatly).

L. X is happening to people like themselves. M.X is in the hands of unexpected people/things. N. X is possible at unexpected times.

XVI. MOVE TO HOPE/CONFIDENCE OR REMOVAL OF FEAR: A. Tell S that the fearful is remote. B. Tell S that benefits are close at hand. C. Tell S that we have lots of help and friends. D. Tell S that S’s done nor suffered anything wrong. E. Tell S that those with power are friends. F. Tell S that our interests coincide with theirs (the powerful).

XVII. MOVE TO SHAME: Create premises/devices by playing upon the following things people shame for and whom they feel ashamed in front of. A. S feels like a coward. B. S profited from a shameful thing or from the helpless. C. S could have provided assistance. D. S praised someone only for gain (became to be known as a mere flatterer). E. S borrowed or received money from those worse off than self. F. S failed to endure hardships bore by the old or the weak. G. S criticized a good deed. H. S took credit for the work of another. I. S incessantly boasts of oneself (certainly will feel shame at some point). J. S is dishonored or blamed, especially physically, even when not own’s fault. K. S feels shame in front of those that admire us or those who we admire or whom

we’d wish to be admired. L. S feels shame in front of those with whom we are competing. M.S feels shame in front of those whose opinion of us we respect. N. S feels shame in front of those whom we consider our equals. O. S feels shame in front of those whom watched or saw the shameful act openly. P. S feels shame in front of those whom are likely to tell everybody about the

shameful act. Q. S feels shame in front of those whose main occupation is reporting on the fail-

ures of others. R. S feels shame in front of those who have never yet known us to come to grief. S. S feels shame in front of those who are just beginning to wish to be our friends. T. S feels shame in front of those whom are our old acquaintances.

XVIII. MOVE TO PITY/COMPASSION: Generally people feel pity/compassion (in-creasing in degree of likeness) towards dangers which can befall them, in close proximity, towards people close to them or like them (increasing in degree of like-ness and proximity). Thus, don’t focus on events and people that lived centuries ago or those suffering events across the world. A. Images of isolation/loneliness makes people feel pity/compassion. B. Death in various forms (more for parents and children and like people, etc.)

makes people feel pity/compassion. C. Images of injury, affliction, old age, disease, starvation makes people feel pity/

compassion. D. Thoughts of evil coming from a source of which good ought to have come from

makes people feel pity/compassion. E. Repetition of such misfortunes (increases the emotion) makes people feel pity/

compassion.

F. Consistent misfortune for those deserving good makes people feel pity/compas-sion.

G. Misfortune towards a loved one makes people feel pity/compassion. H. Misfortune towards those like us in age, character, disposition, social standing

makes people feel pity/compassion. I. Parentless children (the hero’s journey character nearly always) makes people

feel pity/compassion. J. Misfortune befalling a hero makes people feel pity/compassion.

XIX. MOVE TO INDIGNATION: A. S feels indignation towards those that have just happened upon wealth. The

newly rich give more offense. B. S feels indignation towards those with office/power/many friends who secure

other advantages due to their already advantages. C. S feels indignation towards those who get something seemingly inappropriate

for them, e.g., a coward with many weapons or an idiot with office, etc. D. S feels indignation towards those that set themselves up against a superior that

S does not respect or consider just, e.g., “only from battle he shrank with Ajax, Telamon’s son.”

XX. MOVE TO ENVY: A. S feels envious of those whose deeds or possessions rouse love or honor or

fame. B. S feels envious of those equals that have various gifts of fortune that S desires. C. S feels envious of those competitors in trade, sport, love, etc., who have seen

success when S did not, e.g., “Potter against potter.” D. S feels envious of those who have got what S once had (old envy the young). E. S feels envious of those who have spent little on the same thing S worked hard

for. F. S feels envious of those who easily acquired something which S wants. G. S feels envious of those that get pleasure from certain things S does not or is in-

capable of.

XXI. MOVE TO FEELING OF EMULATION: A. S feels emulation towards that which is possessed (qualities or objects) by an-

cestors, relatives, friends, or those like S. B. S feels emulation towards highly honorable things such as excellence and good

things serviceable to others. C. S feels emulation towards those whom S admires. D. S feels emulation towards those who have many friends. E. S feels emulation towards those praised by the public.

XXII. APPEAL TO CO-CREATION: We have more of an emotional connection to that which we create or spend effort on, e.g., one has a deeper connection with a tree that one planted than a tree planted by someone else. A.Effort and time are factors. The level of effort and time (like with other ap-

peals) spent on creation increases the effect. B. Ask for advice and involve the audience. Asking one for “advice” or “help”

rather than one's “opinion” increases the effect by adding to the sense of help in the creative process. Involve others in the writing process, e.g., using PA-TREON.

XXIII. APPEAL TO SENSE OF SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY: People aid those in pro-portion to their need, e.g., the higher payment someone offers to cut in line, the more likely they help but the less likely they accept payment. A. I or We highly need X. B. X is important to my/our personal/social values. C. X is morally required in accordance with my/our worldview.

QUESTION 7: HOW TO ENSURE THE TRUSTWORTHINESS OF THE MESSENGER IN LIGHT OF THE SUBJECT MATTER, AUDIENCE, AND CIRCUMSTANCES? Consider the appropriate mode of expressing the personality to be dramatized for the given audience. You must create a narrative for yourself. Trust is the name of the game.

“The medium is the message and so is the messenger.”

“To tell who you are, begin with who you're not.”

I. HIGHLIGHT DETAILS OF SELF THAT CAN VIVIDLY SEIZE AUDIENCE: Focus on the character, the customs, the deeds, and the life, including acts of self-sacrifice, etc. A.Trustworthiness is most important. The purpose is always to increase the

level of trust the audience has in you. If there is zero chance a given demo-graphic will not trust you, then don't bother reaching them. Reach out to others who are trusted in hopes they can deliver the needed message.

B. Word association matters of course. Do not use any words at any point that are associated with untrustworthiness unless perhaps telling a narrative about an adversary.

II.APPEAL TO YOUR HUMILITY AND HONESTY: Be honest with strengths and weaknesses. People trust the open-minded and flexible. A.Admit deficiencies. Point out, early and often, any weaknesses in self, weak-

nesses in your argument, regrets, mistakes, ignorance, and any criticism. B.Admit opposition's strengths. Allude to positives and strengths in opposing

views and parties. C. Use passive language. Use passive language when needing to seem humble,

e.g., “I could be wrong..”; “It seems to me...”; “I've always thought....” “I could be wrong..”

D. Mention strengths after admitting weaknesses. If a weakness is pointed out point to a strength that challenges the relevance of the weakness. In this case, use “but” rather than “and, e.g., “I'm a slow learner, but I learn.”

“Say about yourself all the derogatory things you know the other person is thinking or wants or in-tends to say - and say them before that person has a chance to say them.” Carnegie

III. APPEAL TO NON-JUDGEMENTALITY AND AGREEABLENESS: Be cautious with your criticism as it normally has no positive effect on people (unless the intent is to trigger anger). A.Don't judge. Do not criticize, condemn, or complain about anyone explicitly.

The goal is to make the reader (if at fault) to criticize self. B. Judge with appreciation. If you must judge/criticize, begin with praise and

honest appreciation. Use “and” rather than “but” between the appreciation and the criticism. People tend to ignore the sincerity of or even fail to remember what was said before a “but.”

C. Judge with kindness. Be critical with a smile, so to speak. You are doing it be-cause you must not because you wish to harm.

D.Argue without argumentation. Find a more subtle way to persuade espe-cially when an issue is contentious to the audience. “The best way to get the best of an argument is to avoid it.”

E. Use positive and agreeable word associations. e.g., “YES.”

“Don't complain about the snow on your neighbor's roof when your own doorstep is unclean.” Confucius

“Agree with thine adversary quickly.” Jesus Christ

IV. APPEAL TO LIKING EFFECTS: People tend to agree or say yes to the de-gree people like you (liking effects). A.Don't ignore attractiveness. People tend to like those they consider physi-

cally attractive. People also associate skill with those that speak well. B.Focus on similarities. Connect yourself and the message to things people in

the audience like. People like those similar to them including those with similar interests, opinions, personality traits, background, lifestyle, tribe, and fashion.

C. Emotional connections increase the effect. The more emotional the con-nection, the more powerful the effect. The negative emotions are more powerful (unfortunately). Focus on events and difficulties that you know others are also experiencing. More similarity means more likability.

D. Increase contact if possible. More exposure leads to more likability.

V. APPEAL TO UNITY: Shared personal relationships themselves create a pre-sua-sion context for assent. You must be “of” the people not just “like” them. A.Use language of togetherness. Use “we” not “they.” Use words associated

with the home. An open home (or border) increases the sense of “we-ness.” B.Use family terms. Use words like “brothers” and “sisters” and other words as-

sociated with family, e.g., forefathers, founding fathers, motherland, mother earth, heritage.

C. Talk about food. Food is an association of togetherness. D. Promote cooperative action. Synchronized action and experience leads to

more feelings of oneness, e.g., Friday's for future.

VI.DE-EMPHASIZE BAD NEWS: People really do equate the messenger with the message, positive or negative. Proceed cautiously when bad news must be deliv-ered. Use all the same methods, e.g., follow bad news with good news by way of a “but.”

QUESTION 8: MAKING THE WEAKER APPEAR THE STRONGER AND STRONGER AP-PEAR THE WEAKER (SOPHISTRY)? Every argument is more or less fallacious but these are largely the trickiest of the tactics of the sophist/propagandist.

I. AFFIRMING THE CONSEQUENT: P —> Q. Q. Thus, P.

II. DENYING THE ANTECEDENT: P —> Q. P. Thus, Q.

III.STRAW MAN: Misrepresenting what was said by quote, exaggeration, image, or otherwise.

IV.FALSE STATEMENT: Intentionally lying about a fact/issue.

V. HALF TRUTH: Everything said is true but either out of context (omitting when/how) or not grasping the full picture.

VI.AD HOMINEM: Attacking the person when not relevant to the argument/issue in efforts to unreasonably close or refute it. Ad hominem can be relevant when the personal characteristics of the arguer are relevant to the issue, e.g., ARGUE FROM HIDDEN MOTIVES.

VII. POST HOC FALLACY: Since event Y followed event X, event Y must have been caused by event X.

VIII. BEGGING THE QUESTION (CIRCULAR REASONING): The conclusion to be proved is already presupposed in the premise. A. “God has all the virtues. Benevolence is a virtue. Therefore, God is benevolent.”

IX. SLIPPERY SLOPE FALLACY: Ungrounded criticism that a series of closely linked consequences will lead to catastrophe. A.Sorites version. The first step is highly plausible, but each succeeding step

gets weaker and weaker. Often used with relative terms, e.g., “Taking one hair off a man does not make him bald.” With each hair the premise is weakened.

B. Domino effect version. The possibility of a slippery slope is used to prevent the first step from being taken.

X. IRRELEVANT CONCLUSION: Argument fails to prove the conclusion it is supposed to prove, and instead, is arguing towards proving some irrelevant conclusion. A. “We need massive wide-scale action on climate change. GND is the biggest plan

offered. We need a GND.”

XI.FALLACY OF CONSEQUENCES: Arguing from irrelevant consequences to support a conclusion.

XII. RED HERRING: Introducing irrelevancy often by emotional effect, e.g., an appeal to pity/fear/anger, merely to distract us from the conclusion we are sup-posed to make (as compared to trying to prove a diff. Conclusion for other pur-poses).

XIII. FALLACIOUS USE OF LANGUAGE/TERMS: Words aimed at pre-empting or stifling reasonable dialogue, e.g., every terrorist is another’s freedom fighter. A.Intentionally vague or ambiguous language. Intentional use of ambiguous

words, language, or grammar to confuse. B.Loaded term. Used in such a way to defeat or undermine the position of the

participant in a dialogue to whom the argument is directed. C. Loaded definition. Defining a term for rhetorical advantage. “Murder is an un-

justified killing.” D. Equivocation. Using a term in two different ways to gain the appearance of va-

lidity. Can be very subtle., e.g., Legal obligation vs. moral obligation, especially when using relative terms, e.g., “short” means “short” in different contexts.

XIV. UNREASONABLE QUESTIONING: Misuse of a question where a direct an-swer is improperly harmful, e.g., having the appearance to be evasive if refusing the answer a loaded question.

A.Loaded or complex questions. Overly aggressive and complex question in-tended to trap or confuse the answerer into incurring damaging commitments that can be used to defeat him, e.g., “Are you still self-centered?”

B. Black and white question fallacy. The question posed is overly restrictive in representing the various reasonable possibilities, e.g., “Are you a pacifist or a war-monger?”

XV. FALLACIOUS USE OF STATISTICS: Statistics are abused perhaps more than anything intentionally and unintentionally, especially in regards to probabili-ties. A.Ensemble vs. time averages distort thinking. GDP is an ensemble average

that tells us nothing about what an individual can expect in time, e.g., we can have GDP growth when one is master and the rest slaves. Be weary of any statistic claiming S is nth times more likely to experience X than P, e.g., black men are 7x more likely to end up in prison that white men. That is an ensemble of averages. See Ole Peters.

B.Error of meaningless statistics. Occurs where a statistical claim uses a vague term that is so imprecisely defined that the use of a precise statistical figure in the claim is meaningless or very weak, e.g., “90% of major racke-teers….”

C. Error of unknowable statistics. Statistic requires evidence that is practically or logically impossible to verify, e.g., counting rats in a city b/c of their nature.

D. Failure to include confidence factor. A statistical probability means nothing if there is a wide range of possibilities and little confidence in the accuracy of the prediction. Often the statistic cited is the mean of a set of different possible paths. Must include a confidence factor.

XVI. ALL/MOST/SOME (ROUND TRIP) FALLACY: The way the sentence is worded can give the appearance of a true statement or lead to confusion. I'm even confused whether the three different instances/examples below are actually differ-ent or not. Be very skeptical if anyone is making inferences involving most or some things. A.Words closely associated. Words that are closely associated to one another

and can lead the appearance of causation. “Dionysius is a thief because he is wicked.” All thieves may be wicked but not all of the wicked are thieves.

B.Confusion b/w subject and object. We tend to equate the subject with the object and hold the reverse true b/c we cannot perceive the non-linearity of the statement. “Most racists are Republican so therefore most Republicans are racist.” “Most people that make lots of money have skills so therefore most peo-ple that have skills make lots of money.”

C. False inference with similar variables. Most/some X is/does A. Most/some Y is/does A. Therefore, X is Y, e.g., “Paris despised society and lived alone on mount Ida. Lofty people do that sort of thing. Therefore, Paris has a lofty dispo-sition.”

XVII. PART/WHOLE FALLACY: Argue unreasonably from attributes of some parts to a whole, or member of a collection, to attributes of the whole or collection itself. A. “Team is great because each player is great.” B. “The citizen is great because her country is great.”

XVIII. ARGUE FROM IGNORANCE: Misusing the idea that that which has not been seen does not exist. THE EVIDENCE OF ABSENSE IS NOT THE SAME AS AN ABSENSE OF EVIDENCE, e.g., no swans are black b/c we have only observed white swans.

With EVIDENCE OF ABSENSE, on the other hand, we prove that not all swans are white by witnessing a single black swan. Science is proving false, not truth by con-firmation of the observed (we likely haven't observed it yet, e.g., atheism is dogma. A. X is not known to be true; so X is false. B. X is not known to be false; so X is true.”

XIX. FALLACIOUS APPEAL TO EMOTIONS: Use of emotional premises misused to gain acceptance of a conclusion w/o adequately supporting it. See all the differ-ent emotional appeals. Again, some of them are not inherently fallacious. We think with our emotions after all so (no thoughts without emotions and no emotions with-out thoughts) the purpose of the emotional appeal also matters.

XX. APPEAL TO FORCE: Threat of force to gain acceptance of a conclusion. A. “I will see to it that D comes about, unless you bring about A.”

XXI. APPEAL TO MODESTY: Misuse of expert opinion or authority-based sources including, arrogantly, one's self, to try to suppress someone’s opinion and/or close the debate, e.g., “How dare you question MY AUTHORITAY!” Eric Cartman. “I have a PHD so therefore I know.”

XXII. REVERSE PROBABILITY ARGUMENT (ART OF CORAX): Confusing a par-ticular probability w/absolute probability. Arguing that the improbable is probable and the probable is improbable, The “Art of Corax” is perhaps symbol of sophistry. A.The improbable becomes probable. For the improbable happens, so that it

is probable that the improbable will occur, but if this is so, the improbable will be probable. Likewise, “The unknown CAN be known b/c it is known to be un-known.”

B. The probable becomes improbable. If a person is accused of a crime which he is likely to have committed (in the case of a larger man attacking a smaller man), he can also use the defense that it is unlikely that he did it, for the very reason that it appears too probable,” e.g., “Because the defendant would never be so dumb to go that route due to the high probability of being seen (even if that is his regular route), he could not have been there at the time of the mur-der.”

XXIII. FROM AMPLIFICATION BIASES/EFFECTS: Describe one argument/idea and then introduce a comparison to rhetorical advantage. A.The size of the difference amplifies or de-amplifies the perceived dif-

ference. If the 2nd being compared is quite different from the first, we tend to believe it more different than it is. Cold water feels colder suddenly than it does gradually. A lie seems like less a lie if it comes after a big lie.

B. Average to gold or gold to average. Make an average idea or argument sound like gold by first presenting a hopeless or pitiful thought.

XXIV. ASSYMETRY OF MULTIPLE ALTERNATIVES/CHOICES BIAS EFFECT: An irrelevant but introduced third choice (or more) can alter the preferences b/w the original two choices in unpredictable ways or cloud people's reasoning. A.Third parties complicate things in elections. There's really no perfectly fair

way for an electorate to choose candidates w/o the electorate occasionally choosing a candidate over another one that the majority actually preferred in a head to head matchup.

B.Consider the asymmetry of the choices. Oftentimes you don't know what people will do. Try best to assess the level of asymmetry. Majority prefers A to B. But if you introduce C, majority now ends up choosing B.

C. Similarities and differences b/w the three options matters. A + B are quite different (and somewhat equally preferred) but A is similar yet slightly better than C. Once C is introduced, A is highlighted, and the majority signifi-cantly moves to A, ignoring B. Studies show that people choosing dating part-ners and slime molds making choices have this in common.

D.Uniqueness of one choice can matter more than quality. When present-ing multiple choices where one is unique in relation to the others, the “unique” may be desired regardless of quality. In one study, people chose the more durable couch when only given a choice b/w durable and soft. But when pre-sented with three durable alternatives and one soft, they choose the soft.

E. There's can be great inconsistency/illusion in aggregate (majority rule) judgements. “Many people may appear they want to cut down the forest but each wants to keep the trees.” If there are more than two options when going on majority rule, contradictions begin to appear, e.g., 53% may “oppose” Oba-macare but half of them may want to strengthen it.

XXV. SOCIAL PROOF BIAS: We believe a behavior as more correct in a given sit-uation to the degree that we see others performing it. This principle was central to the climate documentary series A.Appeal to mass popular sentiment/enthusiasm. Everybody (or nobody) ac-

cepts that A is true. Therefore, A is true (or not). B.Werther effect. Suicides or hate crimes, etc., trend up after the news reports

one. This doesn't have to be a negative thing if the media were to focus on the good people are doing to help others, for example.

C. Uncertainty increases the effect. The greater the uncertainty, the more powerful the effect.

D.Group solidarity/similarity increases the effect. The greater the similarity to or of the in-group, the greater the effect.

E. Level of authority increases the effect. Everyone knowledgeable, civilized, or enlightened is doing it, i.e., people/entities the audience trusts does it, e.g., “Socrates did this; so should we.”

F. Numbers increase the effect. The greater the number of people that find an idea correct, the more the idea will be correct. Truth in this way has more to do with the magnitude of the belief rather than anything concrete.

G. Pluralistic ignorance. The bystander effect is actually due to this social proof principle. When people see something awful and/or surprising they are uncer-tain what to do so they look around to see what others are doing. The result is a reciprocal inaction. Climate inaction is perhaps exacerbated by this principle as well. Psychologists call this pluralistic ignorance.

XXVI. APPEAL TO FOCUSING ILLUSION: We tend to attribute causes and impor-tance to that which grabs our attention. Ushering an audience to selected facets of a message primes receptivity to considering these facets as the likely dominant cause or the most important aspect. A.X is focused on/receives the most attention so X produces the domi-

nant effect. For example, when a number is focused on in the media (and deemed positive), there is a high increase in the # of people who use said num-ber in the lottery due to its seeming causativeness. Studies show that juries be-lieve a defendant's false/coerced confession when the camera is focused on the defendant, but find cops to be coercing confessions if the camera is focused on

the cop, regardless of truth. CEOs get media attention so people attribute the success or failure of a company to them, even though many factors (random-ness most of all) are the “cause.”

B.X is focused on/receives most attention so X is the most salient/impor-tant. In one study, “Voters' rankings of the importance of various political is-sues matched almost perfectly with the amount of media attention.”9/11 as a historical event is considered a more important historical event around its an-niversary when the media gives it attention but then quickly drops in impor-tance when the media ceases to give it attention.

C. Avoid even mentioning alternatives. The mere mentioning of alternatives increases the audience's attention to different possibilities and thus takes away from the focus illusion, e.g., make only one particular goal or the meaning of one particular word salient.

D. Hyperbole can work in tandem. Bigger things increase attention and focus, which in turn can exaggerate importance and perception of causativeness. In one study, customers offered to pay more for studio 97 than studio 17. If you want to de-emphasize importance, then go small.

XXVII. MAKE USE OF ANCHORING BIAS: Cognitive bias where an individual de-pends too heavily on an initial piece of information. All thoughts and arguments will react to it in that way. Anchoring thus can create a certain level of path depen-dency. A.Anchoring works across different senses. Big numbers are more so more

important. Customers are willing to pay more for any item if they are instructed to first write down their social security number. Even having a customer draw a long line has led to their willingness to pay more for services/items.

B. We don't react to the big picture. We focus on what we are presently an-chored to in our mind. We don't react to total wealth, only gains and losses. “I'm only as good as my last trade.”

C. Sequence matters. Even the order of questioning influences how one thinks about them, e.g., the first question very important. Think about how a chosen sequence may influence the reader's perception.

D.Beliefs operate the same way over long periods of time. They become path dependent if the sequence of ideas is such that the first one dominates.

E. Strength of belief increases the effect. The anchoring effect will work in proportion to the strength of the belief or the level of impression the initial piece of information has on someone. See also confirmation bias.

F. Lower vs higher magnitude and volatility. People tend to believe that smaller is less volatile than larger and vice versa.

QUESTION 9: ARGUMENTS TO REFUTE? Obviously this is a highly limited list. They are the ones pointed out by Aristotle. All argument structures already described are in play.

I. REFUTE BY COUNTER-DEDUCTION: These are refutations from universal argu-ments and enthymemes (proceed the same).

II. REFUTE BY ATTACKING STATEMENT: A statement can be attacked generally or particularly, e.g., “Love is always good. —> But all desire is bad (general) // inces-tral love is bad (particular).”

III.REFUTE INFERENCE: Attack the inferences drawn from the argument.

IV.REFUTE BY CONTRADICTION: “He says he loves you, but he conspired with the 30.”

V. REFUTE FROM CONTRARY: What X says is not always true when seen from a contrary point of view, e.g., Good men do good to all friends —> But bad men do not always do evil to all their friends.

VI.REFUTE FROM SIMILARITY: X is not always true in like cases, e.g., “Mistreated men always hate their mistreaters. —> But well-used men do not always love those who use them well.”

VII. REFUTE BY PRECEDENT: Point out a strong precedent that contradicts the statement.

VIII. REFUTE BY RIDICULE/JEST/SARCASM: “Kill our opponent’s seriousness with our ridicule and his ridicule with out seriousness.” Cicero.

“Ridicule is the test of truth.”

IX.REFUTE WITH SEED OF MYSTERY: Create a seed of untrustworthiness in oppo-nent by using the mystery argument schema.

X. REFUTE FROM FALSE IMPRESSION: When responding to accusations, point out the reason for the false impression, that the facts are not as they now seem, e.g., a plausible excuse.

XI.REFUTE THE IRREFUTABLE: If an argument is irrefutable then you must place something of equal strength next to it, e.g., emotional/ethical appeals.

PART 2: ARRANGEMENT/STRUCTURE: “We must appear to aim at nothing but giving instruction (LOGOS), while the other two must flow throughout (PATHOS/ETHOS).” Cicero

QUESTION 1: WHAT ARGUMENTS AND REFUTATIONS WILL BE INCLUDED? During invention, everything is laid out. Now you need to consolidate towards the ideal.

QUESTION 2: WHAT ORDER SHOULD THE ARGUMENTS BE LAID OUT? Consider the following questions.

I. ON THE GENERAL ORDER: The case may call for different ways of ordering argu-ments. A. Strongest —> Weak —> 2nd strongest. Almost always the choice. B. 2nd strongest → weakest → strongest. C. Strongest to weakest or vice versa. D. Familiar to unfamiliar or vice versa. E. General to particular. F. Chronological.

II. STRENGTH OF ARGUMENTS MATTERS: The strength of the arguments help de-termine the order. A. If your own arguments are the strength, focus on them and ignore refutations.

B. Don't dwell on weakness of your own arguments. The strength must over-whelm.

C. If the case depends on refutation and your refutations are strong, bring every mode of attack immediately.

D. Retreat with eloquence if it is best to ignore a point in your own argument.

III.ON DIGRESSIONS TO STIR EMOTIONS: Almost always emotions must be primed in the introduction but sometimes emotional appeals can be reserved for the con-clusion or via digression somewhere in the middle. A. Can also be placed after narration/stating of the case or after arguments/refuta-

tions. B. The more important/weighty a matter is the more digression throughout is re-

quired.

IV.THE AUDIENCE MUST UNDERSTAND WHAT IS REQUIRED: Do not assume that it was understood at the outset. It must be repeated somewhere.

QUESTION 3: IS A TRADITIONAL STATEMENT OF THE FACTS REQUIRED? This is all Cicero. You would still want to order with AND AND BUT THEREFORE regardless of all these factors. Much of it is common sense.

I. CONTINUITY: The statement of facts can be continuous or broken up and interred passim.

II. CLEAR: The statement should be sufficiently clear. A. ALL and ONLY those facts needed are stated. B. The facts must be ordered in light of circumstances: 1) chronological, 2) General

to particular or particular to general, or 3) more familiar to reader to less famil-iar or vice versa.

III.BRIEF: The statement should be sufficiently brief. A. Remove all irrelevancies. B. Remove relevant info but that which contributes little to the reader's under-

standing or to generating a friendly disposition in the reader.

IV.PLAUSIBILE: The statement must be sufficiently plausible. A. Say NOTHING contrary to nature or historical fact. B. Articulate zero hard-to-believe causes or reasons. C. Consider all irrationalities and probabilistic errors articulated in Taleb's Incarte.

QUESTION 4: WHAT SHOULD BE INCLUDED IN THE INTRODUCTION? The two pur-poses of the introduction according to Cicero includes 1) Informing the audience of the end or object of the essay (logos), and 2) disposing the audience to be receptive of what we say (ethos/pathos).

“The readiness is all.” Shakespeare

I. TYPE OF INTRODUCTION: Different introduction styles suit different ends. A.Introduction may not be needed. Small and unimportant matters don’t re-

quire much of an introduction (if at all). Furthermore, only a limited introduction is required if people are already well disposed to a case.

B.Length matters. Get to the point as quickly as possible. Normally introduc-tions are too long. Consider how much time/space is allotted.

C. Inquisitive introduction. Make use of mystery to show reader that the sub-ject matter is important, curious, or interesting.

D.Narrative introduction. Use to rouse interest in the subject by adopting the anecdotal lead-in (personal/example/fact-based). Follow AND/AND/BUT/THERE-FORE narrative storytelling.

E. Paradoxical and ironic introduction. Setting forth a paradox or irony can es-tablish that although the subject matter or thing trying to prove seems improb-able, it must after all be admitted true.

F. Corrective introduction. Use a corrective introduction/tone to show that our subject has been neglected, misunderstood, or misrepresented.

G. Preparatory introduction. This type of introduction may spend more time laying out how the body will be ordered/structured. Use to explain an unusual mode of developing the subject, to forestall some misconception of the pur-pose, or to apologize for some deficiencies admitted.

II. THE INTRO IS THE ANCHOR: The introduction is where you can take advantage of anchoring effects. The initial idea/belief and its magnitude will affect the reader the rest of the way. A.Beginning with a mental association. If you want people to accept X, begin

with a subtle mental association to prime the audience towards your desired emotional state or point of view, perhaps something relatively undetectable that works across the different senses.

B.Magnitude obviously matters. Begin big/small and then scale up/down to achieve the desired effect, e.g., start with hyperbole if you need the audience to accept average premises.

C. First sentence is very important. The first sentence is the first anchor. Make best use of it. Use a figure of speech.

D.Consider multiple anchors. You can create an emotional anchor to appeal to the audience, another that heightens your trustworthiness, and another to achieve a certain desired interaction with the subject matter.

E. Emotional/ethical appeals. Emotional and ethical appeals generally must al-ways begin in the introduction. If they are not laid out in the intro, you may be avoiding them altogether. The strongest pitches are made in the intro or the conclusion or both.

QUESTION 5: CONCLUSION? The purpose of the conclusion is to amplify what is sup-ported and weaken further what is rejected. You can consider an emotionally-centric con-clusion or a sum-up style conclusion. Consider the following questions.

I. SUBJECT MATTER CONSIDERATIONS: The key to the conclusion is amplification/de-amplification. A.Summary/restatement vs. proper amplification. Proper amplification of ar-

guments and de-amplification of opponent's arguments determined by circum-stances. Sometimes you may just be merely summarizing and restating if there's no weight to the matter.

B. Broadening the view. Sometimes you can use the conclusion to generalize by broadening and extending the view of the problem or issue that we have been considering in the body.

II. EMOTIONAL/ETHICAL APPEAL AMPLIFICATION: Most likely you will amplify. A.Grand vs. temperate emotional appeal. Determined by the weight of the

subject matter obviously.

B.Arouse hostility in opponents. Good to save for conclusion after dismantling arguments, etc.

C. Reinforce your ethical appeals. If no ethical appeal has yet been attempted, the conclusion is generally too late.

III. APPEAL TO ZEIGARNIK EFFECT: Leave things unfinished. Our attention re-mains drawn to unfinished things and our memory of the details increases. We crave for closure. A.End unresolved (binge show strategy). You can leave an incomplete narra-

tive, unresolved problem, unanswered question, or unachieved goal. B.End with a mystery. You could end the whole thing with a mystery. Also con-

sider ending sections/chapters in such a way. C. Plant seed of mystery in opponent's trustworthiness.

QUESTION 6: WHAT ATTRACTIVE TITLE? The title is increasingly important due to the internet and “clickiness.”

I. CONSIDER A TWIST: Use a “but.” Get to the twist sooner than later.

II. USE A FIGURE OF SPEECH: Don’t make the headline PURELY figurative. Common figures include pun and alliteration.

III.BE EMOTIONALLY COMPELLING: Focus on the strong emotions such as awe/anger/fear. Avoid low arousal emotions such as sadness.

QUESTION 7: POST ESSAY CONSIDERATIONS?

I. OFFERING A COMMITMENT: Committing to something after being persuaded in-creases the likelihood of people sticking to it.

II. CONNECT TO THE RIGHT PEOPLE: You should consider who needs to see the es-say to aid in the contagion effect.

III.SHARE ON THE RIGHT PLATFORM: The platform matters. Take into considera-tion the audience, obviously. Actually you should know this beforehand.

PART 3: STYLE:

QUESTION 1: WHAT ABOUT GENERAL STYLE AND ITS VARIOUS TYPES?

“It is well to give everyday speech an unfamiliar air.” Aristotle

“Who fails in great endeavor, nobly fails.” Longinus

I. AND AND BUT THEREFORE NARRATIVE STORYTELLING: Almost all narratives should follow this structure – time tested since Homer and cross-cultural. A.Turn “ands” to “buts.” Too many “ands” is a less compelling narrative. It is

the surprise and anticipation that keeps people engaged. B. Buts/twists affect memory. People are less likely to remember what came

before a “but” than what come after. A story with twist after twist therefore doesn't stick in the memory of the reader as well. The reader may come away impressed without remembering why, e.g., Netflix shows.

II. ON ABSTRACT LANGUAGE: Be vivid and specific. Do not describe events and probabilities abstractly or the reader will not react properly (unless you're trying to confuse and decrease level of importance/likeliness/causativeness). See availability heuristic.

III. PROPER USE OF VOCABULARY: Vocabulary choice should be “pure, appro-priate, and precise.” Cicero A.Purity refers to word choice in isolation. Use “pure” English, so to speak.

Words should be in reputable use (used by celebrated authors), in mainstream use, in present use, and easy for readers to recognize and pronounce. Using a word out of style can be effective if done sparingly. However, terms of art should be avoided. Philosophy is reserved for yourself.

B.Appropriateness of language refers to word choice under the circum-stances. The nature of the circumstances determine the amplitude of the vo-cabulary choices. The key is to go as far as possible to persuasive effect without being excessive, e.g., the difference b/w urgency and leisurely word choices. Words and ideas should be easy to process, not too puzzling and not too obvi-ous.

C. Precision is obviously important. Avoid ambiguities UNLESS the intent is to be ambiguous. Words should express exactly and fully their intended meaning: not too general, not too little, and not too much.

IV. ON MODULATION: The modulation should be perfect to the weight of the subject and the style suited to that subject. “Nothing so much degrades the tone of a style as an effeminate and hurried movement in the language.” A. Avoid groups of words formed by open vowels. This creates an unpleasant

sound.

V. ON SUBTLETY: Use every device naturally. If the reader senses effort she is turned off. The figures of speech are more effective in disguise. A.Overly extravagant. Always ask whether you are being too extravagant for

the subject matter. Nothing will turn a reader off more. B.Overly emotional. Only be emotional when warranted by the subject matter.

Do not express your personal feelings disconnected from the subject. C. Overly frigid. Trying to sound knowledgeable and critical when your own sen-

tence is wanting in the sound of striking new thoughts. Childish and overused metaphors and cliches fall into this category, e.g., “beautiful women are tor-tures to the eyes.”

VI. ON STENTENCE STRUCTURE AND FLOW: Sentences can either be rounded or disjointed. A.Rounded periods. The Greeks talked of “rounded periods.” A sentence or se-

ries of sentences where the beginning foreshadows and allows the reader to imagine the argument coming to completion, like a runner of a race towards the finish line. In this sense it is “rounded.”

B.Disjointed sentences. A disjointed style is full of resting places and pauses, giving no indication what is coming next.

C. Rhetorical periods. Use a hefty dose of rounded periods when being rhetori-cal to create the foreshadowing effect. Close knit and circular, ample utterance, and movements of rhythm. Beginning compact, you imply that it will not lead to a simple ending.

D. Dialogue requires disjointed style. Use short and quick disjointed style to mimic speech. We don't naturally speak with “roundness.”

VII. ON UNIFORMITY OF LANGUAGE: Language must be uniform and consti-tute one animate whole. If you are conciliating, use mildness of language. If you are instructing, use penetrating language. If you are moving, use energetic lan-guage. Stay symmetrical with the subject and the vocabulary.

VIII. PLAIN STYLE: “The plain is for proving.” Using only current and familiar dictum. You are attempting to appear wise and intelligent and articulate. Use ac-tive language and shoot for short sentences. A.Vividness and conciseness. You are presenting all details as clearly and con-

cisely as possible. B.Use transitions including transition figures for subtle emphases. Re-

peated use of transition words or words of contrast/emphasis such as indeed or yet, including AND+, e.g, “On the XX, on the YY, and further on the ZZ.”

C. Use the subtle figures of speech. You are not trying to be too striking. Things that create subtle emphasis, e.g., repeating the same short sentence twice.

IX. MIDDLE STYLE: “The middle is for delighting.” Charm/subtlety can characterize this style of writing. The goal is to “cool when hot or warm when cold.” You want to make something desirable, appealing, attractive, or their oppo-sites. You can use to spark unattractive subject matter or to downplay the attrac-tive. A.Stop short of “awe.” Awe is more of an elevated style technique. Here we

want to be more subtle but not as subtle as with plain style. B.Use unexpected words sparingly. Sudden “appealing” word or phrase w/o

connection to that which came before it can subtly heighten. C. Use veil words. “Veil” words add a “pleasing” effect. We know this with Trump. D.Use unique expressions and coined words. “The more self-centered (vs

solitary) I am, the more myth-enamored I become.” E. Create imagery with comparison. For example, refer to “men” as “boys.” F. Use personification and unusual names. “Why, this bird is a flatterer and a

rogue!” G.Compress a sentence into a phrase. Compress your language when a

thought can be spoiled by dwelling too long on it; it can be made well with a “light and rapid” touch, e.g., “This man has really no part in the lot of Greece, for he has (as I have myself seen) both his ears pierced like a Lydian; and so it was.”

H.Use recantation figure. To say something and then take it away as though the writer had second thoughts. We can use this for jest or to highlight that which is unsaid, e.g.,“Two hounds were fastened in the front of the court. I can tell you the name of the hounds. But what use would it be for me to tell you their names?”

I. Use the semi-colon. The semi-colon can shorten a sentence or thought. J. Use “reduplication figure.” “Not again unto thee shall I come for aye, Not

again unto thee!” K.Use “reverse anti-climax” figure. Can create a sudden climax of thought.

Begin with the accustomed and end with the unusual, e.g., “as presents he gives a hose, a robe, a linked collar, and the assurance that his country should no longer be plundered.”

L. Use “rhythmic parallelism” figure. “I went from Athens to Stageira because of the great King, and from Stageira to Athens because of the great storm.”

X. GRAND STYLES: “Grand is for swaying.” This style does not work alone and dispersed throughout when called for. Grand would include the following forceful, elevated, and satirical styles.

XI. FORCEFUL GRAND: You write stately, fiercely, fiery. Can be rough and un-prepared seeming or smooth and carefully prepared, e.g., think “Blood, sweat, toil, and tears.” Churchill A.Short and concise. You want short and concise sentences. B.Rhythmic. You still want to keep it short, e.g., “I have agreed to plead to the

best of my ability, my clients' case.” C. Definite/forceful endings. End sharply and definitively. Reserve the most

forceful for the end. D.Uninterrupted rounded periods with short members. Consecutive periods

is favorable to convey the impression of line recited after line (but with short clauses).

E. Harsh sounds. Create sentences with a harsh mixture of sounds, e.g., “Then shuddered the Trojans, beholding the writhing serpent.”

F. End with conjunctions. Sometimes end with conjunctions (“too”) or short phrases marking contradiction (“on the contrary”) for a pointed effect.

G.Use violent, striking language. Choose the proper vocabulary and the proper figures of speech.

H.Use obscure language. Some obscurity is good. Things too plainly stated are held to be cheap when reaching for a forceful effect.

I. Avoid antithesis and parallelisms. These figures are more for elaboration, eloquence, and elevation, etc.

J. Use pointed metaphors. Works in much the same manner as elevation but not with the same end in view. We don't want to elaborate or create beauty. We want a “certain vehemence and terseness” that resembles “combatants dealing blows at close quarters.”.

K.“Asyndenton” produces a striking/short/quick effect. Disjunction is the “queen of force,” e.g., “He passes through the place of assembly, puffing his cheeks, rising his eyebrows, walking in step with Pythocles.”

L. “Anaphora” figure. Use it with short clauses. “against yourself you summon him; against the laws you summon him; against the democracy you summon him.”

M. Imaginary 3rd person figure. Can be used to personify the inanimate or to speak as if from the founders themselves.

N.“Silence” figure. Silence can have a powerful effect. O.“Reduplication” figure can add force. “Thebes, Thebes, our neighbor-state,

has been torn from the heart of Greece.” P. Use of rhetorical question. You can back a reader into a corner, e.g., “In so

doing was he wronging us and violating the peace, or was he not?” Q.Use “epimone” figure. A from of exaggeration that goes beyond the bare

facts, e.g., “Men of Athens, a terrible malady has fallen upon Athens...” R.Use other striking figures. Some other figures that have a forceful effect can

be euphanism, innuendo, allegory, and obviously hyperbole. S. Use forceful style language when expressing deep truths. You're exactly

being forceful but you're being short and pointed, e.g., “know thyself.”

XII. ELEVATED/VIVID/IMAGINITIVE GRAND: Reserved for the weightiest sub-jects, e.g., war. You want to create awe. You do not want to sound arid if the subject matter calls for vividness, e.g., “Xerxes crossed the river with his following” vs. “Xerxes crossed the river with the whole of Asia.” A.Employ AND AND BUT THEREFORE the most with this style. This style

demands the most vivid and imaginative with twists and turns, etc. The Greeks recommended separating rounded periods with disjointed style probably to cre-ate the subtle “and/but” effect.

B.Begin and end sentences with long vowels w/short in between. Long vowels give the beginning a striking start and an elevated end. This is a form of a rounded period, e.g., “Now it was from Ethiopia that the malady originally came.”

C. Begin with less and end with more. Begin with the weaker descriptive words and end with the stronger to give elevated/vivid effect, e.g., “melt and waste away” is better than “waste and melt away.”

D.Use passive language. Sometimes passive language can create an elevated effect.

E. Create your own words. Sparingly creating your own words can elevate so long as the word is a clear, natural, and obvious analogy to a common word.

F. Use emotional words. Use emotional words and metaphors that play on the different senses, e.g., “He hissed at him.”

G.Use polysyndeton to elevate. Use the figure to make the small seem great or the equal seem larger, e.g., placing a “small” word with a collection of “big” words.

H.Use polysyndeton to highlight. “To the war flocked both Greeks and Carons and Lycians and Pamphylians and Phrygians.”

I. Use asyndenton to highlight. For example, “high arched, foam-crested” is better than “high arched and foam crested.”

J. Increase use of connective words. Placing connective words at the begin-ning of sentences can create an amplified effect, e.g., “I thus followed...” or “Oh terrible thought, why come?”

K.Use “hyphen” to shorten and highlight. Using a hyphen can drastically in-crease impressiveness of a sentence, e.g., “The constitution – pissed on by the President – is under threat.” vs. “the Constitution is pissed on by the President and under threat.”

L. Use “singleword” figure. Using a single word in replace of a phrase can cre-ate a heightened effect and add to conciseness if needed.

M. Use “morewords” figure. “His shield dropped into the sea” is more im-pressive than “He lost his shield.”

N.Use word repetition or duplicative words. “There were huge serpents in the sea, huge and many.”

O.Use allegory. Using allegory can create an impressive effect, such as mystery, awe, and terror, e.g., “their cicadas shall chirp from the ground.”

P. Leave a sentence unfinished for mystery and awe. Leaving a sentence unfinished can elevate by creating mystery and wonder.

Q.Use parallel repetition. “The chariots rushed, some of them right through the ranks of friends, others right through the ranks of foes.”

R. Use other figures of speech that create heightening effects. Some of these include parallel repetition, sensational metaphorical terms, allegory, ex-clamation, euphemism, etc.

XIII. SATIRICAL GRAND: Frigidity is defined as that which transcends the ex-pression appropriate for the thoughts; use of the elevated style for more trivial subjects creates a satirical effect. A.Heightened triviality. Using heightened expressions with trivial subjects (the

very definition of satire) UNLESS you want to highlight the importance of a SEEMINGLY trivial subject.

B.Use of hyperbole. Hyperbole is the king of satire. The essence of the hyper-bole comes from the near impossibility of the expression. i. Like hyperbole. “He was a match for the winds in speed.” ii. Superiority hyperbole. “He was whiter than snow.” iii. Impossibility hyperbole. “With her hand she has smitten the sky.”

QUESTION 2: WHAT ABOUT THE FIGURES OF SPEECH AND THEIR PURPOSES/USES?

I. PLAYING WITH OMMISSION (ELLIPSIS): A. ONEVERB: The omission of verbs from a sentence, ascribing all to the mention

of only one. It can be further complicated by ascribing the same verb and giving it two meanings for further emphasis and playing of the senses, e.g., “waging war and peace” ascribes the meaning of wage and make to “waging.” The pur-pose is to add impressiveness and perhaps best for elevated grand (although if subtly done with middle style). i. “Out of Zion shall go forth the law, and the word of the lord from Jerusalem.”

King James Bible ii. “One will rarely err if extreme actions be ascribed to vanity, ordinary actions

to habit, and mean actions to fear.” B. ABSOLUTEOMISSION: Omitting a bunch of things for impressiveness. It also

confuses the senses. i. “Et tu, Brute.” S ii. “Off with his head!” Carroll

C. OMMITCLAUSE: Whole clauses are omitted leaving perhaps the main clause only implied. The reader has to fill in the blanks. This can be done for emphasis/impression or simply to save time as everyone knows what comes next. It can also be done to cut a sentence off representing a stream of con-sciousness. i. “when in Rome..” ii. “if youth knew, if age could.”

D. OMMITENDforEMOTION: Figure of speech wherein a sentence is deliberately broken off and left unfinished, the ending to be supplied by imagination, giving an impression of unwillingness or inability to continue, for the purposes of creat-ing mystery, awe, express deep emotion, to present the idea as so great it can-not even be expressed, etc. i. “No, you unnatural hads, I will have such revenge on you both, that all the

world shall – I will do such things. - what they are, yet I know not; but they shall be the terrors of the Earth.”

ii. “If you think I'm going to sit here and take this...” (then you are mistaken) E. SYNONYMOUSREPITIONxVERB: Use to express a series of nouns and adjec-

tives or any series of words that were synonymous expressions. It is used to emphasize an idea by rapidly using slightly different words that have the same or a very similar meaning. i. “No arts; no letters; no society; and which is worst of all, continual fear and

danger of violent death; and the life of man, solitary, poor nasty, brutish, and short.” Hobbes

F. SILENCE: Simple silence suggesting the refusal to speak at all for a forceful ef-fect. i. “A chief fruit on the tree of wisdom is silence.”

G. DOUBT: The omission is the answer the audience shall provide. Express doubt or perplexity regarding a question, stimulating the audience to consider all pos-sibilities. Can be done to evoke fear, mystery, awe, etc. Use it to stimulate thought and increase attention. You can also use to show humbleness of speaker. i. “To be, or not to be: that is the question.”

II. PLAYING WITH PROPER ORDERS OF WORDS OR PHRASES: Most of them seem to add emphasis or achieve artistic/pleasing effect. A. TMESIS: Breaking down a phrase or word into two pieces by inserting a word

b/w the parts of a word, a compound word, or a phrase. The purpose is to lay emphasis onto the word or part of the phrase or to create humor. i. “fan-fucking-tastic.” ii. “how-heinous-ever it be.” iii. “This is not Remeo, he's some other where.”

B. HYPERBETON (YODA): The intended deviation from ordinary word order to emphasize a word. The displaced word gets the attention, usually at the begin-ning or end. It can also increase the power of an adjective by placing it next to a noun other than the one it is modifying, e.g., “The queen was preparing frenzied ruins for the Roman people.” It also be used to create startling or puzzling ef-fects. i. “Whome God wishes to destroy, he first makes mad.” ii. “Some rise by sin, and some by virtue fall.” iii. “The Gods sent not corn for the rich men only.” iv. “Alas, what ignorant sin have I committed?”

C. INVERSION: The reversal of two elements such as an adjective and a noun for the purpose of emphasis or rhythmic effect. i. The poet gives us his essence, but prose takes the mould of the body and

mind entire.” ii. “Let us die, and rush into the heart of the fight.”

D. HYPALLAGE: Radical inversion or re-arrangment of words where the reversed elements are not grammatically parallel. IT can also be done by reversing the verb with its noun/adjective. It can express vagueness or create surprise, as well as obviously emphasis. i. “Who is it that has tied my son to that sword?” ii. “Once upon a tree, I came across a time.” iii. “So God created man in his own image, in the image of God created he him;

male and female created he them.” iv. “you may my glories and my state depose, But not my griefs; still am I

king of those.” E. PARENTHESIS: A type of TMESIS at the sentence level by use of hyphens or

parenthesis to emphasize. It can be used to show that the author is so over-come with emotion that he can't wait. If it is too long it becomes a digression. i. “In Rome you long for the country; in the country – oh inconstant! - you raise

the distant city to the stars.”

III. PLAYING WITH GRAMMATICAL NOTIONS: Grammatical alterations can also be used to emphasize words or ideas or create a pleasing effect. A. ENALLAGE: Substituting one grammatical form for another – changing the

tense. Use for emphasis.

i. “But see where somerset and Clarence comes!” ii. “Is there not wars? Is there not employment?” iii. “I takes my man Friday with me.”

B. ANTHIMERIA: The intentional use of a word in a new grammatical sense by making a word into a verb or a noun. These words can become permanent. i. “The thunder would not peace at my bidding.” ii. “Yeah, you keep lyin when you oughta be truthin.” iii. “The fair, the chaste, and unexpressive she.” iv. “He sang his didn't he danced his did.”

C. HENDIADYS: Putting the “and” between two words, normally an adjective and noun for emphasis. i. “Nice and warm” from “warmly nice.”

D. ANTIPTOSIS: Replacing “and” with “of” for emphasis. i. “kingdom of glory” ii. “The King's name is a tower of strength.”

E. POLYSYNDETON: Intentional use of too many conjunctions or propositions such as “on.” Use to slow down the rhythm or prose, emphasize/de-emphasize one of the elements, or make transitions have a flowing/rhythmic effect. It can sometimes move from less important to more important, from general to spe-cific and vice versa. You can also begin a sentence with an odd conjunction, e.g., “Or....” i. “For I have neither with, nor words, nor worth, Action, nor utterance, nor

power of speech, to stir man's blood; I only speak right on.” Shakespeare. F. ASYNDETON: Omission of an expected conjunction. Use to show the insepara-

bility of things, emphasize/highlight one of the elements, produce a sense of speed. It can occur in a series of clauses, with a series of nouns/verbs/adjec-tives/prepositional phrases, and at the beginning/middle/end of a sentence. Can give prose a jerky feel, which is why it is good for the FORECFUL STYLE. i. “I came, I saw, I conquered.” Caesar ii. “...and that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall

not perish from the Earth.” Lincoln G. HENDIADYS: A peculiar form of AND+ where you split a single thing into two or

three for the purpose of providing emphasis, generally b/w an adjective and a noun. A subtle form of emphasis good for all styles of prose. i. “Armed forces” becomes “by force and arms” ii. “Warmly nice” becomes “nice and warm.” iii. “I am the true and living way” becomes “I am the Way, the Truth, and the

Life.” Christ

IV. PLAYING WITH WORDS/IDEAS/SENSES: The purpose is almost always to create a heightened effect, how much determines which style they best be em-ployed in. A. METONYMY: Replacing the name fo a thing with the name of something else

with which it is closely associated. It can be used to give profound meanings to things. It draws attention. i. “The pen is mightier than the sword.” ii. “Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears.” iii. “Rome has spoken; the case is concluded.” iv. “Her voice is full of money.” v. “Judge the sinner.” (Verb change using “judge” rather than “punish.”)

B. METALEPSIS: Replacing the name of a thing with something in which it is only loosely associated but to the same effect as metonymy. i. “They came under the shadow of roof” as used to signify protection.

C. CATACHRESIS: Using verb/adjective/noun in an inappropriate way for stylistic effect or to create sense of awe and stimulate the sense to even more powerful effect than Metonymy. Considered mixed metaphor. i. “I do not ask much: I beg cold comfort.” ii. “Blind mouths.” iii. “This dark brightness that falls from the stars.” iv. “You tread upon my patience.”

D. SYNECDOCHE: Replacing the idea of the whole with a part of the whole or vice versa, e.g., “wheels” in replace of car. Can be used to give common subjects a deeper meaning – make the ordinary extraordinary. i. “For dust thou art, and unto dust shalt thou return.” ii. “The western wave was all aflame.” (Sea) iii. “Was this the face (man) that launched a thousand ships, And burnt the top-

less towers of Ilium?” iv. “pour down thy weather.”

E. PLEONASM: The use of two or more “redundant” words to emphasize an idea. i. “The inaudible and noiseless foot of time.” ii. “By reason of the voice of my groaning...” iii. “little tiny boy...” iv. “I have discovered that all human evil comes from this, man's being

unable to sit still in a room.” (THIS used to draw attention to what follows) F. PERIPHRASIS: Use of excessive or longer words to convey a meaning which

could have been conveyed with fewer for emphasis and vividness. i. “academic handmaidens of bureaucracy.” ii. “Now he is traveling the dark road to the place from which they say no one

has ever returned.” iii. “Cunegonde...saw Dr. Pangloss behind some bushes giving a lesson in

experimental philosophy to her mother's waiting-woman, a little brunette who seemed eminently teachable.”

G. CONGERIES: Saying essentially the same thing in different words excessively for emphasis and vividness. i. “All is flux, nothing stays still.” ii. “He departed, he went hence, he burst forth, he was gone.” iii. “I say again that this is most true, and all history bears witness to it, that

men may second fortune, but they cannot thwart her – they may weave her web, but they cannot break it.”

iv. “You must either conquer and rule or serve and lose, suffer or triumph, be the anvil or the hammer.”

H. ANTITHESIS: Rather than saying the same word/idea twice, you place it next to its opposite. This contrasting essence emphasizes one or the other and makes it more vivid. i. “Now the Egyptians are men, and not God; and their houses flesh, and not

spirit.” ii. “The greatest crimes are by excess, not by want. Men do not become tyrants

so as not to suffer cold.” iii. “Necessity compels me, and not pleasure.” iv. “A man should be mourned at his birth, not at his death.”

I. EPANORTHOSIS: Saying something and then thinking better of it, correcting it, for emphasis. i. “religion is a disease, but it is a noble disease.” ii. “Not all men are wise; indeed, very few are.”

J. PRAETERITIO (TRUMP FIGURE): Calling attention to a point by seeming to disregard it but to emphasize that which was not said.

i. “I'm not gonna say it...I'm not gonna say she's a crook...that would be bad...”

V. PLAYING WITH REPITITION: A. POLYPTOTON: Repetition fo the same word or root of the word w/different

grammatical function or form, for emphasis. i. “Nothing is enough to the man for whom enough is too little.” ii. “He was not born to shame: Upon his brow shame is asham'd to sit.” iii. “Unheedful vows may heedfully be broken.” iv. “Let the people think they govern, and they will be governed.” v. “Love is an irresistible desire to be irresistibly desired.”

B. ANTANACLASIS: Repeating a word in the same (or similar) grammatical form but with a different meaning. #emphasis i. “O mortal man, think mortal thoughts!” ii. “Time, which is the author of authors.” iii. “True morality takes no heed of morality.” Euripides iv. “The business of America is business.”

C. PLOCE: A device where one moves b/w a more particular meaning of a word and a more general one, such as when one uses a proper name to designate both an individual and then the general qualities which that person is thought to possess, for emphasis. i. “You are more Irish than the Irish!” ii. “In that great victory, Caesar was Caesar!”

D. ISOLCOLON: Repeat the same grammatical form with different words/sen-tences/phrases/clauses, as compared to polyptoton, where the same word is re-peated in different grammatical forms. This can be a succession of sentences, phrases, and clauses of grammatically equal length, giving it a parallel struc-ture. Usually reserved for elevation and strong emphasis by contrast. You can scale up or down, etc. i. “In peace, sons bury their fathers; in war, fathers bury their sons.” ii. “I speak Spanish to God, Italian to women, French to men, and German to

my horse.” iii. “If you prick us, do we not bleed? If you tickle us, do we not laugh? If

you poison us, do we not die? And if you wrong us, shall we not revenge?” E. REPITITION: Figure where the word is repeatedly repeated in the same gram-

matical form, for emphasis. i. “Vanity of vanities, saith the preacher,vanity of vanities; all is vanity.” ii. “I have and I love. Why I do so, perhaps you ask. I know not, but I feel it and

I am in torment.” F. EPIZEUXIS: Repeating a word or phrase immediately and consecutively, for

emphasis or deep passion. It can also be done by placing a word or two in be-tween and then the figure becomes what is called a Diacope. i. “My God, my God, why has thou forsaken me?” ii. “Ah, how they glide by, Postumus, Postumus! The years, the swift years!” iii. “O Cressid! O false Cressid! False False False! iv. All changed, changed utterly: A terrible beauty born.” v. “Company, villainous company, hath been the spoil of me.” vi. “O villain, villain, smiling, damned villain.”

G. ANAPHORA: Begin each sentence with the same repeated word/phrase. It is pleasing and rhythmic and can be used to heighten the ideas presented. i. Mad world! Mad kings! Mad Composition!” ii. “Everything is good when it leaves the hands of the Creator; everything de-

generates in the hands of man.”

iii. “She was not quite what you would call refined. She was not quite what you would call unrefined. She was the kind of person that keeps a par-rot.”

H. EPISTROPHE: Ending each sentence with the same repeated word/phrase to the same effect as anaphora. i. “Selfishness is not living as one wishes to live, it is asking others to live as

one wishes to live.” ii. “Why I should fear I know not, since guiltiness I know not; but yet I feel I

fear.” I. SYMPLOCE: The combination of anaphora and epistrophe.

i. “Who are they who have so often broken treaties? The Carthaginians. Who are they who have laid Italy to waste? The Carthaginians. Who are they who pray for pardon? The Carthaginians.”

J. EPANALEPSIS: Beginning one sentence with the same word which it ends. You can also use it to begin and close off whole passages. The purpose of both is to make the sentence or clause in which it occurs stand apart from its surround-ings. i. “Nothing can be created out of nothing.” ii. “Injury, violation, exploitation, annihilation cannot be wrong in themselves.

For life essentially presupposes injury, violation, exploitation, and annihila-tion.”

iii. “We are nothing without everything, we.” K. ANADIPLOSIS: To tie a statement to its surroundings by repeating the end of

the previous sentence with the beginning of the next. Can be used for emphasis or force. i. “Who has not the spirit of his age, of his age has all the unahppiness.” ii. “When I give I give myself.” iii. “All men that are ruined are ruined on the side of their natural propensities.” iv. “Everything that can be said, can be said clearly.”

L. GRADATIO: Using anadiplosis in a chain. Described as causing a “marching” effect. It can be used to show a complex chain of connections or causes/effects. It can be used to elevate or to show an increasing or decreasing order of magni-tude. i. “labor and pain are rewarded with success, success produced confidence,

confidence relaxes industry, and negligence ruins the reputation which dili-gence has raised.”

ii. “All our knowledge brings us nearer to our ignorance, all our ignorance brings us nearer to death, but nearness to death no nearer to God.”

M.AUXESIS (CLIMAX): An ascending series of clauses of increasing or decreasing force that doesn't necessarily share words from one clause to the next. It can be used to show irony or heighten. i. “It is a sin to bind a Roman citizen, a crime to scourge him, little short of the

unnatural murder to put him to death; what then shall I call this crucivixion?” ii. “Some have at first for wits, the poets past, turn'd critics next, and prov'd

plain fools at last.” VI. PLAYING WITH THE CIRCULAR:

A. PALLINDROME: A word or sentence that can be read forward as well as back-ward, or in verse order with the same effects and meanings. i. “Lewd did I live & evil I did dwel.” ii. “Madam, able was I ere I saw Elba.”

B. EPANADOS: The same as pallindrome but at the word level. It can be done completely symmetrically or with slightly different grammatical structure. It can emphasize with contrast.

i. “Every man seeks peace by waging war, but no man seeks peace by waging war.”

ii. “It is not titles that reflect honor on men, but men on their titles.” iii. “What's mine is yours and what is yours is mine.” iv. “I wasted time, and now doth time waste me.” v. “A man may devote himself to death and destruction to save a nation; but

no nation will devote itself to death and destruction to save mankind.” C. CHIASMUS: A very large epanados. See Genesis, the Iliad, DNA, and perhaps

even the Universe.

VII. PLAYING WITH LETTERS: All of these are done for adding emphasis, rhythm, humor, or to mimic a certain dialect. They can also complicate the senses and/or improve the sound of a word. A. PROSTHESIS: Addition of a letter or syllable to the beginning of a word to add

emphasis, rhythm, humor, or to mimic a certain dialect. i. “I all alone beweep my outcast state.” Shakespeare ii. “Thos much let me avow.” Poe iii. Use of “afar”

B. EPINTHESIS: The addition of a letter or syllable to the middle of a word to add emphasis, rhythm, humor, or to mimic a certain dialect. i. “Lie blistering fore the visitating sun.” Shakespeare ii. “A athalete has to keep up appearances.” Vonnegut

C. PROPARALEPSIS: Addition of a letter or syllable to the end of a word to add emphasis, rhythm, humor, or to mimic a certain dialect. i. “I can call spirits from the vasty deep.” Leon Trotsky

D. APHAEARESIS/SYNCOPE/APOCOPE: Subtraction of a letter or sound from the beginning, middle, or end of a word for emphasis, dialect, or to show loose pro-nunciation of words (as with children). Many new words have been created this way, e.g., “lone” from “alone.” i. “Let me 'splain something' to you.” ii. “How 'bout that?” iii. “take't; 'tis yours. What is't?”

E. SUBSTITUTION: Substitutions with the spelling for all the same reasons, e.g., “Come, go we then togither.”

F. REARRANGE: Rearrangements of the spelling or sounds of words for emphasis or perhaps creating a new word, e.g., “climature.” Shakespeare

G. METAPLASMUS: The purposeful misspelling of a word to add emphasis, excla-mation, humor, efficiency (as with names), or to mimic a certain dialogue. It cal also be used for the sake of sound (poetry) or to complicate the senses. You can omit a part, add to it, substitute one letter for another, or change the arrange-ment, e.g., “God” becomes “Dog.” i. “Gawd” ii. “Tyler” becomes “Ty”